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SCHOOL OF ARCHITECTURE
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AR 8101 – HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE AND CULTURE –I
PART - A(APRIL/MAY 2019)…………………………………………………………………………………………
1. Write a short note on Terra Amata hut with a sketch.

 TERRA AMATA located near Nice, Southern France dates back to 300000 years ago is
the oldest man-made structure of which we have evidence.
 This Paleolithic camp near French river uncovered the remains of Huts put by the
hunters who visited the shore of the Mediterranean.
 They were oval in shape of about 8 to 15 meters in length to 4 to 6 meters in width.
 About 15 people were required to build it and were occupied for limited period of
time.
 The huts were then left to collapse and new huts were put near them or over them.
 The huts were made of branches or sapling set close to each other in the sand as a
palisade (fence), and then braced on the outside with a ring of large stone.
 Along the long axis in the centre, the hut was lined with the posts to uphold the roof.
 The hearth was in the middle, protected from the prevailing N-W wind by the screen
of pebbles.
 The immediate area around it was indicating that there the band (Humans) must
have slept.
 Further out from this social focus of the hut there were work spaces like kitchen or
even toilet area.
 These were seasonal campsites and were occupied during spring when the season
was moist and cold.
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2. What is the difference between stepped pyramid and bent pyramid?

 Egyptian pyramids evolved over time to more grandiose tombs for the pharaohs,
demonstrating improvements in ancient architecture and culminating in the pyramid
complex at Giza.
 The construction of pyramids as royal tombs occurred during the Old Kingdom in
Egyptian history, specifically during the 3rd and 4th dynasties, 2686-2494 BC.
 Beginning with the construction of step pyramids, the evolution of pyramid
architecture then progressed to the bent-side pyramid of Dashur, and finally to the
true pyramid like those at Giza.
STEPPED PYRAMID BENT PYRAMID

 The earliest dated pyramid is the step  The bent pyramid of Dashur shows the
pyramid built for the King Djoser in transition from step pyramids to the
the 3rd dynasty in Saqqara. later true pyramid. Built under the
 The pyramid of Djoser consists of six order of Snofru, the first pharaoh of the
steps, a revolution in the construction 4th dynasty, the bent pyramid is the
of royal tombs. first Egyptian attempt at creating the
 The royal architect Imhotep is true pyramid.
credited with the architectural  Construction of the bent pyramid
design of the earliest Egyptian started with the sides ascending at
pyramid. about a 54-degree angle, but halfway
 The pyramid stretched to a little over up the angle was changed for the
200 feet high. The design is adapted remainder of the construction to the
from earlier tomb designs slightly less angular 43 degrees.
called mastabas.  This change in angle gives the
 Imhotep created a series of pyramid the bent shape.
mastabas laid on top of each other  Similar to the step pyramids, the tomb
to create the step pyramid. for the bent pyramid was also
 The tomb of Djoser was located constructed underground.
underground like earlier tombs  Learning from his mistake, Snofru built
marked only by the mastabas, with another pyramid on the same site
the only difference being the step called the Red Pyramid. Construction
pyramid marking the tomb. of the Red pyramid was a success
and is considered the first true
pyramid completed.
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3. Define Agora in Greek Architecture.

 In ancient Athens, public life was at its most vibrant at the agora.
 Ever since Athens was first settled, around 3000 B.C.E., the agora has been inhabited.
 The word 'agora' is commonly translated as market, but it also means 'open place for
assembly.'
 An open location near the center of Athens, the agora began its time as a public
place where the residents of Athens could convene together.
 Any number of important civic events could cause Athenians to flock to the agora,
from public announcements and proclamations by the government to less formal
affairs like public debates.
 AGORA is the social, economic and political heart of a Greek City. Important streets
from various parts of the city led into the Agora. It is an open space surrounded by
various public buildings such as stoa, temple and house of council. The open space
was used for various activities like trade, discussion of politics, meeting of the citizens.
4. List the five orders of classical architecture.

 ORDER, also called ORDER OF ARCHITECTURE, any of several styles of classical
architecture that is defined by the particular type and proportion
of column and entablature they use as a basic unit.
 A column consists of a shaft together with its base and its capital.
 The column supports a section of an entablature, which constitutes the upper
horizontal part of a classical building and is itself composed of (from bottom to top)
an architrave, frieze, and cornice.
 The form of the capital is the most distinguishing characteristic of a particular order.
 There are five major orders:
o Doric,
o Ionic,
o Corinthian,
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o Tuscan, and
o Composite.

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5. What are catacombs?

 Catacombs are man-made subterranean chambers and passagewaysused mainly
for burials. Since Rome was thickly populated and sufficient space for burial was not
available on the ground this system of burial was started. The remains were placed
one above the other on shelf like buried chambers. The catacombs were decorated
with paintings of stories from the bible, pictures of saints etc. More elaborate tombs
within had altars for offerings.
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6. Define Feudalism
 Feudalism was the system in European medieval societies of the 10th to 13th
centuries CE whereby a social hierarchy was established based on local
administrative control and the distribution of land into units.
 The dominant social system in medieval Europe, in which the nobility held lands from
the Crown in exchange for military service, and vassals were in turn tenants of the
nobles, while the peasants (villeins or serfs) were obliged to live on their lord's land
and give him homage, labour, and a share of the produce, notionally in exchange
for military protection.
7. What is the purpose of flying buttress in Gothic Churches?

 Flying buttresses are an architectural feature mainly seen used in medieval cathedral
designs.
 First developed in Romanesque architecture and later perfected in Gothic
architecture, flying buttresses are built projecting from the walls of a structure down
to the foundation in an half arched shape.
 The purpose of such projections is to support the weight and horizontal thrust of the
high arches and domes spanning the interior space.
 The flying buttress serves as a bridge, carrying the lateral thrust produced at the base
of the arches and domes due to their weight, across to the outer buttress, which is
massive enough to absorb the pressure.
 The stability of the entire building depends upon the balance of pressures and with
the existence of flying buttresses, cathedrals were able to be built taller and more
glorious than ever before.
 The flying buttress originally helped bring the idea of open space and light to the
cathedrals through stability and structure, by supporting the clerestory and the
weight of the high roofs.
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8. What are Rose windows?

 Rose window, also called wheel window, in Gothic architecture, decorated
circular window, often glazed with stained glass.
 Scattered examples of decorated circular windows existed in the Romanesque
period (Santa Maria in Pomposa, Italy, 10th century).
 Only toward the middle of the 12th century, however, did the idea appear of making
a rich decorative motif out of a round window.
 At this time the simple rose window became a distinguishing characteristic of many
transitional and early Gothic churches.
 It was used mainly at the west end of the nave and the ends of the transepts.
 The introduction of developed bar tracery in the 13th century gave a
compelling impetus to rose window design.
 The general scheme of a rose window‘s tracery consisted of a series of radiating
forms, each of which was tipped by a pointed arch at the outside of the circle.
 The bars between these forms were joined at the centre by a pierced circle of stone,
and the forms themselves frequently were treated like little traceried windows with
subsidiary, subdividing bars, arches, and foiled circles.
 The major examples of this High Gothic type are largely French, in which the rose
window achieved its greatest medieval popularity.
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9. What do you mean by Renaissance?

 The Renaissance began in Italy, largely as a growth of interest in classical art,
architecture, literature and ideas.In Old French renaissance means "rebirth."
 The Renaissance is a period in European history, covering the span between the 14th
and 17th centuries.
 It is an extension of the middle Ages, and is bridged by the Age of Enlightenment to
modern history.
 It grew in fragments, with the very first traces found seemingly in Italy, coming to
cover much of Europe, for some scholars marking the beginning of the modern age.
 This new thinking became manifest in art, architecture, politics, science & literature.
 Early examples were the development of perspective in oil painting and the recycled
knowledge of how to make concrete.
10. Give any four examples of Michelangelo’s work.

 Basilica of San Lorenzo (1531-1532) at Florence
 Piazza del Campidoglio complex, Capitoline Hill (1536–1546) at Rome
 Plans for St. Peter's Basilica (especially for the dome) (1546–1564) at Rome
 Palazzo Farnese (1546) at Rome
(DECEMBER/JANUARY-2019)……………………………………………………………………………………
11. List any two advantages of Nile in Egypt.

 Most Egyptians lived near the Nile as it provided water, food, transportation and
excellent soil for growing food.
 The Nile supported and allowed life to thrive in the grueling climate.
 The earliest inhabitants along the river discovered an annual 6 month period where
the Nile flooded.
 The brown layer of silt that the Nile left when it receded was full of nutrients that
allowed for farming to occur.
 Through the use of irrigation canals, agriculture was born which paved the way for
the emergence of Egyptian civilization.
 The three most important crops were wheat, flax, and papyrus.
 The Nile River also provided a lot of building materials for the Ancient Egyptians.
 They used the mud from the riverbanks to make sundried bricks.
 These bricks were used in building homes, walls, and other buildings.
 The Egyptians also quarried limestone and sandstone from the hills along the side of
the Nile.
12. What is an Entablature?

 The entablature is a defining element of Classical architecture and its derivatives.
 It is the upper portion of the building or portico — all of the horizontal architectural
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 The entablature generally rises in horizontal layers up to the roof, the

triangular pediment, or arch.
 The entablature and columns make up what is known as the Classical Orders of
Architecture.
 These are the architectural elements from ancient Greece and Rome that define
that era's architecture and its revival styles.
13. What are aqueducts?

 An aqueduct is a water supply or navigable channel constructed to convey water.
 In a more restricted use, aqueduct (occasionally Water Bridge) applies to any bridge
or viaduct that transports water - instead of a path, road or railway - across a gap.
The Romans constructed aqueducts to bring a

constant flow of water from distant sources
into cities and towns, supplying public baths,
latrines, fountains and private households.
Some aqueducts also served water for mining,

processing, manufacturing, and agriculture.
 Aqueducts moved water through gravity alone, along a slight downward gradient
within conduits of stone, brick or concrete. Most aqueduct systems included
sedimentation tanks, sluices and distribution tanks to regulate the supply at need.
 Rome's first aqueduct supplied a water-fountain sited at the city's cattle-market.
 By the 3rd century AD, the city had eleven aqueducts, to sustain a population of over
1,000,000 in a water-extravagant economy; most of the water supplied the city's
many public baths.
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14. Write any two characteristics of Early Christian Architecture
Characteristic Features of Early Christian Architecture:
1. PLANS
 Early Christians have used the same style of Roman Basilicas in planning their
churches
 Big halls, Baths, Houses and Temples as worshipping places.
 The emergence of Bell Towers and Baptism
2. OPENINGS
 Semicircular arches used over doors and windows openings
 Small openings
 Clerestory windows used in walls over the nave roof.
3. ROOFS
 Wooden roofs have covered the naves
 Aisles were domed usually
 Apse were covered with half domes
4. WALLS
 Built according to Roman methods, using concrete covered with brick, stone or
plaster
 Mosaic decoration used inside
 Less interest paid to building exterior
5. COLUMNS
 Inspired by old Roman buildings
 Early Christians have used Roman building materials, construction methods and
ornaments.
6. ORNAMENTS AND DECORATION
 Consists of an assortments of ancient Roman rough patterns
 Craftsman techniques were bad in level, relieves were rough and less depth
 Mosaic have been used in apses, triumphal arches over naves and sometimes in
columns and arches
 Flooring was with marble panels taken from old Roman buildings.
 Paintings on walls were treated with strong colours in a simple rough design
 Paintings and symbols were religious.
15. Describe the western façade of Romanesque churches.

