THE JOURNAL OF THE INSTITUTION OF ENGINEERS MAURITIUS
Computational Fluid Dynamics in HVAC Design
Miss Anishta Heeramun, Research Assistant
Mr Faraaz Shamutally, CFD Modeller
Prodesign Sustainability & MEP Engineers
sustainability@prodesignltd.com
Abstract
In the local context, the role of the HVAC engineer
often consists of sizing the ventilation and air
conditioning units, equipment selection, and testing
and commissioning of the system upon installation.
At design stage, little consideration is given to air
flow patterns in the ventilated or conditioned spaces,
which can lead to not meeting the desired comfort
conditions and sub-optimal designs. An accurate
investigation of the air flow distribution and
profiles of related thermal parameters, for example,
variation of temperature and predicted mean vote
(PMV) and predicted percentage dissatisfied(PPD)
in the space can be carried out using Computational
fluid dynamics (CFD) analysis. Commercial CFD
codes use numerical algorithms to simultaneously
solve the Navier-Stokes equations and allow the
user to view the results through contour or vector
plots or animations. In Mauritius, this branch of
fluid mechanics is often linked to the aeronautical
sector, hence not used in other active areas. This
article presents an overview of the underlying
principles of CFD and how it it can be applied in
the design of HVAC systems. Finally a case study
where CFD has been used to design and optimise
the solution for an HVAC system is described.
1. Introduction
Mauritius being a tropical country enjoys a hot and
humid climate with outside dry bulb temperature
above 25 0C and a relative humidity above 70 – 80
%. This implies that for most of the year, there is
a need to actively cool spaces in buildings so as
to maintain a healthy and comfortable working
and living environment. The downside of always
using an air conditioning system is the high energy
and environmental costs linked to the operation of
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the cooling system. As we endeavour to reduce
the carbon footprint of the building sector, HVAC
engineers need to find means of optimising the
energy performance of HVAC systems. A better
understanding of air movement and distribution
in the conditioned space can help considerably in
setting the design variables and configuration of
the HVAC system. Computational fluid dynamics
(CFD) is one of the tools that can be used to help
HVAC engineers better understand air flows in
buildings.
CFD is the study of fluid flow together with heat
and mass transfer processes in order to predict its
behaviour in a given space. Initially developed
in the 1960s for the aerospace industry, CFD has
proved to be a reliable tool used for the prediction
of fluid flow as well as heat and mass transfer
phenomena. Essentially, CFD packages act as a
virtual lab in which the designer can change the
designed systems within a few clicks and predict
its performance within a given set of conditions.
Using numerical algorithms, CFD codes solve
the pressure, velocity and temperature terms of
the Navier-Stokes equation and other related flow
equations.
2. Principles of CFD
Several CFD codes are available on the market:
some are general codes which can be used for
wide range of applications while others have been
developed or customised so as to model a particular
application. Although developed by different
companies, all commercial CFD codes contain
three main elements: the pre-processor, the solver,
and the post-processor [1].
The pre-processor allows the user to define the
problem through the creation of a simplified
 THE JOURNAL OF THE INSTITUTION OF ENGINEERS MAURITIUS
geometrical model (domain). In order to solve
the differential flow equations, the domain has to
be discretised by generating a grid. The solver is
the interface where the turbulence model and heat
transfer models are specified. The choice of the
turbulence model is case dependent – choosing the
wrong turbulence model will lead to an erroneous
result and hence a bad design. Finally, the post
processor allows the modeller to analyse the results
obtained.
As with all simulation programs, it is important to
verify that the results obtained. This process of
verification and validation helps the modeller to
identify and quantify the errors and uncertainties in
the model [2]. Ideally, experimental runs should also
be carried out in order to validate the CFD model.
However, in the case of HVAC designs, carrying
out experiments are not feasible. To validate the
model, the modeller has to compare the temperature
and velocity plots obtained with those published in
literature.
3. Using CFD in HVAC design
The reduction in lead time and hence the quicker
and cheaper prototyping of various products [3]
has made CFD a popular technique in various
engineering sectors namely: vehicle design,
multiphase and reacting flows in the process
industry, pollutant dispersal, wind engineering,
power generation and many more. Within the
building services engineering sector, CFD is being
increasingly used to study indoor aerodynamics and
validate HVAC designs [4]. The different ways in
which CFD techniques can be applied in the HVAC
field are:
1. Assessing natural ventilation strategies
Natural ventilation systems depend on natural driving
forces such as wind and temperature differences [5].
The driving forces being dependent on climatic
conditions, evaluating the effectiveness of natural
ventilation strategies through manual calculations
will be a long and tiring process. By performing
CFD calculations, the designer is able to track
the how wind enters the building and its eventual
path into the building. This allows the designer to
evaluate the extent to which natural ventilation is
successful and any architectural modifications (e.g.
increasing the area of operable windows) required
at the conceptual stages itself [7].
2. Flow in ductworks
CFD allows the designer to quantify real pressure
losses due to duct fittings for undeveloped and
transient flows [7]. Thus, excessive safety margins
can be avoided. This leads to an optimum fan sizing
can improve the specific fan power rating for the
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cooling plant.
3. Locating hot spots
In cases where precise air conditioning control is
required, e.g. data centres, CFD simulations can be
used to predict where recirculation areas and hence
hot spots will occur as well as give an idea of how
the humidity profile varies in the room concerned.
Thus it is possible for the designer to change the
configuration of the supply air inlets and extracts
so as to ensure a more uniform temperature profile
within the zone without having to install any
equipment at the construction site [8].
4. Contaminant migration
In laboratories, clean rooms, operation theatres,
car parks and industrial buildings, the control
of contaminant concentration is vital for health
and safety reasons [9]. CFD calculations can be
performed in order to track the path of contaminants
carried by the supply and extract air flows.
This type of calculations can also be extended for
smoke extract designs, or for obtaining the peak
level of carbon dioxide in a given occupied zone.
5. Condensation formation
A condensation analysis can be carried out using
CFD techniques. The CFD model takes into
account the room temperature and relative humidity
to calculate the dew point and the buildings’ surface
temperatures to evaluate the risk of condensation
{9].
6. Air flows in large spaces
Air distribution in large spaces such as atriums,
waiting rooms, concourses and open plan offices,
can be difficult to predict. In an attempt to provide
adequate ventilation, it does not make economic
sense to place a lot of diffusers throughout the
space [10]. With the help of CFD tools, the HVAC
engineer can optimise the air flow distribution and
identify regions with little or no air flow as well
as recirculation areas in the space. Transient case
simulations can also be carried out to investigate
how long it takes for the space to reach the designed
conditions.
4. Case study
The case presented in this section shows how CFD
can be used to optimise the HVAC system in a large
space.
The internal corridor of a shopping centre in Port-
Louis is to be cooled so as to maintain a thermally
comfortable environment for shoppers. Figure 1
shows a geometric representation of the shopping
centre concourse
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.Figure 1: Dimensions of the concourse

