materials

Article
A 3D Printed Ready-Mixed Concrete Power
Distribution Substation: Materials and
Construction Technology
Guangchao Ji 1,2 , Tao Ding 1 , Jianzhuang Xiao 1, *, Shupeng Du 2 , Jun Li 3 and Zhenhua Duan 1
1 Department of Structural Engineering, College of Civil Engineering, Tongji University, Shanghai 200092, China;
15241770066@163.com (G.J.); tding@tongji.edu.cn (T.D.); zhduan@tongji.edu.cn (Z.D.)
2 Liaoning Green Printing Technology Co., Ltd., Yingkou City 115214, China; gelinpu3d@163.com
3 College of Civil Engineering and Architecture, Dalian University, Liaoning 116622, China;
lijun47193@126.com
* Correspondence: jzx@tongji.edu.cn; Tel.: +86-21-65982787




Received: 23 April 2019; Accepted: 8 May 2019; Published: 10 May 2019


Abstract: Currently, 3D concrete printing technology is not yet able to print ready-mixed concrete
with coarse aggregates. Based on an independently developed 3D printing construction equipment
system and optimized concrete materials, a 3D concrete printer that can directly print ready-mixed
concrete is developed. This paper introduces the whole 3D printing process for one power distribution
substation in detail, including the printing equipment, key software, concrete preparation, printing
process, and construction inspection. This investigation will provide valuable design and construction
experience for the future construction of 3D concrete printing.

Keywords: 3D printing; ready-mixed concrete; equipment system; coarse aggregate; construction

1. Introduction
Architectural 3D printing is an additive-based molding technology based on a computer digital
model. It can be quickly formed by printing building materials layer by layer, thus achieving the
advantages of high efficiency, low cost, and environmental protection.
In 1997, Pegna [1] proposed to apply the additive manufacturing process to automatic construction
to replace the complex assembly of structural members, and build a masonry structure by using sand
and cement as materials. It is the origin of architectural 3D printing. In 1998, Khoshnevis and Dutton [2]
developed a contour crafting designed for architectural 3D printing, which uses a computer-controlled
trowel to create a smooth and precise structural surface with high building surface quality and fast
construction speed. In addition, the possibility of using the technology to print buildings on the
moon has been imagined. In 2000, Benhabib et al. [3] put forward an improved hybrid rule model
to predict the mechanical properties of short glass fiber reinforced printing inks. Experiments were
carried out to verify the effectiveness of empirical data based on fiber model interfaces, fiber geometry,
and length distribution. In 2002, Kwon et al. [4] conducted an experimental and simple finite element
simulation study on the material flow pattern during extrusion and deposition in the contour printing
process based on ceramic materials (such as clay), and they concluded that the square port can
better realize the fusion between printing layers and the ideal external surface contour. In 2007,
Bosscher et al. [5] of Ohio University in the United States proposed a contour process improvement
system consisting of a translational suspension robot, which used a steel frame as a skeleton to control
the three-dimensional movement of the terminal nozzle by cable to provide the possibility of 3D
printing for larger-sized buildings. In 2007, Cesaretti et al. [6] developed a method by spraying a
binder to glue-hardening layer-by-layer gravel powder for stack forming, namely, D-Shape printing

Materials 2019, 12, 1540; doi:10.3390/ma12091540 www.mdpi.com/journal/materials

Materials 2019, 12, 1540 2 of 14

technology. In 2011, Le et al. [7] discussed the hardened properties of a nozzle-extruded fiber-reinforced
high-performance concrete and conducted experiments to examine the influence of different mixes
for fresh properties (printability, workability, setting time, etc.) and hardened properties (density,
compressive strength, interlaminar bond strength, and drying shrinkage). In 2016, Gosselin et al. [8]
studied how to use 3D printing technology to print 3D large complex graphics instead of 2.5D (vertical
extension of planar shape) and pointed out the advantages of 3D printing technology in building
complex three-dimensional structures.
In 2017, Panda et al. [9] studied the effects of different lengths and amounts of glass fiber geopolymer
mortar on the strength of 3D printed materials, and pointed out that the mechanical properties of printed
samples are obviously related to the loading direction. Zareiyan and Khoshnevis [10] studied the effect
of cross-linking structure on the bond strength between 3D printing layers, and indicated that the bond
strength varies greatly with the variation of cross-linking structure. Khalil et al. [11] used a combination of
sulphoaluminate cement and ordinary Portland cement to prepare a new material suitable for 3D printing.
It was found that the incorporation of sulphoaluminate cement significantly improved the constructability of
the material. The test analysis on hydration heat and compressive strength demonstrated that the properties
were not much different. Kazemian et al. [12] studied the cement-based materials doped with silica fume and
nanoclay from the aspects of print quality, stability, and setting time, and concluded that the incorporation
of silica fume and nanoclay can significantly improve the shape stability. Hambach and Volkmer [13]
studied Portland cement 3D printing material incorporating reinforced short fibers. The compressive
strength of the material could reach 80 MPa, and the possibility of controlling the direction of the printing
path as a means to control fiber orientation within the printed structures was also discussed.
In 2018, Soltan and Li [14] conducted a performance test of a cement-based material incorporating
short polymer fibers, and analyzed the influence of composition and process parameters on its fluidity.
Wolfs et al. [15] established a numerical model for analyzing the performance of fresh 3D printed concrete,
analyzed the elastic modulus, cohesion, compressive strength, and shear strength of the material through
experiments, and verified the correctness of the model. Sanjayan et al. [16] and Paul et al. [17] conducted
compressive, flexural, and interlaminar strength tests on 3D printed concrete materials, and the results
showed that the compressive and flexural strength of the materials depended on the test direction.
Panda et al. [18] analyzed the relationship between the interlaminar tensile bond strength and the
time interval of printing layers, the nozzle speed and the nozzle height. Ma et al. [19] proposed an
environmentally friendly cementitious mixture that is compatible with an extrusion-based printing process.
Printable properties of mixtures with six substitute ratios of tailing to sand were investigated.
However, at present, architectural 3D printing technology is still in the research and development stage.
From the perspective of application, there are mainly three technical difficulties. First, at the material level,
traditional building materials are basically composed of inorganic materials, which makes the molding
time very long and makes it difficult to satisfy the requirements of the 3D printing process. It is impossible
to change the material properties by hot melt of printing materials such as metal powder and plastic.
Second, some building materials that satisfy the requirements of 3D printing technology, such as certain
special mortars and special polymers, are difficult to meet the material and structural requirements of
buildings, and are also not common building materials. Finally, in the field of equipment application, some
institutions and companies have introduced 3D printing components in the factory, and then transport the
components to the site for building assembly. This method is more similar to a prefabricated building,
and the transportation radius is limited, which does not take advantage of the high efficiency and low cost
of building 3D printing. These technical difficulties lead directly to the fact that there are still no proven
and fully promoted architectural 3D printing products and technologies in the market.
This paper proposes a 3D printing technology and an overall solution from design to on-site,
which can directly print commercial ready-mixed concrete. In-filed printing of a power distribution
substation will be introduced in detail. Since the traditional commercial ready-mixed concrete is
adopted as the printing material, this solves not only the application problem of building materials,
but also the structural design for the buildings of this project.
Materials 2019, x, x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 of 14