 Romanesque church facades, generally to the west end of the building are
usually symmetrical, have a large central portal made significant by its moldings
or porch, and an arrangement of arched-topped windows.
 Smaller churches often have a single tower that is usually placed to the western
end in France or England, either centrally or to one side, while larger churches
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and cathedrals often have two.

 Towers were an important feature of Romanesque churches and a great number
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 They take a variety of forms: square, circular and octagonal, and are positioned
differently in relation to the church building in different countries.
 In northern France, two large towers, such as those at Caen, were to become an
integral part of the façade of any large abbey or cathedral.
 In central and southern France that is more variable and large churches may have
one tower or a central tower.
 Large churches of Spain and Portugal usually have two towers.
16. What is the use of pinnacle in gothic architecture?
Pinnacles are typically made of stone and predominantly

used for ornamental purposes, providing vertical emphasis
breaking up hard outlines. In the case of some buildings,
such as the Milan Duomo, they are topped with statues.
A pinnacle is used to crowning a buttress, turret, parapet,

and spire. It is most commonly associated with
Gothic architecture.
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 They can also serve a secondary structural purpose, crowning the piers of flying
buttresses, where, being very heavy and often rectified with lead, they improve the
stability of the buttresses, helping to counteract the lateral thrust of the vault, and
shifting it downwards to the foundations.
 The difference between a pinnacle and a finial is its greater size and complexity. The
difference between a pinnacle and a tower or spire is its smaller size and performs a
lesser architectural role.
 Simple pinnacles were originally used on Romanesque churches, as a means of
distracting from the often abrupt transition from a square tower to a polygonal spire.
 Commonly in Gothic architecture, they were used in a more decorative way, found
at every major corner of a building, as well as on flanked gables and
decorated parapets and buttresses.
 Notable ex:Notre Dame in Paris, and the 24 m pinnacles of Reims Cathedral.
 In the 18th and 19th centuries, pinnacles were used as Gothic Revival style. Notable
ex:Palace of Westminster and New York‘s Woolworth Building.
17. What do you mean by Baptistery?

 In Christian architecture the baptistry or baptistery is the separate centrally-planned
structure surrounding the baptismal font.
 The baptistry may be incorporated within the body of a church or cathedral and be
provided with an altar as a chapel.
 In the early Church, the catechumens were instructed and the sacrament of baptism
was administered in the baptistery.
 The separate building in which the Sacrament of Baptism was once solemnly
administered, or that portion of the church-edifice later set apart for the same
purpose.
 In ancient times the term was applied to a basin, pool or other place for bathing.
 The modern baptistery is merely that part of the church set apart for baptism.
18. What are the difference between a squinch and pendentive?
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 In architecture, a pendentive is a constructive device permitting the placing of a

circular dome over a square room or of an elliptical dome over a rectangular room.
 In architecture, a squinch is a construction filling in (or rounding off) the upper angles
of a square room so as to form a base to receive an octagonal or spherical dome.
 Another solution to this structural problem was provided by the pendentive,
commonly used in Western architecture.
19. Write a note on Mannerist architecture.

 Mannerism, is a style in art and architecture (c.1520-1600), originating in Italy as a
reaction against the equilibrium of form and proportions characteristic of High
Renaissance. Mannerist architecture was marked by widely diverging tendencies
from Renaissance and Medieval styles that eventually led to the Baroque style.
 During the mannerist period, architects experimented with using architectural forms
to emphasize solid and spatial relationships.
 In architecture the style was manifested in the use of unbalanced proportions and ar
bitrary arrangements of decorative features. It was characterized by extreme
sophistication, complexity and novelty. In mannerist architecture, classical forms were
skewed, exaggerated and misplaced and classical balance and harmony were
sometimes distorted.
 Elements of mannerism can be found in the elegant Laurentian Library in Florence,
designed (c.1525) by Michelangelo.
 By the end of the century it had given way to the baroque
20. Mention any two works of Christopher Wren.

 Sir Christopher Wren was the foremost architect in Britain in the 17th century.
 An exponent of the neoclassical style, he supervised the rebuilding of the City of
London after the Great Fire half-destroyed the capital in 1666.
 He was appointed Surveyor of the Royal Works in 1669, three years after the Great
Fire, and designed the plans for 52 churches in London alone.
St. Paul‘s Cathedral is the notable example of Sir Christopher Wren.
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 Wren was also commissioned to design several civic palaces: this one is Hampton
Court, one of the residences of the British monarch, on the Thames River west of
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(JANUARY-2018)……………………………………………………………………………………………………...
21. Sketch and label any two settlements of Neolithic period.

 People were hunters and gathers that lived in caves.
 The Neolithic age changed by being famers, having animals, and making trades and
communities.
 Jarmo, Jericho, CatalHayuk, and on the east of the Mediterranean Sea.
List of Neolithic settlements
o Tell Qaramel in Syria, c. 9000 BC.

o Pulli settlement in Estonia, c. 9000 BC.
o Spirit Cave in Thailand, 9000–5500 BC.
o GöbekliTepe in Turkey, c. 9000 BC.
o Jericho in West bank, Neolithic from around 8350 BC, arising from the
earlier Epipaleolithic Natufian culture.
o Nevali Cori in Turkey, c. 8000 BC.
o Çatalhöyük in Turkey, 7500 BC.
 CatalHuyuk is the Neolithic settlement in present day Turkey.

 This city supported a population of about 6000 people.
 It was the largest and most cosmopolitan city of its time.
The size of the city and its wealth are a product of its status as a trading center.
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
 Physical CatalHuyuk was highly organized with elaborate architectural features.
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 Houses were packed in one continuous block punctuated by courtyards.

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 Houses were of one story mud construction.

 No streets in settlement and access to houses were through the roof.
 Movement from house to house through the roof.
 Houses had main rooms with in-built clay furniture, fire places and ladder to the roof.
 Many houses have cult rooms decorated with bull heads. Some houses appear to be
shrines for worship.
Çatalhöyük in Turkey
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Jericho in West bank

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22. What were the afterlife beliefs of Egyptians?

 Egyptian religious doctrines included three afterlife ideologies;
o Belief in an underworld,
o Eternal life, and
o Rebirth of the soul.
 The Ancient Egyptians believed it was possible to live again after death. However,
the afterlife took different forms, depending on the social status of the deceased.
 The underworld, also known as the Duat had only one entrance that could be
reached by traveling through the tomb of the deceased.
 Funerary texts – writings for the tomb designed to help the dead achieve an
appropriate afterlife – explain the expectations of Egypt‘s deceased.
 A dead king, having passed through a series of ordeals, was more or less guaranteed
an afterlife away from the tomb. He might twinkle in the night sky as a star, descend
to the underworld to become one with the god Osiris, or ascend into the sky to sail in
the sun boat of the god Re.
 Throughout the Old Kingdom (c2686–2125 BCE) Egypt‘s elite, too, expected to live
beyond death, but they were trapped inside the tomb and could not leave.
 Eventually the kingdom of Osiris was opened to anyone who could afford the proper
rituals: mummification, a funeral, and a set of funerary texts.
 The elite, who could afford all these things, now expected that one of their three
spirits, the akh (the immortality of the deceased), would embark on the perilous
journey to the afterlife. Their other two spirits, the ba (personality) and the ka (life-
force) would remain closer to the corpse.
23. How did the geographical factors influence the Greek politics?
 In thinking about the impact of geography on Greek life, we must think about three
aspects of that geography.
 The three most important aspects of Greek geography were
o The mountains that split Greece into a number of relatively small regions,
o The Mediterranean climate, and
o The fact that almost all of Greece was near to the sea.
 These three aspects of Greek geography impacted Greek social, economic, and
political patterns.
THE MOUNTAINS separated the various regions of Greece and prevented them from
forming large polities. Therefore, the basic unit of Greek politics was the city-state. This
was one of the most important facts about Greek political life.
THE PROXIMITY OF THE SEA also shaped the Greek politics. Because the sea was so easily
accessible and because overland trade was difficult, the Greek economy came to be
based on maritime trade. This also affected the Greek politics and society because it
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allowed Greece to contact people around the Mediterranean. These contacts made it
so that Greek culture was made up of a variety of influences from around the
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Mediterranean. It also allowed the Greeks to spread out, creating colonies around the
region.
Finally, THE CLIMATE had an impact on Greek politics. The climate also made it pleasant
for Greek people to mingle with one another outdoors. This is credited with helping the
Greek city-states create democratic political systems.
 In these ways, Greece‘s mountains, climate, and proximity to the sea had important
impacts on its social, economic, and political patterns.
24. What is Agora
REFER to question 3 of Page Number 2
25. What are the features of a basilica church?
 Basilica church is the commonest form of the early church

 Unlike the earlier Roman phase, the interiors were given more importance than
exterior.
Rectangular hall, timber-roofed with coffers and richly glided ceiling (hiding the roof
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
truss) on nave.
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 Usually with one or two aisles to each side of the central nave separated by rows of
rustic marble columns, sometimes carrying flat entablatures and sometimes, rows of
arches.
 The width of aisles was half that of the central nave.
 Apse at one end facing the principle entrances at the other end.
 Transept a raised platform where altar was placed and from where the clergy
officiated.
 A courtyard (atrium) having a central fountain for ablutions and surrounded by
colonnaded ambulatory.
 Notable Ex: St. Peter‘s , Rome
26. Write the influence of Christianity in Rome.

 The classical ideals that had held the Roman Empire together were beginning to
weaken.
 The sheer multiplicity of religions and philosophies made it impossible for a common,
centralizing vision to hold all/most of the people together.
 Roman citizenship did not have the status it once had under Augustus and the good
emperors.
 Constantine, if he was to hold the empire together, needed something to unify the
empire once again.
 What organization can fill the vacuum left by the collapse of Rome?
 Despite brutal persecutions, Christianity continues to spread.
 By the end of the 300‘s AD, Christianity was the dominant religion of the Roman
Empire.
 Power of the church increases as the church was one organization that had respect.
 Kings depended on educated clergy and they had tremendous influence on
political affairs.
27. Name any two examples of Byzantine churches.

 Hagia Sophia, Constantinople
 St.Vitale, Ravenna
28. What is Martyria?