The internal concourse being more than 7.0 m high, it was decided that the air conditioning unit to be
installed should be able to meet the conditions for thermal comfort as set by ASHRAE Standard 55-2004
[11], for up to a height of 2.0 m.
The CFD analysis was carried out so as to:
• Help the HVAC engineer choose between a downward flow or a displacement ventilation
system
• Guide the designer on where to place the supply air diffusers and extracts
• Identify hotspots and regions with little or no air flow
• Determine whether a thermally comfortable environment has been achieved
In this study, the thermal comfort indices used are the PMV (predicted mean vote) and PPD (predicted
percentage of dissatisfied). PMV predicts the mean value of votes of a large group of people on the seven-
point thermal sensation scale (Figure 2).
Figure 2: Seven-point thermal sensation scale

PPD (predicted percentage of dissatisfied) is an index that establishes a quantitative prediction of the
percentage of thermally dissatisfied people determined from PMV. The acceptable thermal environment
range for general comfort is:

Table 1: Acceptable thermal environment for comfort [11]

PPD <10
PMV Between -0.5 and 0.5

In order to obtain the boundary conditions required for the CFD simulations, a cooling load calculation was
performed using the IES-VE (version 6.4.0.6) software. The building fabric, cooling design temperature,
and internal gains used for the cooling load calculation are listed in Table 2 and Table 3:

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Table 2 : Building fabric

Building fabric U-value (W/

element m2K)
Roof 1.02
External Wall 2.72
Internal partition 1.08
External glazing 4.86

Table 3: cooling set point and internal gains

Cooling set 24.0 0C; Relative humidity: 55 to 80

point %
Lighting gain 2,000 W
People gain 65 people = heat gain of around
5,000 W
Infiltration 0.5 ACH (air changes per hour)

From the cooling load calculation, the breakdown of heat gains through the external building fabric was
obtained (Table 4).
Table 4: Break down of heat gains

External conduction 4,700 W

gain
Solar gain 16,000 W

Following the cooling load calculation, a displacement ventilation system and a downward flow ventilation
system was designed (Table 5).

Table 5: Specification sheet for the ventilation systen

Supply system
Displacement ventilation Downward flow ventilation
Number of diffusers 6 6
Type of diffuser 3-way diffuser Wall mounted diffusers
Dimensions of diffusers (L x W
0.4 m x 1.2 m x 2.0 m 1.296 m x 0.267 m
x H)
Air flow rate (per diffuser) 0.55 m3/s 0.55 m3/s
Temperature of air 20 0C 20 0C
Relative humidity 60 % 60 %
Extract system
No. of exhaust grilles 6
Type of grille Wall mounted grille
Dimensions of grilles (W x H) 1.0 m x 0.3 m
Extract rate -0.55 m3/s

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4.1. CFD model set up

For the purpose of the CFD simulation, the geometry of the shopping centre concourse was simplified as
shown in Figure 3 and Figure 4.