adopted as the printing material, this solves not only the application problem of building materials,
Materials 2019, 12, 1540 3 of 14
but also the structural design for the buildings of this project.

2. Printer
2. Printer Equipment and Materials
Equipment and Materials

2.1. 3D Printing Equipment

At present,
present,variousvariouskinds
kinds of of
3D3D printers
printers such such as polypropylene
as polypropylene fiber fiber concrete
concrete printersprinters
[7,20], [7,20],
nylon
nylonconcrete
fiber fiber concrete
printers,printers, bindergrit
binder gelled gelled
powdergrit powder printers
printers [21], and[21],
gypsum and material
gypsum printers
material[22]printers
have
[22] have
been been proposed.
proposed. However,However,from quantityfrom production
quantity production
to practical to application,
practical application, much technical
much technical research
research
work work
should should
still be donestillifbe
thedone
newifbuilding
the newmaterials
buildingprinted
materials by printed
these 3Dbyprinters
these 3D areprinters are to
to be applied.
be applied.research
Therefore, Therefore, andresearch
development and development
of a 3D printer of that
a 3Dcanprinter thatprint
directly can directly
commercial printready-mixed
commercial
ready-mixed
concrete concreteanhas
has become become
urgent need.an urgent need.
The 3D printer proposed proposed in this study is a column-type mechanical structure, and a four-column
frame isisset
frame setupuptoto implement
implement 3D3D printing
printing in frame.
in the the frame. As shown
As shown in Figure
in Figure 1a,b,
1a,b, the the 3D isprinter
3D printer divided is
divided into several structural parts: X-axis track, Y-axis track, Z-axis column
into several structural parts: X-axis track, Y-axis track, Z-axis column track, print head, top stabilization track, print head, top
stabilization
system, system, and concrete
and ready-mixed ready-mixed pumpconcrete
truck. The pump truck.
X-axis andThe X-axis
Y-axis andcan
tracks Y-axis tracks
control thecan control
horizontal
the horizontal
movement movement
of the print head, of while
the printthe head, whilesystem
horizontal the horizontal
X-axis and system
Y-axisX-axis
can be and Y-axis can
vertically be
raised
vertically
by raised
the trolley on bythethe trolley
Z-axis, on the
which Z-axis,the
satisfies which satisfiesofthe
movement themovement
print headofinthe theprint head
X-, Y-, andinZ-axes.
the X-
, Y-, column-type
The and Z-axes. The 3D column-type
printer has an3D printer
X-axis has and
width an X-axis width
a Z-axis andof
height a Z-axis
20 m. Itheight of 20buildings
can print m. It can
printabuildings
with width andwith heighta of
width and than
no more height of no
18 m. Themore
lengththan
of the18Y-axis
m. The canlength of the indefinitely
be extended Y-axis can by be
extended
the increase indefinitely
in the number by the increase
of Z-axis in the number
columns. Therefore, of the
Z-axis columns. concrete
column-type Therefore, 3D the column-type
printer is simple
concrete
to 3D printer
install and can printisconcrete
simple to install and
structures canthan
of less print
six concrete structuresthe
stories. Moreover, ofprint
less head
than and
six stories.
arm of
the concrete pump truck are driven independently and each equipped with a positioning sensor each
Moreover, the print head and arm of the concrete pump truck are driven independently and that
equipped
detects thewith a positioning
relative position for sensor
each that
other. detects
Whenthe therelative
concreteposition for each
in the print headother. When the concrete
is continuously printed,
in the
the armprint
of thehead is continuously
concrete pump truckprinted,itself canthe arm ofpositioning
perform the concrete andpumpfeedingtruck
work itself can perform
independently.
positioning and feeding
The column-type work independently.
mechanical structure provides a printing platform for 3D printers, and the main
The column-type
difficulty lies in how tomechanical
develop a printerstructure provides
suitable a printing
for printing platform for
ready-mixed 3D printers,
concrete. and the
The material
composition of ready-mixed concrete is sand, coarse aggregate, cement, and water. The existenceThe
main difficulty lies in how to develop a printer suitable for printing ready-mixed concrete. of
material
coarse composition
aggregates of ready-mixed
in ready-mixed concreteconcrete
poses is sand,challenge
a huge coarse aggregate, cement, and
to the development of 3Dwater. The
printing
existence of coarse
equipment. The main aggregates
reason in is ready-mixed concrete
that it is difficult poses a huge
to develop a print challenge
head that to the
candevelopment
print concrete of
3D printing equipment.
containing coarse aggregate. The main reason is that it is difficult to develop a print head that can print
concrete containing coarse aggregate.