 A martyrium or martyrion (plural, "martyries" or "martyria") is a church of a specific
architectural form, centered on a central element and thus built on a central plan,
that is, of a circular or sometimes octagonal or cruciform shape
 The architectural form of the martyrium has been developed from Roman
architecture, mainly based on imperial mausolea.
 Constantine the Great applied it for the tomb of Jesus at the Anastasis in Jerusalem
(ca. 326-380s) and the Apostles' Church in Constantinople, while also erecting round
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mausolea for himself and his daughters.

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29. Illustrate the construction of domes in churches
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30. Name any two English architects of Renaissance period?

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 Inigo Jones,
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 Sir Christopher Wren

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PART – B (APRIL/MAY 2019)………………………………………………………………………………………
1. Elaborate on the architecture of the Great temple of Amun Ra at Karnak with neat sketches.
The massive temple complex of Karnak was the principal religious center of the god
Amun-Re in Thebes during the New Kingdom (which lasted from 1550 until 1070
B.C.E.).The complex remains one of the largest religious complexes in the world.
However, Karnak was not just one temple dedicated to one god—it held not only the
main precinct to the god Amun-Re—but also the precincts of the gods Mut and Montu.
The site was first developed during the Middle Kingdom (2055-1650 B.C.E.) and was
initially modest in scale but as new importance was placed on the city of Thebes,
subsequent pharaohs began to place their own mark on Karnak. The main precinct
alone would eventually have as many as twenty temples and chapels. Additional
buildings included a sacred lake, kitchens, and workshops for the production of religious
accoutrements.
 The Temple of Amun is rectilinear.

 The courts are arranged symmetrically or auxiliary.
 The temple stands on a large area of some 360mx110m surrounded by an immense
wall of 6.1m to 9m thick.
The temple of Amun mainly has all these components:
Theentrances Pylons, Great Court, Centra lCourt, Intermediate Court, Hypostyle Hall and
Sanctuary.
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THE ENTRANCES PYLON:
 An avenue of Sphinxes leads to the entrance to the first pylon.

 Thepylonswereconstructedbygirdledwallabout30‘-80‘wide.
 The temple was approximately in west-east axis entered from west.
 The core of the pylon was filled with large number of mud bricks.
GREAT COURT:
 The great forecourt of 103mx84m contains mainly–kiosk of Taharqa in the centre,

containing small shrines dedicated to Amun, MutandKhonsu, colonnades on the
both sides and row of sphinxes.
 On the south of this court is the temple of Ramesses III entered through pylon.
HYPOSTYLE HALL:
 The hypostyle hall covers around 5000squaremetres.

 Huge obelisks, which is 29.2metre.
 The slab stones of the hypostyle hall are supported on134 columns in16 rows.
 The three central avenues are about 24m in height and have 12 huge columns of
21m high and 3.6m in diameter with bell capital.
 The roofs of the side passage are made lower in height to make clearstory openings
to allow light into the central avenue.
 Other 122 columns are 10m tall and 3m dia.
 The columns of side passage are 13 m in height 2.7 m in dia with papyrus bud
capitals.
 A row of four pylons lie on south side within this precinct that leads outside to the
precinct of the temple Mut with row of sphinxes.
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2. Elaborate on the urban form in Indus Valley civilization with any one city example.
A prodigious civilization lived in the region about 5000 years ago and tied round the river
Indus and its tributaries and thus identified as the Indus valley civilization.
Indus people were superior to all civilization in one sense. While the people of Egypt and
Mesopotamia built great monuments for their kings and gods, the people of Indus valley
built their monuments for the happiness of common men.
The Great Bath of Mohenjo-Daro and some other public buildings provide proof of it.
Moreover, the Indus cities were well-planned like modern cities.
URBAN FORM IN INDUS VALLEY CIVILIZATION
 The excavation undertaken in various places gives clear indication that the people
of Indus valley were primarily urban people.
 The Indus Valley people developed an excellent urban civilization.
 They knew how to build beautiful cities and live a healthy civic life. The ruins of
Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa give proofs of it.
 The ability which the Indus people showed in building their cities is rare. Among
ancient civilizations we have no such examples.
 The Indus cities whether Harappa or Mohenjo-Daro in Pakistan or Kalibangan, Lothal
or Sarkotada in India shows Town planning of a truly amazing nature. In both the
places the cities were built on a uniform plan.
 To the west of each was a ‗citadel‘ mound built on a high podium of mud-brick and
to the east was the town proper the main hub of the residential area.
 The citadel and the town were further surrounded by a massive brick wall.
 In fact careful planning of the town, fine drainage system, well arranged water
supply system prove that all possible steps were carefully adopted to make the town
ideal and comfortable for the citizenry.
 The street lights system, watch and ward arrangement at night to outwit the law
breakers, specific places to throw rubbish and waste materials, public wells in every
street, well in every house etc. revealed the high sense of engineering and town
planning of the people.
MOHENJO-DARO – MOUND OF THE DEAD
 Mohenjo-Daro - Mound of the Dead - is an archeological site in the province of

Sindh, Pakistan. It likely was, at this time, the greatest city in the world.
 Built around 2600 BCE, it was one of the largest settlements of the ancient Indus
Valley Civilization, and one of the world's earliest major urban settlements,
contemporaneous with the civilizations of ancient Egypt, Mesopotamia, and Crete.
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 Roughly 4,500 years ago, as many as 35,000 people lived and worked in the massive
city, which occupies 250 acres along Pakistan‘s Indus River.
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 Mohenjo-Daro became better known because it was the one of the largest
settlement of the Indus civilization.
 The city was divided into two main parts. The higher and upper portion of the city was
protected by a construction which looks like a fort. The ruling class of the towns
perhaps lived in the protected area.
 The other part of the towns was lower in height than the former and common men
lived in this area. The lower area of the towns generally spread over one square mile.
CITY CONSTRUCTION AND CITY LIFE:
 The main streets some as wide as 30 to 34 feet were laid out with great skill dividing
the cities into blocks within which were networks of narrow lanes.
 The streets were quite broad varying from 9 feet to 34 feet in breadth.
 The corners of the street rounded off perhaps to enable the heavy carts to take turn
easily.
 The streets intersected in right angles and so arranged that the prevailing winds could
work as a sort of suction pump and thereby clean the atmosphere automatically.
 No building was allowed to be constructed arbitrarily and encroaching upon a
public highway.
 The owners of the pottery kilns were not allowed to build the furnaces within the town
obviously to save the town from air pollution.
 The drainage system of Mohenjo-Daro is so elaborate and scientific that similar
advanced System was not found in any town of same antiquity.
 House drains connected in the main drains running under the main streets and below
many lanes.
 Drains were made of gypsum, lime and cement, covered with portable stabs.
 In regular intervals, there were inspection traps and man-holes for inspection.
 The small drains were connected with the main drains which helped to pull water
speedily out of the town.
 Every house had an independent soak-pit which collected all sediments and allowed
water to flow to the main drains passing underneath the main streets of the town.
 The people of Indus valley had generally constructed three types of buildings.
 Such as dwelling houses, public halls and public baths.
 Burnt bricks were used and fixed skillfully with the help of mud and mortar for the
construction of houses and other different structures of the towns.
 Buildings were of different sizes but generally were single or double storied.
 From the existence of a stair case it is evident that double storied dwelling houses
were widely prevalent.
 The houses were furnished with paved floors and were provided with doors and
windows.
 The roofs were made of mud, reed and wood.
 Every house possessed a well, bath room, courtyard, kitchen and first class drainage
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 The houses were more or less typified the same plan, a square courtyard round of
which a number of rooms.
PUBLIC BUILDINGS
 Regarding public institutions, Mohenjo-Daro presents highly interesting spectacle.

There were some big buildings in the city, but the purpose for which they were used
cannot be known.
 Those granaries were 50 feet or 15 meters in length and 20 feet or 6 meters in width.
 They were arranged in two parallel lines of 6 houses on each side.
 A big granary-like building is also seen at Mohenjo-Daro.
 If those houses were really granaries for storage of grain, they are proofs of the
economic prosperity of the Indus Valley people.
THE GREAT BATH
 The most interesting construction of Mohenjo-Daro was its Great Bath. It is considered
a remarkable feature of Indus Civilization.
 The house which contains the Great Bath is 180 feet or 55 meters in length and 108
feet or 33 meters in width.
 The Bath itself is 39 feet or 12 meters in length and 23 feet or 7 meters in width.
 It is 8 feet or 2.5 meters in depth.
 There were steps from both sides to enter into the Bath.
 The walls and the floor of the Bath were very strongly constructed for preservation of
water. There was outlet to drain out water in order to clear the bath.
 Fresh water was brought in from a huge well nearby.
 A number of small and big rooms were there around the bath.
 On one side alone, there were 8 small rooms. Those rooms were perhaps used to
change dress after bath.
 Verandahs were there around the Bath.
 Behind the verandahs were the galleries for people to sit and see.
 The Great Bath was the most attractive of all buildings discovered at Mohenjo-Daro.
CHIEF FEATURES:
 The long and broad streets, clean and simple dwelling houses, covered drains, huge
granaries, the Great Bath, public buildings, and walls around the cities with towers
were the chief features of the cities of Mahenjo-daro and Harappa.
 They create surprise that many thousand years before the Christian era, the
inhabitants of the Indus Valley lived such an excellent city life.
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RUINED REMAINS OF MOHENJO-DARO
GREAT BATH OF
MOHENJO-DARO
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3. Explain with a building example how Greek builders made use of optical illusions to
achieve perfection in their buildings.
 In the Parthenon however, architects and artists combined forces to produce the
most refined and perfect example of a Greek temple known to date.
 The Parthenon temple is built on a rectangular plan 71m long and 32m wide.
 It stands on crepidoma, a platform of three steps with tread 70cm and rise 50cm.
 Smaller steps are also provided at the centre of east and west ends.
 The temple is designed in octa-style i.e. eight columns in front and back, which lean
inward.
 There are seventeen columns on either side.
 The intermediate columns are about 1.88m whereas the corner columns are 1.90m in
dia at base.
The corner columns are not only made stouter,
but also set closer to the adjacent columns.
All columns are 10.4m high and or Doric Order.
The fluting of the columns represent the highest

degree of artistry.
The temple is constructed facing east and naos

measures 30m long and 19m wide with three
rows of columns, ten on each side and five on
rear side in two piers.
The statue of Athena in gold and ivory and

measured 13m with its pedestal.
To its west is the Parthenon-the virgin‘s chamber

from which the temple derived its name.
The entablature supported on columns is about

3.4m high and curve up in the middle.
The architrave was ornamented with bronze

shields.
OPTICAL REFINEMENT:
 To loosen up the mathematical strictness and to counteract distortions of human

visual perception, a slight curvature of the whole building, hardly visible with the
naked eye, was introduced.
 The ancient architects had realized that long horizontal lines tend to make the
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optical impression of sagging towards their centre.