Figure 3: CFD model for displacement ventilation

Figure 4: CFD model for downward flow system

The following assumptions were made in the CFD model:

• The roof was modelled as a flat roof. This is because for the purpose of this study, only the flow
regime and temperature profile for up to a height of 2.0 m was of interest to the modeller. Above
the height of 2.0 m the shape of the room was assumed not to have any impact on air movement,
the height of the room in the CFD model was taken to be 8.125 m so as to maintain the same
volume as used for the cooling load calculation and for the CFD analysis,
• As shown in Figure 1, the roof is the surface with the most external exposure and hence it was
assumed that all the external gains came through the roof.
• Solar gain was modelled as a heat source through the external glazing.
• Lighting fixtures were placed at a height of 4.0 m.
• The return grilles were located at a height of 6.2 m.
• The people were modelled as four 6.0 m x 3.0 m x 1.9 m blocks of warm air with a constant heat
flux of 36.5 W/m3. The people blocks were evenly spaced through the length of the concourse in
an attempt to represent the movement of people along the corridor.
• Infiltration into the building was modelled by placing one opening at each of the four corners of
the corridor. The dimensions of the opening are 0.1 m x 8.125 m. Each infiltration object was
given a net area ratio of 0.01. Had infiltration been modelled as very thin openings (width = 1 mm),
the CFD solver would not have detected them.
To remedy this problem were the following could have been done: either widen the openings enough so
the solver can detect them or to decrease the mesh tolerance to less than 1 mm. The latter is not advisable
as refining the mesh is computationally expensive in terms of simulation time.

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• The room was assumed to be at 33 0C with a relative humidity of 85 %.

• The corridor was assumed to be a closed volume with four side boundaries as adiabatic
walls. In the real scenario, the four bounded walls would have been entrances to shops
being maintained at 24 0C.
For both cases, the simulations were carried out using the PHOENICS VR 2011 software and the following
physical models were chosen: k-ε turbulence model, Immersol radiation model and the density difference
to model buoyancy effects.

A 3D Cartesian mesh was used as Figure 5. All the important zones were surrounded by finer mesh. Refining
further would require more computational time. However, the current generated grid suffices for a reasonably
converged solution.
Figure 5: Cartesian mesh used for the simulation

4.2. Results of simulation

Figure 6 and Figure 7 show the temperature profile obtained when using the downward flow unit and the
displacement ventilation system. From Figure 6 it can be seen that a more uniform temperature profile
is obtained using the downward flow unit. The distance-temperature plot (Figure 7) further supports this
observation. Figure 7 also validates the CFD model used as it demonstrates the buoyancy effect which
drives displacement ventilation,

Figure 6: Temperature profile (y-plane) obtained for the two types of HVAC system

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Figure 7: Variation of temperature with height

By only analysing the temperature profiles, it can be assumed that the downward flow unit is the more
appropriate system as a more uniform temperature profile is shown. However, the temperature-distance
plot gives no indication of the relative humidity levels and air velocities which are also factors which affect
thermal comfort parameters.
The human thermal comfort parameters, PMV and PPD, at a height of 0.1 m (near the feet), 1.5 m (chest
level) and 2.0 m (above the head) were also computed. As observed from Figure 8 and Figure 9, for the
DX spilt units, the thermal comfort parameters specified in Table 1 are not met.
For the downward flow unit to meet the PPD and PMV requirements, the design should be modified as
follows:

• Increase the volume flow rate of supply air by increasing the number of supply diffusers
or by using larger diffusers.

• Decrease the supply air temperature to around 18 0C.

The first option leads to an increase in capital costs due to larger size equipment while the second option
leads to an increase in the operating costs of the air conditioning unit.

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Figure 8: PMV (averaged) at different heights

Figure 9: PPD (averaged) at different heights

5. Conclusions
CFD is very powerful software available to HVAC engineers to help them better design and optimise their
HVAC systems. As we move towards more sustainable buildings, building services engineers will have to
adopt more sophisticated tools to validate their designs.
In the case study presented in this paper, the CFD model was used as a test bed by engineers to improve
energy efficiency along with thermal comfort in the early design process itself. The results of the simulation
demonstrated that for a corridor of height greater than 3.0 m, the displacement ventilation strategy used
to cool the zone is a more appropriate and a more energy efficient alternative. Using these results, the
displacement ventilation system can be optimised and further analysis such as life cycle costing or payback
periods can also be carried out.

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References
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finite volume method, 2nd edition
2. AIIAA (1998), Guide for the verification and validation of computational fluid dynamics
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cycle, Delphi Thermal Systems
4. Zhai,Z (2005), Application of computational fluid dynamics in building design: Aspects and trends,
Indoor built environment, 15;4 pp 305-313
5. Sustainability Victoria (nd), Natural ventilation systems, www.sustainability.vic.gov.au
6. Jackman, P.J. (1999), Air distribution in naturally ventilated offices, BSRIA
7. Fluent (1997), Design solutions for HVAC-R, Fluent Inc.
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occupancy, ASHRAE

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