(a)
Figure 1. Cont.
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Materials 2019, 12, 1540 4 of 14
Materials 2019, x, x FOR PEER REVIEW 4 of 14

(b)
(b)
Figure 1. Column-type 3D printer for ready-mixed concrete: (a) Axonometric view and (b) Elevation
view. 1. Column-type 3D printer for ready-mixed concrete: (a) Axonometric view and (b) Elevation view.
Figure
Figure 1. Column-type 3D printer for ready-mixed concrete: (a) Axonometric view and (b) Elevation
view.
The architectural 3D printing system introduced in this study is a commercial ready-mixed
The architectural 3D printing system introduced in this study is a commercial ready-mixed
concrete
concretebuilding
building3D3Dprinting
printing system
system independently
independently developed by bythe authors. The
Theprinting system
The architectural 3D printing system introduceddeveloped
in this study the
is authors.
a commercial printing system
ready-mixed
isischaracterized
characterized in
in that
that it
itcomprises
comprises a adouble-assisted
double-assisted print
printhead,
head, which
which can
cancontinuously
continuously print
print
concrete building 3D printing system independently developed by the authors. The printing system
uninterrupted ready-mixed concrete with aggregate less than 15 mm in diameter. Figure 2 shows
is characterized in that it comprises a double-assisted print head, which can continuously printa
uninterrupted ready-mixed concrete with aggregate less than 15 mm in diameter. Figure 2 shows
aschematic
schematicofofthe
the double-assisted
double-assisted print
print head. ItIt isis divided
divided into twotwo feed bins
bins with four systems:
uninterrupted ready-mixed concrete withhead.
aggregate less thaninto 15 mm infeed diameter.with four
Figure systems:
2 shows a
reciprocating
reciprocating plugging
plugging power
power system,
system, concrete
concrete feeding
feeding system,
system, concrete
concrete performance
performance test
testand
andmix
mix
schematic of the double-assisted print head. It is divided into two feed bins with four systems:
system,
system,and
andconcrete
concrete performance adjustment system.
reciprocating pluggingperformance
power system,adjustment
concretesystem.
feeding system, concrete performance test and mix
system, and concrete performance adjustment system.

(a)
(a) (b)
(b)
Figure 2. Schematic of double-assisted print head (a) Design diagram and (b) Print head in the field
Figure2.2.Schematic
Figure Schematicof
ofdouble-assisted
double-assistedprint
printhead
head(a)
(a)Design
Designdiagram
diagramand
and(b)
(b)Print
Printhead
headininthe
thefield
field

The working principle of the double-assisted print head is that feed bins A and B can work together
The working
working principle
principle of
of the
the double-assisted
double-assisted print
print head
head is that
that feed
feed bins
bins AA and
and BB can
can work
at theThe
same time. When one feed bin is extruding and printingisconcrete, the concrete feedingwork
and
together
together at
at the
the same
same time.
time. When
When one
one feed
feed bin
bin is
is extruding
extruding and
and printing
printing concrete,
concrete, the
the concrete
concrete feeding
feeding
slump automatic adjustment starts to work in the other feed bin, in order to achieve the uninterrupted
and slump
and slump automatic
automatic adjustment
adjustment starts
starts to
to work
work inin the
the other
other feed
feed bin,
bin, in
in order
order to
to achieve
achieve the
the
printing of concrete.
uninterruptedprinting
uninterrupted printingof
ofconcrete.
concrete.
Materials 2019, x, x FOR PEER REVIEW 5 of 14

Materials 2019, 12, 1540 5 of 14

The reciprocating plugging power system is composed of pistons A and B, as seen in Figure 2.
When feed bin A is printing and the concrete is feeding into feed bin B, piston C moves downward
and The
switch A5 is opened.
reciprocating The concrete
plugging in feed bin
power system A moves of
is composed downward
pistons Aby and piston
B, as A’s
seensqueezing
in Figure to 2.
obtainfeed
When the concrete printing,and
bin A is printing andthe
theconcrete
computer controlsinto
is feeding the feed
concrete
bin B,printing
piston C speed
moves by downward
controlling
the descending
and switch A5 isspeed opened.of piston A. At theinsame
The concrete feed time,
bin Apiston
movesDdownward
moves up to bythe top and
piston closes switch
A’s squeezing to
B5, andthe
obtain opens the concrete
concrete printing,feeding
and thesystem
computer for controls
concrete thefeeding intoprinting
concrete feed binspeedB. by controlling the
The function
descending speed ofofpiston
the concrete
A. At thefeeding system
same time, is to
piston transport
D moves up to thetheconcrete
top and from
closesthe mixing
switch B5,
equipment
and opens the into the feeding
concrete binsystem
feeding of the print head through
for concrete feedingtheintopipeline
feed binand B. the screw power, and to
startThe
andfunction
close theoffeeding by cooperating
the concrete withisswitches
feeding system A1 and
to transport B1.
the concrete from the mixing equipment
It is known
into the feeding bin ofthat the transportation and feeding processes will introduce
print head through the pipeline and the screw power, and uncertain
to startchanges
and close to
the feeding
the concreteby working performance.
cooperating As a result,
with switches A1 and theB1.
workability test and adjustment in the feeding bin
become important
It is known thattothethe concrete printing.
transportation The processes
and feeding concrete will
performance
introduce test and mix
uncertain changessystem
to theis
equippedworking
concrete with a servo motor thatAs
performance. cana perform
result, thetheworkability
torque test.test
As shown in Figure 2,
and adjustment in the
thespiral
feeding blades
bin
in feed important
become bins A andtoBthe areconcrete
driven printing.
by the servo
The motor,
concreterespectively.
performanceThe test rotation
and mix of the spiral
system blades
is equipped
feedsaback
with servo the magnitude
motor that canof perform
the servothe
motor torque.
torque test.Through
As shown repeated
in Figuretests,
2, the relationship
spiral bladesbetween
in feed
torque
bins A andand Bslump is shown
are driven in Figure
by the 3, when
servo motor, the diameter
respectively. spiral
The bladeofisthe
rotation 50 spiral
mm, the pitchfeeds
blades is 25 back
mm,
andmagnitude
the the screw isof120 themm.
servo motor torque. Through repeated tests, the relationship between torque
and slump is shown in Figure 3, when the diameter spiral blade is 50 mm, the pitch is 25 mm, and the
screw is 120 mm.