 To prevent this effect, the horizontal lines of stylobate and/or entablature were raised
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 This doming of the temple base was reputedly done to avoid an optical ―sagging‖ of
the building‘s middle that would have been perceived along its east and west ends
and especially along its long north and south sides, if its lines were actually designed
and built to be perfectly straight.
 Additional refinements in the Parthenon include the slight inward leaning of all the
columns in the Doric colonnade surrounding the building.
 The corner columns are slightly larger in diameter than the others and lean inward in
two directions; that is, diagonally to the corner. They also are set in such a way that
there exists a smaller space, or intercolumniation, between them and the next
column.
 Meanwhile, the columns themselves are not straight along their vertical axes, but
swell in their middles. This phenomenon, called ―entasis,‖ intended to counteract
another optical effect in which columns with straight sides appear to the eye to be
slenderer in their middles and to have a waist.
 Furthermore, the whole superstructure of the outer facades of the temple, above the
level of the columns (the ―entablature‖), also curves downward at the corners, to
mirror the stylobate and carry upward the temple‘s overall domed curvature.
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 All these have undergone ravages of time and now remained in the ruin state.
 After the fall of Greeks, it was under the Romans but still it received the same status
and it did during the Greek‘s control.
 The temple at its glory stood as a miracle of architecture with its shining marble,
sensous sculptures in glowing colours.
 It has influenced number of writers, artists and architects.
 Poet Emerson paid the highest compliment in the following lines:
“Earth Proudly wears the Parthenon
As the best gem upon her Zone”
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4. Explain in detail with sufficient sketches, the architecture of Roman Colosseum.

 The Colosseum, or the Coliseum, is an elliptical amphitheatre measuring about 190m
x 155m in the centre of the city of Rome, Italy, the largest ever built in the Roman
Empire.
 It is considered one of the greatest works of Roman architecture and Roman
engineering.
 Occupying a site just east of the Roman Forum, its construction started between 70
and 72 AD under the emperor Vespasian and was completed in 80 AD under Titus
with further modifications being made during Domitian‘s reign (81–96).
 Capable of seating 50,000 spectators, the Colosseum was used for gladiatorial
contests and public spectacles such as mock sea battles, animal hunts, executions,
re-enactments of famous battles, and dramas based on Classical mythology.
In ancient times, the

Colosseum looked much
different from now; its
current aspect is the
consequence of 20
centuries of aging,
spoliation, and of the
earthquakes which hit
Rome in regular intervals.
The 851 earthquake was
particularly destructive and
caused the collapse of the
two upper arcades on the
south side, giving the
building that asymmetric
View of the Colosseum arena
aspect it still has today.
 The external façade, about 48m high was divided in four storeys, each one had 80
external arch openings.
 The entrance was from ground floor to various tiers of seats.
 The main arena was oval shaped measuring 87m x 55m enclosed by a wall 4.5m
high.
 Behind it was a podium with imperial throne for Emperor and seats for Generals,
Vestal virgins, senators and other officials of state.
 Beyond the podium, an auditorium was constructed on a rising platform with seat in
four divisions, all of which were reached by stairs from the surrounding corridors
placed at regular intervals between the radiating vaults.
 Romans used the skillful combination of materials according to the purpose to which
they were required.
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 Lava was used for firm foundation, tufa and bricks for walls, pumic stone for huge
vaults in order to reduce their weight whereas marble was used for columns and
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 They also used the orders skillfully, in the four storeys, the robust Doric order in the first
storey 12.4 m high, then slender Ionic in the second storey 11.8m high and ornate
Corinthian Order in the third storey 12 m high while Corinthian plasters in the topmost
storey 11.8m high.
 The columns spaced at 6.8m centre to centre were superimposed produced with its
grand effect awe and admiration.
 The structure was enormously thick and weighty. The radiating concrete vaults were
hidden support and formed the indestructible foundation of the four storeys.
 Thus the entire gigantic edifice based on a unique set of highly developed technique
of great strength was very difficult to destroy.
It was therefore rightly said “When the Colosseum, Rome falls shall fall”
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A general plan of the Colosseum from a recent survey; image courtesy of MIBACT
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5. With an example, explain in detail the concept and planning of Basilica church. Draw
basic plan, section and label them.
ROME BECOMES CHRISTIAN AND CONSTANTINE BUILDS CHURCHES
 By the beginning of the fourth century Christianity was a growing mystery religion in
the cities of the Roman world.
 In 313 he issued the Edict of Milan which granted religious toleration. Although
Christianity would not become the official religion of Rome until the end of the fourth
century, Constantine's imperial sanction of Christianity transformed its status and
nature.
 Rome would become Christian, and Christianity would take on the aura of imperial
Rome.
 The transformation of Christianity is dramatically evident in a comparison between
the architecture of the pre-Constantinian church and that of the Constantinian and
post-Constantinian church.
THE BASILICA
 Christianity demanded initiation to participate in religious practices, Christian

architecture put greater emphasis on the interior.
 The Christian churches needed large interior spaces to house the growing
congregations and to mark the clear separation of the faithful from the unfaithful.
 At the same time, the new Christian churches needed to be visually meaningful.
 The buildings needed to convey the new authority of Christianity.
 These factors were instrumental in the formulation during the Constantinian period of
an architectural form that would become the core of Christian architecture to our
own time: THE CHRISTIAN BASILICA.
 The basilica was not a new architectural form.
 The Romans had been building basilicas in their cities and as part of palace
complexes for centuries.
 Basilicas had diverse functions but essentially they served as formal public meeting
places.
 One of the major functions of the basilicas was as a site for law courts.
 These were housed in an architectural form known as the apse.
 The magistrate who served as the representative of the authority of the Emperor
would sit in a formal throne in the apse and issue his judgments.
 This function gave an aura of political authority to the basilicas.
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1) PROPYLAEUM- the entrance building of a sacred precinct, whether church or imperial

palace.
2) ATRIUM- in early Christian, Byzantine, and medieval architecture, the forecourt of a

church; as a rule enveloped by four colonnaded porticoes.
3) NARTHEX- the entrance hall or porch proceeding the nave of a church.
4) NAVE- the great central space in a church. In longitudinal churches, it extends from
the entrance to the apse (or only to the crossing if the church has one) and is usually
flanked by side aisles.
5) SIDE AISLE- one of the corridors running parallel to the nave of a church and
separated from it by an arcade or colonnade.
6) CROSSING- the area in a church where the transept and the nave intersect.
7) TRANSEPT- in a cruciform church, the whole arm set at right angles to the nave. Note
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that the transept appears infrequently in Early Christian churches. Old St. Peter's is one of
the few example of a basilica with a transept from this period. The transept would not
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8) APSE- a recess, sometimes rectangular but usually semicircular, in the wall at the end
of a Roman basilica or Christian church. The apse in the Roman basilica frequently
contained an image of the Emperor and was where the magistrate dispensed laws. In
the Early Christian basilica, the apses contained the "cathedra" or throne of the bishop
and the altar.
9) NAVE ELEVATION- term which refers to the division of the nave wall into various levels.
In the Early Christian basilica the nave elevation usually is composed of a nave
colonnade or arcade and clerestory.
10) CLERESTORY- a clear story, i.e. a row of windows in the upper part of a wall. In
churches, the clerestory windows above the roofs of the side aisles permit direct
illumination of the nave.
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BASILICA OF ST.PETERS (OLD), ROME
 Present day St. Peter‘s in Vatican City – a rebuilding of a totally different design and
on a substantially enlarged scale.
 Built over the historical site of the Circus of Nero under the rule of Emperor
Constantine I in C.320AD.
 The original church survived without much change until towards the end of 15th
Century and the nave for another century.
 Remains of old foundation are present below the present flooring but details of
atrium are obscure.
 Dimensions: 110.0m long x 64.0m wide with double aisles on both sides.
 The nave was divided from aisles by 22 varied (size and color), huge and antique
marble columns with equally varied capitals supporting the nave walls on a
horizontal entablature, while similar numbers of shorter columns carrying arcades
divided aisle from aisle.
 It was built in the shape of Latin cross, with a gable roof, timbered on inside and at
30m high at center.
 An atrium known as garden of paradise stood at the entrance with 5 doors.
 The nave ended with an arch and the walls had parallel windows each with frescoes.
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6. Give an example of a centralized church plan from Byzantine architecture with sufficient
sketches.
 In the mid sixth century, the architectural style of churches began to diverge sharply.
 The long, narrow basilica, which had been Constantine's favored form of church,
continued to be the dominant form of church in the West, while rounder, domed,
central-plan styles of churches, like the early Christian circular baptisteries, became
more popular in the Byzantine East.
 The central plan style reached its apex in the Hagia Sophia, which is indisputably the
greatest work of Byzantine architecture.
HAGIA SOPHIA, ISTANBUL
 Hagia Sophia is a former Christian basilica (church), later an imperial mosque, and
now a museum in Istanbul, Turkey.
 From the date of its construction in 537 until 1453, it served as an Orthodox cathedral
and seat of the Patriarch of Constantinople, except between 1204 and 1261, when it
was converted to a Roman Catholic cathedral under the Latin Empire.
 The building was a mosque from 29 May 1453 until 1931.
 It was then secularized and opened as a museum on 1 February 1935.
 Famous in particular for its massive dome, it is considered the epitome of Byzantine
architecture and is said to have ―changed the history of architecture‖.
 It remained the world‘s largest cathedral for nearly a thousand years, until Seville
Cathedral was completed in 1520.
 The current building was originally constructed as a church between 532 and 537 on
the orders of the Byzantine Emperor Justinian I and was the third Church of the Holy
Wisdom to occupy the site, the previous two having both been destroyed by rioters.
 It was designed by the Greek geometersIsidore of Miletus and Anthemius of Tralles.
 Hagia Sophia is covered by a central dome 102 feet (31m) across, slightly smaller
than the Pantheon‘s.
 The dome is carried on pendentives.
 The weight of the dome passes through the pendentives to four massive piers at the
corners.
 Between them the dome seems to float upon four great arches.
 These four concave triangular sections of masonry solved the problem of setting the
circular base of a dome on a rectangular base.
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 On both ends are two large hemi-cycles covered with semi-domes, forming an oval
nave 68.6m long and 32.6m wide.
 The hemi-cycles are flanked by exedrae covered with semi-domes which act as
buttresses to the central dome.
 The central dome 33m cross appears like a canopy in the centre and hung by a
golden chain from the sky.
 The dome collapsed due to an earthquake in 558A.D. and had to be rebuilt.
 The interiors are decorated with colored mosaics which shine brilliantly under the light
of the clere-storey formed by 40 windows in the lower part of the dome.
 Judged from its grandeur it is similar to the Parthenon of Greeks and Pantheon of
Romans.
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St. VITALE, RAVENNA
 The Church of San Vitale —though it is not of architectural basilica form — is a church
in Ravenna, Italy, one of the most important examples of early Christian Byzantine Art
and architecture in western Europe.
 The church was begun by Bishop Ecclesia‘s in 527, when Ravenna was under the rule
of the Ostrogoth‘s, and completed by the 27th Bishop of Ravenna, Maximian in 548
during the Byzantine Exarchate of Ravenna.
GROUND PLAN OF THE BUILDING
 The church has an octagonal plan.

