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CHEMI

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CHAPTER 2

Structure Of Atoms

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Particulate Nature of Matter
1. Matter is anything that occupies space and has mass.
2. The particle theory of matter states that matter is made up of a large number of tiny and
discrete particles.
Particle Theory of Matter: Matter is made up of a large number of tiny and discrete particles.

Types of Particles

1. Particles can exist as atoms, molecules or ions.


2. Atom is the smallest, indivisible particle of an element.
3. Molecules are particles that made up of two or more atoms.
4. Ions are particles that carry charge.
a. Positive ion – Cation
b. Negative ion – Anion

Diffusion and Brownian Motion


Proof of Particle Theory of Matter – Diffusion

In SPM, you need to know

1. diffusion is one of the proofs of the particle theory of matter.


2. the definition of diffusion.
3. diffusion in solid, liquid and gas
4. factors that affect the rate of diffusion and the related experiments.

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What is Diffusion?

1. Diffusion is a process of spreading a substance from a region of high concentration to a region of


low concentration.
2. It occurs when the particles of the substance move through the space between the particles of
another substance.
3. Figure below shows how the bromine particles diffuse into the air.

4. Diffusion occurs in solid, liquid and gas.


5. The rate of diffusion is highest in gas and lowest in solid.
6. Diffusion is proof of the particle theory of matter.
MUST KNOW!

 The rate of diffusion is highest in gas and lowest in solid.


 Diffusion is the proof of the particle theory of matter.

Symbol of Element
Symbol of Elements

A symbol of element is the chemical symbol written in short form to represent a particular element. Some
elements are represented by the first letter of its name.
Examples:

Element Symbol

Fluorine F

Hydrogen H

Iodine I

Nitrogen N

Oxygen O

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Phosphorus P

Sulphur S

Carbon C

Vanadium V

If there are two or more elements that have mane start with the same alphabet letter, a second letter is
added to differentiate between these elements. The second letter used is always lowercase.
Examples:

Elements Symbol

Bromine Br

Calcium Ca

Chlorine Cl

Chromium Cr

Magnesium Mg

Manganese Mn

Neon Ne

Nickel Ni

Silicon Si

Helium He

Argon Ar

Aluminium Al

Zinc Zn

Platinum Pt

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Some elements are represented by their Latin names.
Example:

Elements Latin Name Symbol

Copper Cuprum Cu

Iron Ferrum Fe

Lead Plumbum Pb

Mercury Hydrargyrum Hg

Potassium Kalium K

Silver Argentum Ag

Sodium Natrium Na

Tin Stannum Sn

(Notes: You MUST Memorise the symbol for all these 31 elements)

Element and Compound


Element and Compoundc
Matter can be divided into elements and compounds.

Elements

1. An element is a substance that consists of only one type of atom.


2. Element can be either atoms or molecules.
Example:

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(Both the iron and oxygen are element because they consist of only one type of atoms)

Compounds

1. A compound is a substance composed of molecules made up of atoms of two or more elements.


2. A compound is made up of either molecules or ions.
Example:

(Both the sodium chloride and carbon dioxide are compound because they consist of more than one type
of atoms)

3 States of Matter
Matter exists in 3 states of matter, namely, solid state, liquid state and gaseous state.

Characteristics of Matter in Solid, Liquid and Gaseous State

Arrangement of Particles

Solid

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Particles are arranged in an orderly manner and close to one another.

Liquid

Particles are not arranged in order. The space between particles is moderately large.

Gas

The particles are very far apart and randomly arranged.

Movement of Particles

Solid Particles vibrate at fixed positions.

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Liquid Particles move randomly and slowly and sometimes will collide against each other.

Gas The particles move randomly in all directions at great speed.

The force of Attraction Between Particles

Solid very strong

Liquid Strong but weaker than in the solid state.

Gas very weak

Ability to be compressed

Solid Very difficult to be compressed because the particles are packed closely.

Liquid Not easily compressed because the particles are packed quite closely.

Gas Easily compressed because the particles are very far apart.

Heat Energy content

Solid Lowest Energy Content

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Liquid Moderate energy content.

Highest
Gas
energy content

Volume and Shape

Volume Shape

Solid Fixed Fixed

Liquid Fixed Follows the container

Gas Follows the container Fills the whole container

Modern Atomic Model


History of Development of the Model of Atom
Table below shows the scientists that contribute to the development of the Model of Atom.