180

170

160
Slump (mm)

150

140

130

120

110

100
0 0.25 0.5 0.75 1 1.25 1.5 1.75 2 2.25 2.5

Torque (Nm)

Figure 3. Relationship between torque and slump for the 3D concrete printing system.
Figure 3. Relationship between torque and slump for the 3D concrete printing system.
When the concrete slump in the feed bin is between 120 and 130 mm, the printing effect will be
When the concrete slump in the feed bin is between 120 and 130 mm, the printing effect will be
the best, that is, the servo motor torque is between 1.25 and 1.75 Nm. If the motor torque is not within
the best, that is, the servo motor torque is between 1.25 and 1.75 Nm. If the motor torque is not within
this range, the concrete performance adjustment system will be activated. The workability of concrete
this range, the concrete performance adjustment system will be activated. The workability of concrete
will be adjusted by adding water, superplasticizer, additives, etc. At the same time, the detection
will be adjusted by adding water, superplasticizer, additives, etc. At the same time, the detection
system feeds back the torque data every second. When the torque reaches between 1.25 and 1.75 Nm,
system feeds back the torque data every second. When the torque reaches between 1.25 and 1.75 Nm,
the performance adjustment system will be turned off to start printing.
the performance adjustment system will be turned off to start printing.
It is important to note that the ready-mixed concrete 3D printing system described in this
It is important to note that the ready-mixed concrete 3D printing system described in this study
study is equipped with a screw for torque testing in the concrete performance testing system.
is equipped with a screw for torque testing in the concrete performance testing system. Therefore,
Therefore, the diameter of coarse aggregate in the concrete is required to be no larger than 15 mm.
the diameter of coarse aggregate in the concrete is required to be no larger than 15 mm. A V-shape
A V-shape vibrating sieve is designed at the upper end of the concrete feeding system. This sieve has a
vibrating sieve is designed at the upper end of the concrete feeding system. This sieve has a pore
pore spacing of 15 mm and can filter out aggregates larger than 15 mm in diameter. In addition, if the
spacing of 15 mm and can filter out aggregates larger than 15 mm in diameter. In addition, if the
concrete in the print head is continuously vibrated during the printing process, the mechanical system
concrete in the print head is continuously vibrated during the printing process, the mechanical
error caused by the vibration process will be definitely unacceptable. However, it is usually difficult
system error caused by the vibration process will be definitely unacceptable. However, it is usually
for the printed concrete without any treatment to meet the strength requirement. The squeeze 3D
difficult for the printed concrete without any treatment to meet the strength requirement. The
printing system can make the concrete compact by pressure, so that the concrete strength can meet
the requirements.
Materials 2019, x, x FOR PEER REVIEW 6 of 14

squeeze 3D printing system can make the concrete compact by pressure, so that the concrete strength
can meet the requirements.
The2019,
Materials running
12, 1540process for the software system of this 3D printer is shown in Figure 4a and the
6 of 14
servo feedback system is adopted into the software control, as shown in Figure 4b. The characteristics
of this software system are as follows. First, the real-time feedback of the coordinate information
The running process for the software system of this 3D printer is shown in Figure 4a and the servo
solves the step-out phenomenon caused by the frequent high-speed start and stop of the motor and
feedback system is adopted into the software control, as shown in Figure 4b. The characteristics of this
helps the whole system operate accurately. Second, the feedback data displays parameters such as
software system are as follows. First, the real-time feedback of the coordinate information solves the
motor load, motor temperature, and printing speed. Once motor overload occurs, the motor
step-out phenomenon caused by the frequent high-speed start and stop of the motor and helps the
temperature is too high or even short-circuited, printing work stops immediately and the power
whole system operate accurately. Second, the feedback data displays parameters such as motor load,
supply is disconnected to ensure safety, Third, the 3D printing operation parameters are set
motor temperature,
manually, and printing
such as maximum speed.
running Onceacceleration,
speed, motor overloadspeedoccurs, the head,
of print motoretc.
temperature
The maximum is too
high or even short-circuited, printing work stops immediately and the power supply is disconnected
speed of the system is within 0.5 m/s, and the optimal range of acceleration is between 0.05 m/s² and
to ensure
0.2 safety, it
m/s². Finally, Third,
has athe 3D printing
storage functionoperation parameters
at breakpoint. When an areunexpected
set manually, such as
situation maximum
occurs, such
running speed, acceleration, speed of print head, etc. The maximum
as a power failure, the servo system immediately stores the2 current coordinate speed of the system is within
position. Later
0.5 m/s, and
printing the optimal can
at breakpoint range
beofachieved
acceleration
whenis between 0.05 is
the system m/s m/s2 . Finally,
and 0.2 Figure
restarted. 5 showsit has
thea control
storage
function at
interface ofbreakpoint.
the operatingWhen an unexpected situation occurs, such as a power failure, the servo system
device.
immediately stores the current coordinate position. Later printing at breakpoint can be achieved when
the system is restarted. Figure 5 shows the control interface of the operating device.

3D Design of
Architectural Drawing

Slice the 3D Drawing layer by layer

and Path Optimization

Files Input into Control System

command data

3D Printing Running and

Real-time Feedback

(a)

Parameter Control
and command and monitor
Computer system
Servo system Servomotor
Monitor and Control

Data Data

(b)
Figure
Figure 4.
4. The
The software
software system
system (a)
(a) Running
Running process
process for the software and (b) feedback control system.
Materials 2019, 12, 1540 7 of 14
Materials 2019, x, x FOR PEER REVIEW 7 of 14

X-axis Y-axis Z-axis

Command Pos (pulse) 0 0 0
Open Start Reset
Feedback Pos (pulse) 0 0 0
Home Stop Exit Velocity (r/min) 0 0 0
Distance(mm) 0 0 0
Torque(%) 1% 1% 1%

Printer Extruder Position Set parameters

X-axis: 1000 mm Start Velocity: 0 mm/s

Y-axis: 1500 mm Max Velocity: 208 mm/s
Z-axis: 6000 mm End Velocity: 0 mm/s
Acc: 50 mm/s²

Figure 5. Control interface of the operating device.