 The building combines Roman elements: the dome, shape of doorways, and
stepped towers; with Byzantine elements: polygonal apse, capitals, and narrow
bricks.
 The church is most famous for its wealth of Byzantine mosaics, the largest and best
preserved outside of Constantinople.
 The church is of extreme importance in Byzantine art, as it is the only major church
from the period of the Emperor Justinian I to survive virtually intact to the present day.
 According to legend, the church was erected on the site of the martyrdom of Saint
Vitalis.
MOSAIC ART
 The cross-ribbed vault in the presbytery is richly ornamented with mosaic festoons of
leaves, fruit and flowers, converging on a crown encircling the Lamb of God.
 The crown is supported by four angels, and every surface is covered with a profusion
of flowers, stars, birds and animals, including many peacocks.
 Above the arch, on both sides, two angels hold a disc and beside them a
representation of the cities of Jerusalem and Bethlehem.
 All these mosaics are executed in the Hellenistic-Roman tradition: lively and
imaginative, with rich colors and a certain perspective, and with a vivid depiction of
the landscape, plants and birds.
The apse is flanked by two chapels.
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
 Jesus Christ appears, seated on a blue globe in the summit of the vault, robed in
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7. Elaborate the architecture of Salisbury cathedral with neat sketches.
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EARLY ENGLISH GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE AT A GLANCE:
A new style of architecture emerged in Europe during the middle Ages. Some common
traits of these medieval churches included:
 Also called as Lancet and First pointed style

 Covers the period 1180-1275
 Stained glass windows
 High vaulted ceilings
 Pointed arches
 Tall arches and spires
 Heavy roofs with thick walls
 Quadripartite ribbed vaults
 Lancet windows
 Clustered shafts of tall, narrow piers
SALISBURY CATHEDRAL (C1258), ENGLAND
 The most complete example of Early English is without a doubt at Salisbury Cathedral.
 Salisbury is unique in that it was built within a short time span (c1200-1275), thus its
architectural style, with the exception of the 14th century tower and spire, is fairly
uncluttered by later additions and alterations.
 The Cathedral was built in an unusual way, because it was built from one side to the
other side, instead from the bottom to the top.
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 In this Cathedral there is the oldest clock of the world, which is still working.
 The ground-plan of the Cathedral has the form of a cross.
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8. Elaborate the architectural characteristics of Notre Dame Paris with sketches.

NOTRE DAME, PARIS
 Begun by Bishop Maurice de Sully in 1163 and completed with the addition of the
west towers in 1250.
 Notre Dame de Paris is widely considered one of the finest examples of French
Gothic architecture in France and in Europe, and the naturalism of its sculptures and
stained glass are in contrast with earlier Romanesque architecture.
 The first period of construction from 1163 into the 1240's coincided with the musical
experiments of the Notre Dame School.
PLANNING:
 The interior of Notre Dame measures 130 m x 48 m and 35 m high.
 The Plan comprises of double aisles and ambulatories
 Bent axial line
 Transept did not project beyond the aisle wall
 Transept which divides the interior into a nave and a chevet(altar) of nearly equal
proportion, with a tripartite division of nave and chevet which is reflected in the
articulation of the facade, became the prototype for all the great gothic structures
which came after it.
Transept
Choir
Nave
Aisles
INTERIORS:
 Originally consisted of 4 levels
 An arcade of columnar piers
 A Triforium gallery originally covered with transverse barrel vaults and lit by round
windows
 Decorative oculi opening into tribune roof spaces
 Small clerestory windows
CLERESTORY:
 The clerestory is the space, lit by colored glass, where elevation and vaulting meet.
 The bundle of slender columns which flank each stained glass window supports the
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ribs of the vault.

 These ribs, used in both transverse and diagonal arches, reinforce the stone canopy,
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ALTAR:
 The chevet of the cathedral is composed of a choir, which separates the high altar
from the nave, and a double ambulatory flanked by chapels.
 The choir was isolated by a rood screen, a partition often ornamented with openwork
VAULTING:
 Sexpartite vault covering double bays and 30m high

 Thin wall supporting it articulated by slender face bedded shafts
FLYING BUTTRESSES:
 Notre Dame de Paris was among the first buildings in the world to use the flying
buttress (arched exterior supports).
 The building was not originally designed to include the flying buttresses around the
choir and nave.
 After the construction began and the thinner walls (popularizedin the Gothic style)
grew ever higher, stress fractures began to occur as the walls pushed outward.
 In response, the cathedral's architects built supports around the outside walls, and
later additions continued the pattern.
 Of a single thrust, they permit greater natural light in the chapels by transferring
structural support to the outside walls, thus leaving more interior space and allowing
larger windows.
TOWER:
 The south tower houses the great bell, which weighs 13 tons
FAÇADE:
 The facade is divided into nine equal portions - vertically by the buttresses, which
indicate the interior divisions of the nave, and horizontally by a row of statuary and a
series of arcades.
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 The former marks the transition between the portals and the rose, the latter frames
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 This triple stratification also reflects the divisions of the elevation into grand arcade,
triforium gallery, and clerestory.
PRINCIPAL MODIFICATIONS OF THE 13TH AND 14TH CENTURIES:
 The windows of the nave, which were enlarged, and the numerous chapels added
between the buttresses.
 In the 13th century clerestory windows were expanded downwards swallowing the
decorativeoculi of the 3rd storey
 Tribunes built later with larger windows and ordinary quadripartite vaults
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9. Explain the construction techniques used by Filippo Brunelleschi in the construction of

Dome of Florence cathedral.
The skyline of Florence, Italy is dominated by an impressive building, the Cathedral of Santa
Maria del Fiore. Also known as Florence Cathedral, it is one of the most relevant examples of the
Italian Gothic style and early Renaissance architecture. This structure has become a landmark of
Italian architecture. Proud of their city, the Florentines began to build a glorious cathedral,
reserving enough space in its design for a huge dome. But there was one problem: no one knew
how to erect a dome that would be nearly 150 feet wide and that would begin 180 feet above
the ground, atop the existing walls.
CHARACTERISTICS OF THE FLORENCE CATHEDRAL DOME
 Brunelleschi's plan for the Dome of the Cathedral of Florence was seen as an
architectural impossibility at the time and it forced him to perfect his engineering and
structural skills.
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 However, his fresh ideas allowed him to overcome the many challenges he faced
during the construction.
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INNOVATIVE DESIGN AND USE OF MATERIALS
 Reducing the weight of the dome was a priority, to avoid additional reinforcements
to the existing walls of the cathedral.
 Brunelleschi designed a double shell, consisting of one interior and one exterior dome
with an empty space between them.
 The structure was conceived using pointed arches in an octagonal array, following
the layout of the existing walls.
 The arches were reinforced by horizontal rings, making the structure rigid and
distributing the weight. The outer marble arches are decorative.
 The arches, the rings and the dome were built mostly out of brick.
 The exterior bricks were placed using a herringbone pattern, which the designer
ordered to remain visible. These innovative design significantly reduced the weight of
the dome, making its construction possible.
INVENTION OF NEW TOOLS FOR THE CONSTRUCTION PROCESS
 The city was concerned there wouldn't be enough timber in Tuscany to build the
scaffolding needed for building a dome so high.
 Brunelleschi's design eliminated the need of a bulky centering and scaffolding.
 In order to lift the tons of material needed for the construction, Brunelleschi
created hoisting machines with an intricate system of gears and pulleys, driven by
oxen, which greatly improved the construction process.
DIMENSIONS OF THE DOME
 Brunelleschi's masterpiece is over 1300 (42 meters) feet wide, almost the size of the
Roman Pantheon. This size is so impressive that it continues to be one of the largest
cathedrals in Europe and it's even bigger than the metallic dome of the Capitol in
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Washington, D.C.
 The height from the floor up to the lantern on top of the dome is about 375 feet
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10. Explain the architectural characteristics of the cathedral designed by the English
architect Sir Christopher Wren with neat sketches.
 The St. Paul Cathedral is constructed in BAROQUE STYLE.

 A style of architecture and art originating in ITALY in the early 17th century and
variously prevalent in Europe and the new world for a century and a hall,
characterized by free and sculptural use of the classical orders and ornament by
forms in elevation and plan suggesting movement, and by dramatic effect in which
architecture, painting, sculpture and the decorative arts often worked to combined
effect.
 In 1669, three years after the fire, Christopher Wren was appointed ―surveyor of
Works‖ and was tasked with the construction of a new church to replace the
destroyed Gothic cathedral.
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THE EXTERIOR
 Exterior features of interest include the 180 foot long west front, with its main entrance
and columned portico surrounded by an upper colonnade as well as the statue of
St.Paul above the pediment, and the two flanking statues of St. James and Peter.
 On either side of the portico are two Baroque towers – the West Towers one of which
houses a peal of 12 bells the other the largest bell in England.
THE INTERIOR
 The Baroque interior is just as imposing as the exterior of the church. The design is
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based on a sketch created by Wren.

 The only monument in the church that survived the fire of 1666 is the tomb of John
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STRUCTURAL FEATURES
 Buttress given for extra strength for screen walls.

 Deep recesses in the walls for windows.
 Thick walls are provided internally.
INTERIOR AND EXTERIOR OF THE DOME
 The exterior dome reaches a height of 111 meters and weight about 66,000 tons.
 Eight arches support the dome. On top of the dome is a large lantern.
 560 steps lead visitors along three galleries all the way to the top of the dome
 The large crossing dome is composed of three layers: the first triple dome ever to be
constructed.
 The inner and outer layers are catenary curves, but the structural integrity to support
the heavy stone structure atop the dome is provided by intermediary layer which is
much steeper and more conical in shape.
 The dome is restrained around its base by a wrought iron chain to prevent it
spreading and cracking.
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 The interior dome of the Cathedral is just as impressive as the exterior.