John Dalton  Five main points of Dalton’s Atomic Theory


 All matter is composed of extremely small particles called
atoms.
 All atoms of a given element are identical, having the same
size, mass, and chemical properties. Atoms of a specific
element are different from those of any other element.
 Atoms cannot be created, divided into smaller particles, or
destroyed.
 Different atoms combine in simple whole-number ratios to
form compounds.
 In a chemical reaction, atoms are separated, combined, or
rearranged.
Weakness

 Atoms consist of even smaller particles called electrons,


protons and neutrons.
 Atoms can be created and destroyed in the nuclear

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reactions such as nuclear fusion and nuclear fission..
 Atoms of the same element can have different physical
properties, for example, isotopes of hydrogen.

The electrons were positioned uniformly throughout the atom.

J.J. Thomson

Ernest Rutherford  the atom is mostly empty space,


 most of the atom’s mass concentrated in a tiny center, the
nucleus and electrons being held in orbit around it by
electrostatic attraction.
 The nucleus was around 10-15 meters in diameter, in the
centre of a 10-10 metre diameter atom.
 Those alpha particles that had come into close proximity
with the nucleus had been strongly deflected whereas the
majority had passed at a relatively great distance to it.

 Electrons in an atom of an element are not randomly


distributed around the atomic nucleus.
 Electrons move around the nucleus in fixed orbits.
 Each orbit forms a circle and has a fixed distance from the
nucleus.

Neils Bohr

James  Chadwick discovered the presence of neutrons in the


nucleus.
 He concluded that the nucleus contains another tiny
particle known as a neutron that has no charge.
 The neutron mass is almost similar to the proton mass.
 All nuclei contain protons and neutrons, except for the
hydrogen which contains protons. only

Chadwick

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Recommended Videos

Models of the Atom Timeline

Models of the Atom: Thompson, Rutherford and Bohr Models

Thomson’s Plum Pudding Model of the Atom

Modern Atomic Model

According to the modern atomic model,

1. The central nucleus consists of protons and neutrons. It containing almost all the mass of the atom.
2. the nucleus of an atom is very small compared to the size of the atom
3. the electrons are orbiting outside the nucleus in the electron shells
4. the electrons are moving in electron shells at a very high speed and we cannot determine the
position of the electrons at a particular time

The Subatomic Particles of an Atom


1. Atoms are made up of tiny particles called subatomic particles.
2. An atom contains three types of subatomic particles:
1. proton,
2. neutron and
3. electron,
3. The proton and neutron form the nucleus at the centre of an atom. They are also called the nucleon
of an atom.
4. The electron moves around the nucleus at a very high speed.
5. The nucleus is positively charged because of the presence of protons, which are positively charged.
The neutrons are neutral.
6. The symbols, charge and relative masses of proton, neutron and electron are as below.

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Particle Symbol Relative charge Relative mass

Proton p +1 1

Neutron n 0 1

Electron e -1 1/1840

The Charge of Particles


1. A neutral atom contains the same number of electrons as the protons.
2. The positive and negative charges of the protons and electrons respectively neutralise each other,
for example, (+4) + (-4) = 0
3. If the number of protons is greater than the number of electron, the particle is positively charge.
4. If the number of protons is greater than the number of electron, the particle is positively charge.
Example:

Number of proton Number of electron Charge

3 3 0

5 2 +3

9 10 -1

11 10 +3

16 18 -2

17 18 -1

20 18 +3

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Proton Number and Nucleon Number
1. Proton number = the number of protons
2. Nucleon number = Number of protons + Number of neutrons
Proton Number

1. The proton number (Z) represent the number of protons found in the nucleus of an atom.
2. Proton number = the number of protons
3. The proton number is also known as the atomic number.
4. In an atom of neutral charge, the number of electrons also equals the atomic number.
5. Hence, the proton number of an atom can also represent the number of electrons.
Nucleon Number

1. The nucleon number (A), also called atomic mass number or mass number, is the number of protons
plus the number of neutrons in an atomic nucleus. (Nucleon number = Number of protons + Number
of neutrons)
2. The nucleon number of an atom is about the same as the mass of the atom because the mass of an
electron is very small and can be ignored.

Atom Proton Number Nucleon Amount of Amount of Amount of


Number Proton electron Neutron

Helium 2 4 2 2 2

Oxygen 8 16 8 8 8

Sodium 11 23 11 11 12

Chlorine 17 35 17 17 18

[Notes: In ion, the amount of protons IS NOT equal to the amount of electrons]

Isotopes
Isotopes are atoms of certain elements which have the same number of protons but different number of
neutrons in the nucleus of the atoms.

It can also be defined as atoms of certain elements with the same proton numbers but with different
nucleon numbers.