Figure 5. Control interface of the operating device.
2.2. Print Concrete Materials
2.2. Print Concrete Materials
The most critical properties for the printing concrete in the fresh state are extrudability and
The mostExtrudability
buildability. critical properties
relatesfor the ability
to the printing of concrete
delivering in fresh
the fresh statethrough
concrete are extrudability
a hopper and and
buildability.
pumping system to a nozzle where the concrete must be extruded as a continuous filament.hopper
Extrudability relates to the ability of delivering fresh concrete through a and
It is mainly
pumping
affected bysystem to a nozzle
the workability. where the
Moreover, theconcrete must be filaments
printed concrete extrudedshould as a continuous
be formed filament.
with minimal It is
mainly affected by the workability. Moreover, the printed concrete
deformation under the weight of subsequent layers. Additionally, the lower filaments should bond filaments should be formed with
minimal
to the upper deformation under
ones to build the weight
monolithic of subsequent
components. layers. this
Therefore, Additionally, the lower filaments
printing ready-mixed concrete
should
requiresbond to the upper
a buildability ones relates
which to buildtomonolithic
the abilitycomponents.
of printing aTherefore, this printing
certain number of layers ready-mixed
or height.
concrete
Buildability requires a buildability
also depends on thewhich
workabilityrelatesand to themixability of printing a certain number of layers or
proportions.
height. Buildability
In this study, a 3Dalsoprinter
depends wason usedtheto workability
optimize the and mix proportions.
workability range of concrete which was ready
In this study, a 3D printer was used
to be extruded. It is known that higher slump has a negative to optimize the workability
effect onrange of concrete of
the deformation which was
concrete
ready to be extruded. It is known that higher slump has a negative
after extrusion, whereas lower slump may cause the noncontinuous flow of concrete which affects effect on the deformation of
concrete after extrusion,
the buildability and hardenedwhereas lower slump
properties may cause
of concrete. Afterthe noncontinuous
a series of trials, aflow
slump of concrete
of 110 mm which
was
affects the buildability and hardened properties
recommended as the most suitable workability in application. of concrete. After a series of trials, a slump of 110
mm was recommended as the most suitable workability in application.
After several trials, the mix ratio of 3D printing concrete was optimized and is shown in Table 1.
After
PO 42.5 several
cement wastrials,
usedthe formix ratio of 3D
the concrete. Theprinting concreteused
fine aggregate was wasoptimized
sand with andaisfineness
shown modulus
in Table
1.
of 2.8, the coarse aggregate had a particle size of 5–15 mm, and the admixture used wasfineness
PO 42.5 cement was used for the concrete. The fine aggregate used was sand with a fly ash.
modulus of 2.8, the coarse aggregate had a particle size of 5–15 mm,
The amount of accelerator was about 3–5% to the total amount of cement in the concrete. The printed and the admixture used was fly
ash. The amount of accelerator was about 3–5% to the total amount
concrete reached the initial setting in 5–10 minutes. The optimized 3D printing concrete material of cement in the concrete. The
printed
enabled concrete
continuous reached
printing thewithout
initial setting in 5–10 minutes. The optimized 3D printing concrete
interruption.
material
Theenabled continuous
rheological parameters printing
of the without
concrete interruption.
were tested in this study using an International
The rheological parameters of the
Center for Aggregate Research (ICAR) rheometer (Shanghai concrete were tested LREL in Instruments.
this study using CO., anLTD, International
Denmark ),
Center for Aggregate Research (ICAR) rheometer (Shanghai LREL
as shown in Figure 6a, with a four-bladed vane. The flow curve test worked within seven velocity Instruments. CO., LTD, Denmark
stages
),
andas every
shownstage in Figure 6a, with
maintained a four-bladed
a certain time to reach vane.static
The state.
flow curve
Using test worked
the flow curvewithin seven
test, the velocity
relationship
stages
between and everyand
torque stage maintained
rotational velocity a certain time to (Figure
was obtained reach static
6b). Bystate.
usingUsing
the the flow curve equation
Reiner–Riwlin test, the
relationship
and the Bingham between
model torque
[23], and rotational
the dynamic velocity
yield stresswas andobtained (Figure were
plastic viscosity 6b). By using the
obtained. TheReiner–
results
Riwlin equation and the Bingham model [23], the dynamic yield
showed that the rheological parameters satisfied the requirements of pumpability and extrudability. stress and plastic viscosity were
obtained. The results showed that the rheological parameters
Based on the above mixing ratio for the printed concrete, concrete was cast into a cube test satisfied the requirements of
pumpability
mold. The Chinese and extrudability.
standard for the test method of mechanical properties on ordinary concrete
Based
(GB/T50081-2002)on the above
[24] was mixing ratio for
adopted, andthe printed concrete,
a hydraulic compression concrete was machine
testing cast into a(Jinan
cube test mold.
Chuanbai
The ChineseJinan,
Equipment, standard for theChina)
Shandong, test methodwas used of mechanical
to evaluate the properties
compressive on ordinary
strengthconcrete (GB／
of the material.
T50081-2002) [24] was adopted, and a hydraulic compression
The printed concrete and the common ready-mixed concrete results obtained after 28 days are shown testing machine (Jinan Chuanbai
Equipment,
in Table 2. It Jinan,
can beShandong,
observed that China) was used
the strength of to
theevaluate the compressive
printed concrete reduced strength
by 2–4 MPa of the material.
compared to
The printed concrete and the common ready-mixed concrete results
the common ready-mixed concrete. It is indicated that the addition of an accelerator as the admixture obtained after 28 days are shown
in Table
could 2. It canthe
decrease bemechanical
observed that the strength
strength of theconcrete.
of the print printed The concrete reduced
accelerator by 2–4 MPa
accelerates thecompared
hydration
to the common ready-mixed concrete. It is indicated that the addition of an accelerator as the
admixture could decrease the mechanical strength of the print concrete. The accelerator accelerates
 Design strength Cement Sand Aggregate Water Admixture

C20
Materials 2019, 12, 1540 1 3.20 3.62 0.66 0.024 8 of 14

C25 C3S, C2S,

of the silicate minerals 1 and C4AF 2.98 3.40introduces
and also 0.60
cracks 0.032
and voids inside the concrete,
which will result in strength loss for the concrete.
Table 2. Comparison of concrete compressive strength tests.
Table 1. 3D printed ready-mixed concrete mix ratio.

Concrete
Specimen Design Design Cement
Strength Sand Compressive
Aggregate WaterStandard Deviations
Admixture
Dimension (mm)
Strength
C20 (MPa) 1 3.20 Strength
3.62 (MPa) 0.66 (MPa) 0.024
C25 1 2.98 3.40 0.60 0.032
Printed 20 MPa 150 × 150 × 150 19.1 0.25
Table 2. Comparison of concrete compressive strength tests.