 Warm-colored paint and gold leaf.
 The glass windows bathe the church in light.
 Nave – the long main section you walk along after entering the Cathedral – that
visitors get their first breathtaking glimpse of the interior of the Dome.
WHISPERING GALLERY
 The whispering gallery runs around the inside of the dome 99ft above the cathedral
floor.
 It is reached by 259 steps from the ground level. It gets its name because of the
acoustic effects peculiar to domes; a whisper against its wall at any point is audible
to a listener with an ear held to the wall at any other point around the gallery. A low
murmur is equally audible.
WEST TOWER/FACADE
 The details of the tower at west end and their dark voids are boldly scaled, in order to
read well from the street below and from a distance, for the towers have always
stood out in the urban skyline.
 They are composed of two complimentary elements, a central cylinder rising through
tiers in a series of stacked drums and CORINTHIAN COLUMNS at the corners, with
BUTTRESSES above them, which serve to unify the drum shape with the square block
plinth containing the clock.
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(DECEMBER/JANUARY-2019)……………………………………………………………………………………
11. Summarize the architectural characteristics of Neolithic shelters, highlighting its response
to the culture and context.
A SETTLED LIFE
 When people think of the Neolithic era, they often think of Stonehenge, the iconic
image of this early era.
 Dating to approximately 3000 B.C.E. and set on Salisbury Plain in England, it is a
structure larger and more complex than anything built before it in Europe.
 Stonehenge is an example of the cultural advances brought about by the
Neolithic revolution—the most important development in human history.
 The way we live today, settled in homes, close to other people in towns and cities,
protected by laws, eating food grown on farms, and with leisure time to learn,
explore and invent is all a result of the Neolithic revolution, which occurred
approximately 11,500-5,000 years ago.
 The revolution which led to our way of life was the development of the technology
needed to plant and harvest crops and to domesticate animals.
 Before the Neolithic revolution, it's likely you would have lived with your extended
family as a nomad, never staying anywhere for more than a few months, always
living in temporary shelters, always searching for food and never owning anything
you couldn‘t easily pack in a pocket or a sack.
 The change to the Neolithic way of life was huge and led to many of the pleasures
(lots of food, friends and a comfortable home) that we still enjoy today.
For Example: REFER to question 21 of PART A Page Number 14
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12. Explain in detail, the evolution of Egyptian Tomb architecture with examples and
sketches.
THE EGYPTIAN TOMBS
 Tombs were an eternal home to Egyptians.

 The ancient Egyptians had a strong belief that there was a mysterious kingdom of a
dead on western side where the sun went down.
 Because of this belief, the tombs were always built on the west bank of Nile.
 Egyptian also believed that the dead man survived in his tomb, and if not survived,
due to negligence or delay, a second death would take place and his soul would
get a bad fate with wanderings in dark realms.
 There are three types of tombs: MASTABAS, ROYAL PYRAMIDS AND ROCK CUT CAVES.
 At first priests and high ranking officials came to be buried in tombs that were known
as Mastabas.
 Most of them had many storage chambers all types of goods needed in the next life.
 However, due frequent thefts, an underground tomb known as the stairway mastaba
came to be preferred. Most of the poor were simply buried in pit graves.
THE EVLOUTION OF EGYPIAN TOMBS
 Pit graves in desert cemeteries: sand heap A surrounded by circle of stones B over
grave C
 Pit graves transformed into tombs by brick lining and flat wooden or arched brick
roofs.
 Walls of the pit graves was built by sun-dried bricks.
 Walls of the pit graves was built by stone masonry and even the flat or arched roof of
the pit graves was also built by stones.
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 MASTABAS
 STEPPED PYRAMID
 BENT PYRAMID
 TRUE PYRAMID
MASTABAS
 Rectangular flat topped funerary mound,

with battered side, covering a burial chamber
below ground.
 First type of Egyptian tomb
 Developed from small and inconspicuous to huge
and imposing
 It has stairway with two doors,
o (One for ritual and the other was a false
door for spirits),
o Column Hall,
o Offering Chapel,
o Serdab (Statue of deceased)
o Offering room with stelae (stone with name of deceased inscribed)
o Offering table
o Sarcophagus – (Egyptian coffin)
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STEPPED PYRAMID
 Djoser (c. 2670 BCE) was the first king of the Third Dynasty of Egypt and the first to
build in stone.
 Prior to Djoser's reign, Mastaba tombs were the customary form for graves:
rectangular monuments made of dried clay brick which covered underground
passages where the deceased was entombed.
 For reasons which remain unclear, Djoser's vizier, Imhotep (c. 2667 BCE), conceived of
building a more impressive tomb for his king by stacking mastabas on top of one
another, progressively making them smaller, to form the shape now known as the
Step Pyramid.
Simple but effective construction

method was used. The masonry was laid
not vertically but in courses inclined
toward the middle of the pyramid, thus
significantly increasing its structural
stability. The basic material used was
limestone blocks, whose form resembled
that of large bricks of clay.
When completed, the Step Pyramid rose

204 feet (62 meters) high and was the
tallest structure of its time.
Step pyramid complex at Saqqara
BENT PYRAMID
The Bent Pyramid at Dahshur was built by Sneferu, the

father of Khufu, who built the Great Pyramid at Giza.
It is an important stepping stone in the development

of pyramid construction.
Sneferu built more than one pyramid at Dashur, but

the Bent Pyramid was the first.
Bent pyramid at Dashur
 This was the second attempt by Sneferu to build a smooth-sided true pyramid.
 Sneferu‘s builders were still learning and planned to build the huge structure with a
steep inclination 54 degrees on each side.
 This proved unstable and caused them to abruptly change the plan in the middle of
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construction.
 The Bent Pyramid gets its name from the fact that the angle of its sides shifts suddenly
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PYRAMID of CHEOPS, GIZA
 All of this effort went to creating a grand tomb for the king who, as mediator
between the gods and the people, was thought to be deserving of the finest of
tombs.
 The Great pyramid of Cheops at Giza (2723-2563BC).
 The pyramid is built outside the Memphis‘s city.
 The plan of pyramid is square of about 230.5m x 230.5m (758‘x758‘) and height of
146m (480‘).
 The four faces form roughly equilateral triangles and their sides make an angle of 51
deg 52 sec with the ground.
 The four corners are oriented with the cardinal point of the compass.
The important components of a pyramid are:
(i)King‘s chamber
(ii)Grand Gallery
(iii)Queen‘s chamber
(iv)Subterranean chamber.
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 An ascending corridor is constructed through the descending corridor nearly at

ground level and the latter is sealed off due to certain changes in plan or to foil
possible grave robbers.
 Ascending corridor rises at an angle 30deg, about 18m along for a ht of 21m, above
the ground and connects to the queen‘s chamber, which is also on central axis.
 Ascending corridor is widened in to a large passage which is known as grand-gallery.
 Grand Gallery contains a passage 2.1m wide and 2.3m high covered by a corbelled
vault of seven great courses, rising to a height of 8.53m vertically from the floor.
 At the end of grand gallery is the king‘s chamber.
 The king‘s chamber is 10.36m long, 5.23m wide and 5.8m high is lined with granite
and covered with five tires of stone beam raise to a height of 21m from the floor.
 The total weight of king‘s chamber is 400tons. Each beam has 9 layers of stone slabs.
 Two air shaft about 200mx150m are provided from outer faces of pyramid to king‘s
chamber to serve as ventilation as well a free passage for ―KA‖ (the spirit of the
deceased pharoh).
 Grand gallery corridor descends at an angle of 26 deg well below the ground is
subterranean chamber or underground chamber is provided on the central axis.
 An ascending corridor rises at an angle of 30deg, about 18m long for a height of
21m, above and connects queen‘s chamber.
 The covering of the chamber is most elaborate.
 Five tiers of great stone beams, nine to a tier are carried one above the other, with
avoid space between the layers.
 Above them is a vault of pairs of great stones inclined against each other.
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 The latter device occurs over both queen‘s chamber and pyramid entrance.
 Two shafts lead from the king‘s chamber to the outer face of pyramid.
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13. Enumerate the salient feature of the Acropolis of Athens with neat sketches.
 The term ―acropolis‖ means ―high city‖ in Greek and can refer to one of many
natural strongholds constructed on rocky, elevated ground in Greece, but the
Acropolis of Athens is the best known.
 The Acropolis of Athens is one of the most famous ancient archaeological sites in the
world.
 Located on a limestone hill high above Athens, Greece, the Acropolis has been
inhabited since prehistoric times.
 Over the centuries, the Acropolis was many things: a home to kings, a citadel, a
mythical home of the gods, a religious center and a tourist attraction.
 It has withstood bombardment, massive earthquakes and vandalism yet still stands as
a reminder of the rich history of Greece.
 Around 490 B.C., the Athenians started building a majestic marble temple known as
the Old Parthenon.
 If the Acropolis was impressive during the Mycenaean Civilization, it was nothing short
of spectacular during the Golden Age of Athens (460 B.C. to 430 B.C.) under the rule
of Pericles when Athens was at its cultural peak.
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Site plan of the Acropolis at Athens showing the major archaeological remains
1. Parthenon
2. Old Temple of Athena
3. Erechtheum
4. Statue of Athena Promachos
5. Propylaea
6. Temple of Athena Nike
7. Eleusinion
8. Sanctuary of Artemis Brauronia or Brauroneion
9. Chalkotheke
10. Pandroseion
11. Arrephorion
12. Altar of Athena
13. Sanctuary of Zeus Polieus
14. Sanctuary of Pandion
15. Odeon of Herodes Atticus
16. Stoa of Eumenes
17. Sanctuary of Asclepius or Asclepieion
18. Theatre of Dionysus Eleuthereus
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19. Odeon of Pericles

20. Temenos of Dionysus Eleuthereus
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 THE PARTHENON: An enormous Doric-style temple that remains the star attraction of
the Acropolis. It featured ornate sculptures and housed a spectacular statue of the
goddess Athena.
 THE PROPYLAEA: A monumental entryway to the Acropolis that included a central
building and two wings, one of which was covered with elaborately painted panels.
 THE TEMPLE OF ATHENA NIKE: A small Ionic-style temple located to the right of the
Propylaea built as a shrine to Athena Nike.
 THE ERECHTHEION: A sacred Ionic temple made of marble which honored Athena
and several other gods and heroes. It‘s best known for its porch supported by six
Caryatid maiden statues.
 THE STATUE OF ATHENA PROMACHOS: A gigantic (almost 30 feet tall) bronze statue of
Athena that stood next to the Propylaea.
 THE THEATRES: These are open air structures containing orchestra, auditorium and the
scene-building. The first theatres consisted of a large circle known as orchestra (the
dancing circle).
 HIPPODROME: In Greek ―hippos‖ means ―horse‖ and ―dromos‖ means ―race‖. A
hippodrome was specially designed to hold horse and chariot-racing. It had a wider
track than the stadium, allowing several chariots to race around the central axis
called ―spina‖. During antiquity, the hippodrome was the main place for exhibiting
wealth and political strength.
 PALAESTRA: This was used as wrestling school or sport centre. The palaestra was often
attached to the Gymnasium, where the atheletes conducted events such as
running, jumping wrestling etc. It contained also large open air swimming pool,
dressing room, toilet room resting hall, club room.
 STOA: It was a long colonnaded building as shelter at religious shrines. It provided
space for shops and shelter against the sun or rain. The stoa sometimes had a second
storey.
 AGORA: The agora was a large open square area, surrounded by a colonnade, at
the heart of the city. In early Greek times it was used as place of public assembly.
Later it functioned as a marketplace and for commercial intercourse. It was also used
for festivals, exhibitions and as an open air meeting place. Its boundaries were
defined by the public buildings that surrounded It such as civic halls, council halls and
stoas.
 PRYTANEION: It was a senate house for chief dignitaries of the city. It was also used as
a place to entertain distinguished guests. It contained the feast or dinner room and
also a hearth where the sacred fire associated with Hestia, goddess of hearth was
burnt continuously. Such Prytaneions were built at Olympia, Athens.
 ASSEMBLY HALLS: These were used by all the citizens in general and were known by
different names
Thersilion at Megalopolis
Telesterion at Eleusis
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 BOULEUTERION: This was a council hall and used as a meeting place by the elected
councillors.
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 ODEION: This was similar to theatre where the musicians carried their performance to
get appreciation and prizes from the public.
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14. Interpret the significance of Roman city planning with necessary sketches.
 Cities were the centre of the Roman life

o Need for Infrastructure
 Water and Sewer system
 Transport and Defence
 Public spaces and Markets
 Power and Control
 Roman types of settlements
o Roman Cities
o Military camps – Castrum/castra
o Colonia – Roman outpost established in conquered territory
 Cities help to form the cultural and social structure of Roman civilization: commerce
was centralized, conquered lands were communicated and population was usually
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under control.
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ROMAN CITIES: PLANNING PRINCIPLES