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Properties of Isotope

Number of proton equal

Number of neutron difference

Chemical properties same

Physical properties difference

Example:

Element Name Symbol Proton Nucleon Number of Number of


Number Number proton neutron

1
Hydrogen Hydrogen 1H 1 1 1 0

2
Deuterium 1H 1 12 1 1

3
Tritium 1H 1 23 1 2

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Oxygen Oxygen-16 8O 8 16 8 8

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Oxygen-17 8O 8 17 8 9

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Oxygen-18 8O 8 18 8 10

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Carbon Carbon-12 6C 6 12 6 6

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Carbon-13 6C 6 13 6 7

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Carbon-14 6C 6 14 6 8

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Chlorine Chlorine- 17Cl 17 35 17 18
35

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Chlorine- 17Cl 17 37 17 20
37

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Sodium Sodium- 11Na 11 23 11 12
23

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Sodium- 11Na 11 24 11 13
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Electron Arrangement in Atom


1. We have learnt that electrons occupy orbits with definite energy level of an atom, as suggested by
Neils Bohr.
2. These orbits with definite energy level are known as the shell.
3. Every single shell is capable of holding up to certain amount of electrons.
4. The first shell can hold up to two electrons. This is called a duplet.
5. The second shell can hold up to eight electrons. This is called an octet.
1.6. The third shell can hold up to eighteen electrons.

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7. However, with the third shell, when eight electrons are present, extra stability is gained. The
additional electrons go into the fourth shell before the third shell is completely filled.
8. The way in which the electrons are distributed in the shells of an atom is called the electron
arrangement of the atom
2.9. The examples below show the electron arrangement of some elements:
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Atom Notes Electrons Arrangement

1. Lithium has 3 protons and 3 neutrons and 2.1


three electrons as well.
2. All the three electrons are arrange as follows:
 Two electrons are filled in the first shell.
 One electron is filled in the second shell.
 The electron arrangement of carbon is 2.1

1. Chlorine has 17 protons and 18 neutrons and 2.8.7


17 electrons.
2. All the three electrons are arrange as follows:
 Two electrons are filled in the first shell.
 Eight electrons are filled in the second shell.
 Seven electrons are filled in the third shell.
 The electron arrangement of chlorine is 2.8.7.

1. Calcium has 20 protons and 20 neutrons and 2.8.8.2


20 electrons.
2. All the three electrons are arrange as follows:
 Two electrons are filled in the first shell.
 Eight electrons are filled in the second shell.
 Eight electrons are filled in the third shell.
 Two electrons are filled in the forth shell.
 The electron arrangement of carbon is 2.8.8.2.

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Table below shows the arrangement of electrons of the first 20 elements in the periodic table. We shall
learn periodic table in chapter 4.

Element Proton Number Number of Number of electron in Electron


Electron Arrangement

1st 2nd 3rd 4th


shell shell shell shell

Hydrogen 1 1 1 0 0 0 1

Helium 2 2 2 0 0 0 2

Lithium 3 3 2 1 0 0 2.1

Beryllium 4 4 2 2 0 0 2.2

Boron 5 5 2 3 0 0 2.3

Carbon 6 6 2 4 0 0 2.4

Nitrogen 7 7 2 5 0 0 2.5

Oxygen 8 8 2 6 0 0 2.6

Fluorine 9 9 2 7 0 0 2.7

Neon 10 10 2 8 0 0 2.8

Sodium 11 11 2 8 1 0 2.8.1

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Magnesium 12 12 2 8 2 0 2.8.2

Aluminium 13 13 2 8 3 0 2.8.3

Silicon 14 14 2 8 4 0 2.8.4

Phosphorus 15 15 2 8 5 0 2.8.5

Sulphur 16 16 2 8 6 0 2.8.6

Chlorine 17 17 2 8 7 0 2.8.7

Argon 18 18 2 8 8 0 2.8.8

Potassium 19 19 2 8 8 1 2.8.8.1

Calcium 20 20 2 8 8 2 2.8.8.2

Electron arrangement in an atom

Valence Electron
Valence electrons are the electrons in the outermost shell.

1. The electrons in the outermost shell of an atom are called valence electrons.
2. The valence electrons have great significance in determining the chemical properties of an atom.
3. Elements with the same number of valence electron have the same chemical properties.

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Example: Given that a sodium atom has 11 protons 12 neutrons. Find the number of valence electron in
a sodium atom.

Answer:

For an atom,

Number of electrons = number of protons = 11

Electron arrangement of sodium = 2.8.1

Therefore, sodium has 1 valence electron.

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