Normal 20 MPa Concrete Design

150 × 150 × 150 23.8 Compressive 0.16 Standard
Specimen Dimension (mm)
Strength (MPa) Strength (MPa) Deviations (MPa)

Printed Printed
25 MPa 20 MPa 150 × 150
150 × 150 × 150
× 150 24.1 19.1 0.30 0.25
Normal 20 MPa 150 × 150 × 150 23.8 0.16

Normal Printed
25 MPa 25 MPa 150 × 150
150 × 150 × 150
× 150 28.8 24.1 0.17 0.30
Normal 25 MPa 150 × 150 × 150 28.8 0.17

1.2

1
Torque (Nm)

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6

Speed (rev/s)

(a) (b)
Figure 6. Rheological test of print ready-mixed concrete. (a) ICAR rheometer and (b) Relationship
Figure 6. Rheological test of print ready-mixed concrete. (a) ICAR rheometer and (b) Relationship
between torque and rotational velocity.
between torque and rotational velocity.
3. Distribution Substation Project
3. Distribution Substation Project
3.1. Description
With the techniques in equipment and materials for 3D printing mentioned above, this paper
introduces the world’s first application of a 3D printed power distribution substation by adopting
commercial ready-mixed concrete in China. The full picture of the printer is shown in Figure 7. Figure 8
shows the design of the power distribution substation. It can be seen that the power distribution
substation has a length of 12.1 m, a width of 4.6 m, and a total height of 4.6 m (the part below the
ground is 0.5 m, and the part above the ground is 4.1 m).
 With the
With the techniques
techniques in in equipment
equipment andand materials
materialsfor for3D3Dprinting
printingmentioned
mentionedabove,above,this
thispaper
paper
introduces the world’s first application of a 3D printed power distribution substation
introduces the world’s first application of a 3D printed power distribution substation by adopting by adopting
commercial ready-mixed
commercial ready-mixed concrete
concrete in
in China.
China.The
Thefull
fullpicture
pictureofofthe
theprinter
printerisisshown
shownininFigure
Figure7.7.Figure
Figure
8 shows the design of the power distribution substation. It can be seen that the powerdistribution
8 shows the design of the power distribution substation. It can be seen that the power distribution
substation has
substation has aa length
length of
of 12.1
12.1 m,
m, aa width
width of
of 4.6
4.6 m,
m,and
andaatotal
totalheight
heightofof4.64.6mm(the
(thepart
partbelow
below the
Materials 2019, 12, 1540 9 ofthe
14
ground is 0.5 m, and the part above the ground
ground is 0.5 m, and the part above the ground is 4.1 m). is 4.1 m).

Figure 7. Overview of the 3D printer.

Figure 7. Overview
Figure 7. Overview of
of the
the 3D
3D printer.
printer.

(a)
Figure 8. Cont.
(a)
Materials 2019, 12, 1540 10 of 14
Materials 2019, x, x FOR PEER REVIEW 10 of 14

(b)
Figure
Figure8.8.Plan view
Plan view of of
3D3Dprinted power
printed distribution
power substation
distribution (a) Plan
substation view view
(a) Plan of cable trenchtrench
of cable and (b)and
Plan viewview
(b) Plan of cable trench.
of cable trench.

3.2.Design
3.2. Designand
and3D
3DPrinting
Printing
Accordingto
According to the
the design,
design, the
the concrete
concrete strength
strengthof ofthethewall
wallshould
shouldnot notbebeless
lessthan
than2020MPa.
MPa. The Thewall
part of the power distribution substation is printed with C25 ready-mixed
wall part of the power distribution substation is printed with C25 ready-mixed concrete, with a concrete, with a diameter
of the coarse
diameter of the aggregate less than less
coarse aggregate 15 mm.than During
15 mm.the printing
During the process
printingofprocess
the powerof thedistribution
power
substation, the
distribution actual strength
substation, the actualof the wall concrete
strength of the wall is higher
concrete than 20 MPa,
is higher thanwhich meets
20 MPa, the structural
which meets
design
the requirements.
structural design requirements.
Constructionalcolumns
Constructional columnsand andringringbeams
beamswerewere employed
employed in in
thethe structural
structural design
design of of
thethe project
project
totomeet
meetthe theseismic
seismicrequirements.
requirements.Therefore,
Therefore, the
the project
project optimizes
optimizes thethe path
path of ofthethe concrete
concrete printing
printing
process.The
process. Theconcrete
concretewall wallisisprinted
printedhorizontally
horizontally atat first,
first, andandthe the position
position of of constructional
constructional columns
columns
isisreserved
reservedduring duringthe theprinting
printingprocess.
process.After
Afterthetheconcrete
concrete printing
printing wall
wall is is finished,
finished, constructional
constructional
columnsare
columns are then
then built by meansmeans of ofsupporting
supportingformwork,
formwork,tying tyingsteel
steelbars
barsand
andcasting
casting concrete,
concrete, as as
seen
seen in Figure
in Figure 9. In9.addition,
In addition, the the project
project combines
combines the the characteristics
characteristics of 3D
of 3D printing,
printing, andand a horizontal
a horizontal steel
steel
meshmesh is placed
is placed at a height
at a height of 500ofmm 500intervals
mm intervals to connect
to connect with the with the constructional
constructional column, column,
as shown as in
shown
Figurein 10.Figure 10. Horizontal
Horizontal steel meshsteelandmesh and printed
printed concreteconcrete
were both were both adopted
adopted to buildtothe build the lintels
lintels and ring
and ringin
beams, beams,
order in to order
enhanceto enhance the integrity
the integrity of the structure.
of the overall overall structure.
ItItisisworth noting that for the printing of
worth noting that for the printing of the lintel the lintel above
above the door
the door and
and window
window holes, it isit still
holes, is still
necessary
necessarytotouse usethethetraditional
traditionalmethod
methodofofconstructing
constructing thetheformwork,
formwork, that is, is,
that using thethe
using prefabricated
prefabricated
wooden
woodenformworkformworktotosupportsupportthe thelintel.
lintel.The
Thelength
length ofof
the wooden
the wooden formwork
formwork is the same
is the sameas as
thethe
lengthlength
of the lintel, whereas the width is slightly larger than the lintel width. Using
of the lintel, whereas the width is slightly larger than the lintel width. Using the 3D printing method the 3D printing method
ononthe
thewooden
woodenmold moldsupport,
support,the theconstruction
constructionofofthe thelintel
lintelisisachieved.
achieved.
Materials 2019, x, x FOR PEER REVIEW 11 of 14

Materials 2019, 12, 1540 11 of 14

Materials 2019, x, x FOR PEER REVIEW 11 of 14

(a) (b)

Figure 9. Constructional columns (a) Reserved position for constructional columns during printing
(a) (b)
and (b) Constructional columns after casting.
Figure 9. Constructional columns (a) Reserved position for constructional columns during printing
Figure 9. Constructional columns (a) Reserved position for constructional columns during printing
and (b) Constructional columns after casting.
and (b) Constructional columns after casting.