 Romans adopted the technology and planning skills of the Greeks. They were more
advanced than the Greeks in terms of technological skills which they use to develop
better infrastructural facilities and construction techniques.
 It had two main axial roads called: Cardus : East-West; Decumanus: North-South
 Secondary streets complete the gridiron layout and form the building blocks known
as insulae
 Perimeter of the city was usually square/rectangular with bastions
Cross streets occasionally stepped and bridged around the city due to
topographical conditions.
 Generally rectangular walled city entered by several gates, showing complete town
organization.
 From the religious significance of the Temples by the Greeks there was a change to
the civic influence of Law Courts ―Basilica‖ which became more important than the
public buildings.
 The most important part of the city was the forum, where political, economic,
administrative, social and religious activity were centered.
 ―Forum Area‖ usually located centre of the town formed by the intersection of the
Decamanus and Cardo similar to Greek ―Agoras‖.
 In big cities there were theatres, circuses, stadiums, Odeon‘s etc.
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 These urban rules were developed during nearly 10 centuries in order to create the
different cities.
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 In these cities, kinds of housing could be divided into house, domus, insula and villa.
There also were casae or housings for slaves and low classes.
 Because of their weak systems of building they have all disappeared in our days.
Indeed, there were also great communitary buildings as basilicae, thermae and the
very important social and cultural systems called forums.
 Notable Example: TIMGAD
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ROMANUM FORUM
 A forum was a public square in a roman cities reserved primarily for the vending of
goods; i.e., a marketplace, along with the buildings used for shops and the stoas
used for open stalls.
 Many fora were constructed at remote locations along a road by the magistrate
responsible for the road, in which case the forum was the only settlement at the site
and had its own name, such as Forum Popili or Forum Livi.
 At the cross of both streets are the city's forum and the market. These components
were necessary for the design of public buildings: amphitheater -two components
long and one-and-a-half wide-, theatre -one component-, market -one component-,
the whole forum -two components-, and so on.
 In addition to its standard function as a marketplace, a forum was a gathering place
of great social significance, and often the scene of diverse activities, including
political discussions and debates, rendezvous, meetings, etc.
 In new Roman towns the forum was usually located at, or just off, the intersection of
the main north-south and east-west streets (the Cardo and Decumanus).
 All fora would have a Temple of Jupiter at the north end, and would also contain
other temples, as well as the Basilica; a public weights and measures table, so
customers at the market could ensure they were not being sold short measures; and
would often have the baths nearby.
 At election times, candidates would use the steps of the temples in the forum to
make their election speeches, and would expect their clients to come to support
them.
The Forum Romanum, despite being a relatively small
space, was central to the function and identity of the city
of Rome (and the wider Roman Empire).
The Forum Romanum played a key role in creating a

communal focal point, one toward which various
members of a diverse socio-economic community could
gravitate.
In that centralized space community rituals that served a

larger purpose of group unity could be performed and
observed and elites could reinforce social hierarchy
through the display of monumental art and architecture.
These devices that could create and continually reinforce

not only a sense of community belonging but also the
existing social hierarchy were of vital importance in
archaic states.
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15. Explain the salient features of Early Christian basilica with relevant examples.
16. Illustrate the characteristics of Carolingian Renaissance architecture, with case
examples.
IMPERIAL BUILDING PROJECTS: A LONG TRADITION
 Emperors and building projects go hand in hand.

 Throughout history, emperors have undertaken monumental building projects to tie
their empires together and proclaim their glory to the world.
 The Roman Emperor Augustus erected dozens of new temples and public buildings in
Rome.
 The Roman Emperor Hadrian built baths, meeting halls and theaters throughout the
Roman Empire.
 The Roman Emperor Constantine built the entire city of Byzantium from scratch
and financed the construction of Christian basilicas across his empire.
 The Byzantine Emperor Justinian continued Constantine's building program, creating
some of the most impressive monuments of Byzantine architecture.
 To that list, we can add Charlemagne.
 Though Charlemagne's accomplishments were modest by comparison to some of
these great emperors, they are quite impressive given the lack of cultural production
during the dark ages of Western Europe.
 Charlemagne wanted his empire to be as grand as Rome before him.
 So like the emperors before him, he sponsored the arts and financed building
projects. Charlemagne's building projects mostly concerned cathedrals and
monasteries.
 Many of these buildings also served as schools, as Charlemagne wanted to establish
a larger base of literate subjects to help him run his empire.
CAROLINGIAN CHURCHES
 Carolingian churches show some distinct differences from early Christian churches.
 The delicate columns that graced the naves of early Christian basilicas gave way to
heavier, bulkier piers, providing greater structural strength and allowing for ever-
grander churches.
 The transept, or bema, a section that crossed the eastern end of a church to form a
cross, went from an occasional addition to an established form in Western church
building.
 The addition of a choir, or square area between the transept and the apse, was
another invention of the Carolingian renaissance.
 Yet the most distinguishing feature of Carolingian architecture is the birth of the west
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work, a facade on the western entrance to a church.

His capitol at Aachen shows this clearly.
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 Just look at the Palace Chapel. Here we see that the early Christian narthex has
been transformed into a single tower-like entrance, called a west work.
 Over time, the single tower would become two towers flanking the entrance. We can
already see this transition taking place in the Church of San Riquier, which sadly did
not survive to modern times.
 The closest Carolingian architecture got to this two-towered west work was in the
Abbey Church of Corvey. These initial west works would inspire the two-tower
facades of later medieval churches.
Example of west work at the Aachen Palace, Chapel Carolingian piers provided better
structural strength in churches
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Floor plan of Aachen Cathedral with Charlemagne's palace chapel highlighted in the center

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17. Interpret how the structural system of Gothic churches acts as an architectural symbolism
with a relevant example.
 Gothic architecture is a style that flourished in Europe during

the High and Late Middle Ages.
 It evolved from Romanesque architecture and was succeeded by Renaissance
architecture. Originating in 12th-century France, it was widely used, especially for
cathedrals and churches, until the 16th century.
 Its most prominent features included the use of the Pointed Arches, rib vault and
the flying buttress, which allowed the weight of the roof to be counterbalanced by
buttresses outside the building, giving greater height and more space for windows.
 Some key architectural features, such as the pointed arch and a decorative kind
of rib vault, existed earlier outside Europe, and may have been derived from Islamic
architecture.
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 These features had both existed in Romanesque architecture, but they were used
more extensively and in more innovative ways to make Gothic cathedrals higher,
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CHARACTERISTICS OF GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE
 Focus on verticality
 Pointed Arches
 Rib vaults
 Flying Buttresses
 Large stained glass windows
 Ornaments and Pinnacles
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POINTED ARCH
The Gothic style brought innovative new construction techniques

that allowed churches and other buildings to reach great heights.
Earlier Romanesque churches had pointed arches, but builders

didn‘t capitalize on the shape.
During the Gothic era, builders discovered that pointed arches

would give structures amazing strength and stability.
LANCET ARCH
 Simplest shape
 Usually group
 Narrow and steep
 Two-centered arches whose radii are larger
Than arch‘s span.
EQUILATERAL ARCH FLAMBOYANT ARCH
 Wide Opening  Drafter from four points

 Proportion useful  Rich and lively effect
Doorways  Window tracery
Decorative arcades  Surface Decoration
Large Windows
 Filling with tracery
Simple equilateral
Circular
Semi-circular forms
DEPRESSED ARCH
 Wider than its

height
 Effect of
flattened under
pressure.
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RIBBED VAULT
 Earlier Romanesque churches relied on barrel vaulting.

 While barrel vaulting carried weight on continuous sold walls, ribbed vaulting used
columns to support the weight.
 The ribs also delineated the vaults and gave a sense of unity to the structure.
 Arches, usually three pairs per rectangular bay, running diagonally
 Weight of vaults
 Tend to force the walls outward ‗Thrust‘
 Higher building is more thrust from the arches
 Support walls with buttresses
 Sloping arch, reaching up from the buttresses
 Pressing against the outside of a higher wall
 Curvature of vaults and arches, Lightening of mass, Afforded greater ease of vertical
construction.
FLYING BUTTRESSES
 Flying buttresses are an architectural feature mainly seen used in medieval cathedral
designs.
 First developed in Romanesque architecture and later perfected in Gothic
architecture, flying buttresses are built projecting from the walls of a structure down
to the foundation in an half arched shape.
 The purpose of such projections is to support the weight and horizontal thrust of the
high arches and domes spanning the interior space.
 The flying buttress serves as a bridge, carrying the lateral thrust produced at the base
of the arches and domes due to their weight, across to the outer buttress, which is
massive enough to absorb the pressure.
 The stability of the entire building depends upon the balance of pressures and with
the existence of flying buttresses, cathedrals were able to be built taller and more
glorious than ever before.
 The flying buttress originally helped bring the idea of open space and light to the
cathedrals through stability and structure, by supporting the clerestory and the
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For example: REFER to question 8 of Page Number 48

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18. Evaluate the original and transitional features of Hagia Sophia.

19. Characterize the features of Early Renaissance architecture.
FEATURES OF RENAISSANCE BUILDINGS
Renaissance architecture had some distinct features that were fairly common to major
construction:
 SQUARE - Many buildings were built as square or rectangle symmetrical shapes.

 FRONT - The front or "façade" of the buildings were generally symmetrical around the
vertical axis.
 COLUMNS - They used Roman type columns.
 ARCHES AND DOMES - Arches and domes were popular. This was again taken from
Roman and Greek architecture.
 CEILINGS - The ceilings of buildings were generally flat. Previously in the middle Ages
ceilings were often left open.
REFER to question 9 of Page Number 51 & question 10 of Page Number 53

20. Evaluate the contributions of Michelangelo to art and architecture
21. Discuss the evolution of church form with neat sketches
 Early Christian architecture may be taken to have lasted from about 300 to 600 AD
 The early Christian as Roman craftsmen continued old Roman traditions.
 Utilized as far as possible the materials from Roman temples which had become
useless for their original purpose for the new buildings.
 Their churches modeled on Roman Basilicas used old columns which by various
devices bought to a uniform height.
 Basilican churches had either closely spaced columns carrying the entablature, or
more widely spaced columns carrying semicircular arches.
CHARACTERISTICS FEATURES OF EARLY CHRISTIAN ARCHITECTURE

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 Simplicity in design and treatment

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 Coarseness in execution

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 Early Christian Architecture is Transitional Architecture and have no own structure.

 The church buildings as we know it grew out of a number of features of the Ancient
Roman Period:
o The house church
o The Atrium
o The Basilica
o The Bema
o The Mausoleum centrally – planned building
o The cruciform: Latin or Greek cross
HOUSE CHURCH
 The first church is where the disciples of jesus met together in the ―upper room‖ of a
house.
 For the first three centuries of the church, known as early Christianity, Christians
typically met in homes as did not allow the erection of public church buildings.
ATRIUM
 When early Christian communities began to build Churches they drew on one
particular feature of the houses that preceded them, the atrium, or courtyard with
the colonnade surrounding it.
 Most of these atriums have disappeared.
BASILICA
 Is a rectangular early Christian or medieval church, usually having a nave with
clerestories, two or four aisles, one or more vaulted apses and a timber roof.
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MAUSOLEUM
 Mausoleum is a house of the dead, although it is often as much a symbol as a
church. This term has been employed for large, monumental and stately tombs
usually erected for distinguished or prominent individuals.
LATIN AND GREEK CROSS

 Greek cross; Latin cross; Rotunda these terms usually refer to the shape of a church.
 A Greek cross church has four arms having the same length.
 A Latin cross church has the arm of the entrance longer than the other arms.
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22. Explain the any four types of structural systems that were used in cathedrals with relevant
examples.
 One of the most important features of a Gothic cathedral is its often innovative and
daring structure, visible within and without the building fabric.
 Gothic cathedrals are built with durable, sustainable, strong, and locally sourced
materials.
Gravity load path and lateral load path diagrams of the section of Paris‘s
Notre Dame Cathedral.
GRAVITY LOAD PATH, LATERAL LOAD PATH, AND COLLAPSE MECHANISMS
 Gravity loads are described as the vertical applied loads acting on a building.
 Gravity loads (such as the weight of a structure) act in a downward direction due to
gravitational forces and must be transmitted to the base or ground supporting the
structure.
 Lateral loads are the forces acting on a structure in a horizontal direction or parallel
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to the plane of the horizon.

In most cases, lateral loads are expected to have a complete path of load to
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
transmit the applied loads to the base or ground supporting the structure.

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 Emphasis is put on the importance of construction sequence to any project to ensure

the project is well laid out and not prone to structural failure that could arise due to
excessive loads or uncoordinated construction procedures.
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For Example: REFER to question 8 of Page Number 48

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23. I) Explain the evolution of Egyptian tomb architecture.

II) Give a detailed account of the pyramid complex at Giza with a neat section
24. Discuss the unique features of Indus Valley Civilization.
25. I) Give an account of the architectural characteristic features of a typical Greek
theatre mentioning its parts
II) Discuss the genius of Greeks in Parthenon’s design
26. Explain why Romans are considered to be great engineers, architects and artisans?
 Roman architecture was unlike anything that had come before.
 The Persians, Egyptians, Greeks and Etruscans all had monumental architecture.
 The grandeur of their buildings, though, was largely external.
 Buildings were designed to be impressive when viewed from outside because their
architects all had to rely on building in a post-and-lintel system, which means that
they used two upright posts, like columns, with a horizontal block, known as a lintel,
laid flat across the top.
 Since lintels are heavy, the interior spaces of buildings could only be limited in size.
Much of the interior space had to be devoted to supporting heavy loads.
 Roman architecture differed fundamentally from this tradition because of the
discovery, experimentation and exploitation of concrete, arches and vaulting (a
good example of this is the Pantheon, c. 125 C.E.).
 Thanks to these innovations, from the first century C.E. Romans were able to create
interior spaces that had previously been unheard of.
 Romans became increasingly concerned with shaping interior space rather than
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filling it with structural supports.

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 As a result, the insides of Roman buildings were as impressive as their exteriors.

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MATERIALS, METHODS AND INNOVATIONS
 Long before concrete made its appearance on the building scene in Rome, the
Romans utilized a volcanic stone native to Italy called tufa to construct their
buildings.
 Although tufa never went out of use, travertine began to be utilized in the late 2nd
century B.C.E. because it was more durable.
 Also, its off-white color made it an acceptable substitute for marble.
 Augustus had famously claimed in his funerary inscription, known as the Res Gestae,
that he ―found Rome a city of brick and left it a city of marble‖ referring to his
ambitious building campaigns.
 Roman concrete (opus caementicium), was developed early in the 2nd c. BCE. The
use of mortar as a bonding agent in ashlar masonry wasn‘t new in the ancient world;
mortar was a combination of sand, lime and water in proper proportions.
 The major contribution the Romans made to the mortar recipe was the introduction
of volcanic Italian sand (also known as ―pozzolana‖).
 The Roman builders who used pozzolana rather than ordinary sand noticed that their
mortar was incredibly strong and durable.
 It also had the ability to set underwater.
 Brick and tile were commonly plastered over the concrete since it was not
considered very pretty on its own, but concrete‘s structural possibilities were far more
important.
 The invention of opus caementicium initiated the Roman architectural revolution,
allowing for builders to be much more creative with their designs.
 Since concrete takes the shape of the mold or frame it is poured into, buildings
began to take on ever more fluid and creative shapes.
BUILDING TYPES
 Roman cities were typically focused on the forum (a large open plaza, surrounded by
important buildings), which was the civic, religious and economic heart of the city.
 It was in the city‘s forum that major temples (such as a Capitoline temple, dedicated
to Jupiter, Juno and Minerva) were located, as well as other important shrines.
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 Also useful in the forum plan were the basilica (a law court), and other official
meeting places for the town council, such as a curia building.
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 Quite often the city‘s meat, fish and vegetable markets sprang up around the
bustling forum.
 Surrounding the forum, lining the city‘s streets, framing gateways, and marking
crossings stood the connective architecture of the city: the porticoes, colonnades,
arches and fountains that beautified a Roman city and welcomed weary travelers to
town.
 Pompeii, Italy is an excellent example of a city with a well preserved forum.
 The wealthy could own a house (domus) in the city as well as a country farmhouse
(villa), while the less fortunate lived in multi-story apartment buildings called insulae.
 The House of Diana in Ostia, Rome‘s port city, from the late 2nd c. C.E. is a great
example of an insula.
 Even in death, the Romans found the need to construct grand buildings to
commemorate and house their remains, like Eurysaces the Baker, whose elaborate
tomb still stands near the Porta Maggiore in Rome.
 The Romans built aqueducts throughout their domain and introduced water into the
cities they built and occupied, increasing sanitary conditions.
 A ready supply of water also allowed bath houses to become standard features of
Roman cities, from Timgad, Algeria to Bath, England.
 A healthy Roman lifestyle also included trips to the gymnasium.
 Quite often, in the Imperial period, grand gymnasium-bath complexes were built and
funded by the state, such as the Baths of Caracalla which included running tracks,
gardens and libraries.
 Aqueducts supplied Rome with clean water brought from sources far from the city. In
this view, we see an aqueduct carried on piers passing through a built-up
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neighborhood.
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 Entertainment varied greatly to suit all tastes in Rome, necessitating the erection of
many types of structures.
 There were Greek style theaters for plays as well as smaller, more intimate odeon
buildings, like the one in Pompeii, which were specifically designed for musical
performances.
 The Romans also built amphitheaters—elliptical, enclosed spaces such as the
Colloseum—which were used for gladiatorial combats or battles between men and
animals. The Romans also built a circus in many of their cities.
 The circuses, such as the one in Lepcis Magna, Libya, were venues for residents to
watch chariot racing.
 The Romans continued to perfect their bridge building and road laying skills as well,
allowing them to cross rivers and gullies and traverse great distances in order to
expand their empire and better supervise it.
 Colosseum, the Markets of Trajan, the Baths of Caracalla and the Basilica of
Maxentius are just a few of the most impressive structures to come out of the
architectural revolution in Rome.
 Roman architecture was not entirely comprised of concrete, however, some

buildings, which were made from marble, hearkened back to the sober, Classical
beauty of Greek architecture, like the Forum of Trajan.
 Concrete structures and marble buildings stood side by side in Rome, demonstrating
that the Romans appreciated the architectural history of the Mediterranean just as
much as they did their own innovation.
 Ultimately, Roman architecture is overwhelmingly a success story of experimentation
and the desire to achieve something new.
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27. With reference to a gothic cathedral, explain the planning and elements used in the
cathedral.
28. With a neat section, explain the architectural and structural features of Hagia Sophia,
Constantinople.
29. Explain with any two examples, how renaissance brought about an ocean change in arts
and architecture
30. Explain the characteristic features of St. Paul’s cathedral, London with neat plan and
section
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SCHOOL OF ARCHITECTURE

AR 8101 – HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE AND CULTURE –I

PART - A(APRIL/MAY 2019)…………………………………………………………………………………………

1. Write a short note on Terra Amata hut with a sketch.

REGULATIONS 2017 I QUESTION BANK WITH ANSWERS

2. What is the difference between stepped pyramid and bent pyramid?

STEPPED PYRAMID BENT PYRAMID

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3. Define Agora in Greek Architecture.

4. List the five orders of classical architecture.

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5. What are catacombs?

REGULATIONS 2017 I QUESTION BANK WITH ANSWERS

7. What is the purpose of flying buttress in Gothic Churches?

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8. What are Rose windows?

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9. What do you mean by Renaissance?

10. Give any four examples of Michelangelo’s work.

11. List any two advantages of Nile in Egypt.

12. What is an Entablature?

detailing above the vertical columns.

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 The entablature generally rises in horizontal layers up to the roof, the

13. What are aqueducts?

The Romans constructed aqueducts to bring a

Some aqueducts also served water for mining,

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14. Write any two characteristics of Early Christian Architecture

Characteristic Features of Early Christian Architecture:

15. Describe the western façade of Romanesque churches.

and cathedrals often have two.

of them are still standing.

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16. What is the use of pinnacle in gothic architecture?

Pinnacles are typically made of stone and predominantly

A pinnacle is used to crowning a buttress, turret, parapet,

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17. What do you mean by Baptistery?

18. What are the difference between a squinch and pendentive?

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 In architecture, a pendentive is a constructive device permitting the placing of a

19. Write a note on Mannerist architecture.

20. Mention any two works of Christopher Wren.

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21. Sketch and label any two settlements of Neolithic period.

List of Neolithic settlements

o Tell Qaramel in Syria, c. 9000 BC.

 CatalHuyuk is the Neolithic settlement in present day Turkey.

 Houses were packed in one continuous block punctuated by courtyards.

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 Houses were of one story mud construction.

Jericho in West bank

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22. What were the afterlife beliefs of Egyptians?

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24. What is Agora

REFER to question 3 of Page Number 2

25. What are the features of a basilica church?

 Basilica church is the commonest form of the early church

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26. Write the influence of Christianity in Rome.