Figure
Figure 10. Horizontal steel
10. Horizontal steel mesh.
mesh.

During the
During the construction,
construction, the the 3D
3D design
design model model is is first
first carried
carried out,out, andand then
then the
the 3D3D printing
printing sliceslice
technology is used to slice the building Figure
model, 10.generating
Horizontal steel a mesh.
layer of digitized code. In addition,
technology is used to slice the building model, generating a layer of digitized code. In addition, using
using
the the real-time
real-time detection detection and adjustment
and adjustment functionfunction
of theof3D theprinting
3D printing system,system,
thethenthe printing
printing speed, speed,
the slice
the directionDuring
of the the construction,
squeegee, the the 3D
motor design
state, and model
the is first
system carried
temperature out,are
anddetected theand3D printing
adjusted.
direction of
technologythe squeegee,
is useddesignthe motor
to slice state, and the system temperature are detected and adjusted.
In
In the
the 3D
3D printing
printing design ofthe
of
building
thethe
cablecable
model,
trench,
trench,
generating
equipment
equipment
a layer ofand
foundation,
foundation,
digitized
oil
and
code. Intank
collection
oil
addition,
collection below
tank
using
the real-time
the ground, detection
the extension and adjustment
length of length
the print function of optimized,
the 3D printing system, the printing speed, the
below the ground,
direction of the the extension
squeegee, the motor of head
state, the
and
was
print
the system was and
headtemperature the
optimized,complex
are and underground
the complex
structure was printed,
underground structure as shown
was in Figure
printed, as 11. Figurein12Figure
shown demonstrates
11. Figurethe power
12 distributionand
detected
demonstrates the
adjusted.
substation
power tank
after 3D In the 3D
printing. The printing
Schmidt design
hammer of the cable test
rebound trench,
was equipment
developed foundation,
to determine and
the oil collection
compressive
distribution
below substation
the ground, after 3D printing.lengthThe Schmidt hammer rebound test was developed to
strength
determine ofthe
concrete,
compressive and thehas extension
been used
strength of concrete,
of the the
to determine
and has
print
been
head
hardness
used
was
to and optimized,
compressive
determine the
and the complex
strength
hardness of
and
underground
concrete [25].strength structure hammer
The rebound was printed, isasa non-destructive
test rebound shown in Figuretesting 11. Figuremethod 12 demonstrates
and can be methodthe power
applied
compressive
distribution of concrete
substationand [25].
after 3D The
printing. The hammer
Schmidt test is a non-destructive
hammertests rebound testing
test was developed
both can
and in the die laboratory
be applied both in the in diethe field. Atand
laboratory least 20
inandtheindividual
field. Atusedleast to were
20 conducted
individual tests onwerethe to
printeddetermine
buildings, the compressive
in which strength
the longitudinal of concrete,
axis of the hammer has been
was determine
perpendicular the face plane. and
the hardness
to perpendicular
conducted on the printed
compressive strength buildings,
of concrete in which
[25]. Thetherebound
longitudinal hammer axis of the
test is hammer
a was
non-destructive testing method
Corresponding
to theand
facecan uniaxial
plane. compressive
Corresponding strength
uniaxial values werestrength
compressive calculated. valuesRebound
were tests were performed
calculated. Rebound
28 days after be applied both
completing in the die
the after
printing of thelaboratory
power and in the field.
distribution At least
substation, and 20theindividual
test results tests
at were
tests were performed
conducted on the 28 days
printed completing
buildings, in the
which printing
the of
longitudinalthe power
axis distribution
of the hammer substation,
was and
perpendicular
multiple
the test points at
results were higherpoints
multiple than 20 MPa.
were The 3D
higher thanprinting
20 MPa. method,
The 3Dinstead
printing of the traditional
method, instead artificial
ofRebound
the
to the
construction face plane.
method, Corresponding
can carry out the uniaxial
complicated compressive
printing strength
of cable values
trenches, were
oil calculated.
collecting pools,
traditional artificial
tests were construction
performed 28 daysmethod,
after can carry the outprinting
the complicated printing of cablesubstation,
trenches, and
andcollecting
oil power equipment
pools, and foundations
power at onecompleting
equipment time, therebyatachieving
foundations one time,
ofhigh
the power
thereby
distribution
efficiency,
achievinglowhighlabor,efficiency,
low cost,
and the test to
benefits results
the at multiple points were higher than 20 MPa. The 3D printing method, instead of the
environment.
low labor, low cost,
traditional and benefits
artificial to the method,
construction environment. can carry out the complicated printing of cable trenches,
oil collecting pools, and power equipment foundations at one time, thereby achieving high efficiency,
low labor, low cost, and benefits to the environment.
Materials 2019, x, x FOR PEER REVIEW 12 of 14

Materials 2019, 12, 1540 12 of 14

Materials 2019, x, x FOR PEER REVIEW 12 of 14

Figure 11. 3D printing of cable trench, foundation, and oil collection tank below the ground.

Figure 11. 3D
Figure 11. 3D printing
printing of
of cable
cable trench,
trench, foundation,
foundation, and
and oil
oil collection
collection tank
tank below
below the
the ground.
ground.

Figure
Figure 12. Power distribution
12. Power distribution substation
substation after
after 3D
3D printing.
printing.

4. Discussion
4. Discussion Figure 12. Power distribution substation after 3D printing.
The main advantage of this 3D printing power distribution substation project is the use of
The main advantage of this 3D printing power distribution substation project is the use of
commercial
4. Discussion ready-mixed concrete as the printing material, thus meeting the requirements of current
commercial ready-mixed concrete as the printing material, thus meeting the requirements of current
regulations in materials and structural design. In addition, it is a full-scale concrete building printed
regulations
The main in materials
advantage andofstructural design. Inpower
this 3D printing addition, it is a full-scale
distribution concrete
substation building
project is theprinted
use of
by a 3D printer, which is also rare in the world at present.
by a 3D printer, which is also rare in the world at present.
commercial ready-mixed concrete as the printing material, thus meeting the requirements of current
The total construction time of the power distribution substation project using traditional
The total
regulations in construction
materials and time of the power
structural design.distribution
In addition, substation projectconcrete
it is a full-scale using traditional
building cast-in-
printed
cast-in-place concrete is 54 days, whereas the construction time using 3D printing is less than
place concrete is 54 days, whereas the construction
by a 3D printer, which is also rare in the world at present. time using 3D printing is less than 35 days, time
35 days, time which is shortened by 30%. The number of working days for the main part of the
which is shortened
The by 30%.time
total construction The ofnumber of working
the power days substation
distribution for the main part of
project the traditional
using building using 3D
cast-in-
building using 3D printing is only four days, which is a 60–80% reduction compared with the traditional
printing is onlyisfour
place concrete days,whereas
54 days, which isthe a 60–80% reduction
construction time compared with theistraditional
using 3D printing less than 35 construction
days, time
construction method. Moreover, since 3D printing replaces the traditional construction process, the dust
method.
which is Moreover,
shortened sinceby 30%. 3DThe
printing
number replaces the traditional
of working days forconstruction
the main part process, the dust pollution
of the building using 3D
pollution on the site is reduced and ensures a clean and tidy construction site. The construction waste is
on the site
printing is is reduced
only and ensures
four days, which isa aclean andreduction
60–80% tidy construction
compared site. Thethe
with construction
traditional waste is less
construction
less than one ton, and the amount of waste generated is reduced by more than 60% in the construction
than one ton, and the amount of waste generated is reduced by more than
method. Moreover, since 3D printing replaces the traditional construction process, the dust pollution60% in the construction
field, which is highly beneficial to the environment.
field,
on thewhich
site isisreduced
highly beneficial
and ensures to the environment.
a clean and tidy construction site. The construction waste is less
The 3D printing of the building described in this paper uses coarse aggregate with a particle
than The
one 3D ton,printing
and theofamount
the building described
of waste in this
generated is paper
reduced usesbycoarse aggregate
more than 60% inwith
theaconstruction
particle size
size of 5–15 mm. Compared with the traditional mortar ink used in 3D printing concrete, it is a
of 5–15 mm. Compared with the traditional
field, which is highly beneficial to the environment. mortar ink used in 3D printing concrete, it is a big step
big step forward. In addition, a power distribution substation was successfully printed, which met
forward.
The 3D In printing
addition,ofathe power distribution
building describedsubstation
in this paper wasusessuccessfully printed,
coarse aggregate withwhich met size
a particle the
the building standards of most countries in terms of structural design and material specifications.
building
of 5–15 mm. standards
Compared of most
with countries in terms
the traditional mortar of ink
structural
used in design and concrete,
3D printing material specifications.
it is a big step
However, currently, the construction of 3D printing equipment can only be operated by a single print
However,
forward. In currently,
addition,theaconstruction of 3D printing
power distribution equipment
substation can only be operated
was successfully printed, by a single
which metprint
the
head. It is difficult to achieve the collaborative work of multi-printing heads simultaneously. If this can
head.
buildingIt isstandards
difficult toofachieve the collaborative
most countries in terms work of multi-printing
of structural design heads simultaneously.
and material If this
specifications.
be realized in the future, the printing efficiency will be further increased. Moreover, the current print
can be realized
However, in thethe
currently, future, the printing
construction of 3Defficiency will be further
printing equipment increased.
can only Moreover,
be operated the current
by a single print
head can only print materials with a diameter of no more than 15 mm, and the degree of cooperation
print head can only print materials with a diameter of no more than
head. It is difficult to achieve the collaborative work of multi-printing heads simultaneously. 15 mm, and the degree of
If this
between the print head and the commercial ready-mixed concrete can be further improved.
can be realized in the future, the printing efficiency will be further increased. Moreover, the current
print head can only print materials with a diameter of no more than 15 mm, and the degree of
Materials 2019, 12, 1540 13 of 14

Additionally, although the highly automated 3D printer can replace manual work in a
low-temperature state, due to the special nature of the hydration heat reaction of concrete, the concrete
material that can be printed at a low temperature has not yet been formulated. Therefore, it is impossible
to carry out 3D printing concrete construction in winter, especially in cold regions. Moreover, it should
also be noted that construction with concrete printing not only reduces the labor needed, but can
also increase the cost of materials, since a relatively higher-class concrete should be used for the
practical engineering based on current technology. In terms of design and construction, the 3D printing
construction of multi-story buildings must be improved and verified, such as columns that can be
assembled using precast elements, which may highly improve the construction efficiency. At present,
the bearing capacity of 3D printing concrete components or structures cannot be evaluated. In the
future, it will be necessary to establish a structural performance evaluation system for 3D printing
concrete buildings.

5. Conclusions
This paper introduces the whole 3D printing process of a power distribution substation completed
in Guangzhou, China. The construction period of the project is short and the manual requirements are
greatly reduced. Based on the self-developed printer, C25 ready-mixed concrete with 5–15 mm coarse
aggregate was adopted as the printing material to construct the power distribution substation.
In terms of equipment, with a double-assisted printhead, it is possible to continuously print
uninterrupted ready-mixed concrete during the printing process. In addition, the squeeze pressurization
method replacing the vibrating system makes the compactness and strength of the concrete meet
the material requirements. In terms of materials, for the printability and buildability of concrete,
the 3D printing system is optimized which can meet the printing properties of ready-mixed concrete.
Currently, construction with concrete printing reduces the labor needed, but can increase the cost of
materials, since a relatively higher-class concrete should be used.
This project will provide valuable design and construction experiences for the future construction
of concrete 3D printing, which has a certain guiding significance.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, G.J. and J.Z.; Methodology, G.J.; Software, S.D.; Validation, T.D., J.L.
and Z.D.; Formal Analysis, T.D.; Investigation, T.D.; Resources, G.J.; Data Curation, T.D.; Writing-Original Draft
Preparation, T.D.; Writing-Review & Editing, T.D.; Visualization, T.D.; Supervision, J.Z.; Project Administration,
S.D.; Funding Acquisition, J.Z.
Funding: This research was funded by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (NSFC) (Nos.
51325802 and 51808399) and the joint research project between the NSFC and the Pakistan Science Foundation
(PSF) (No. 5161101205).
Acknowledgments: The authors are also grateful for the cooperation fund between Tongji University and Liaoning
Architecture Green Print Technology Co., Ltd.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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