SOC212: Chapter 20 - The Mark of a Criminal Record

-Devah Pager found that even whites with criminal pasts were more likely to be hired than blacks who
had held law abiding lives, and employers were more likely to hold stereotypes suspecting blacks,
especially young black men, of being prone to crime and of being unreliable employees.
-Objective for this study is to assess whether or the effect of a criminal record differs for black and
white applicants.

Trends in Incarceration:
-Over the past 3 decades, the number of prison inmates in the U.S. Has increased by more than 600%,
making it the country with the largest incarceration rate in the world.
-Incarceration has changed from a punishment reserved for only the most serious offenders, to a system
that extends to a much greater variety of crime and therefore a much larger percentage of the
population).
-Harsher sentences for a wider range of offenses.
-Effective for getting criminals off the streets, but little provision has been made for when they get back
out.
-Nearly 2/3 of those released will be charged with new crimes and over 40% will return to prison
within 3 years. Certainly, some of this has to do as a result of desolate opportunities, or deeply
ingrained dispositions.
-Incarceration is associated with limited future employment opportunities and earnings potential.
-Research on racial stereotypes tells us that Americans hold strong and persistent negative stereotypes
about blacks. Also, stereotypes are most likely to be activated and reinforced when a target matches on
more than one dimension of the stereotype.
-If it is the case that employers view all blacks as potential criminals, they are likely to differentiate less
among those with official criminal records and those without.

Study Design:
-The test involved four male auditors (2 blacks, and 2 whites) who were to look for entry position jobs.
-Objective characteristics (like eduction, work experience) were made similar for the purpose of the
applications.
-Within each pair (of 1 black and 1 white) one person was assigned a criminal record (and then rotated
after a week).
-Black testers received fewer callbacks on average, thus additional tests were performed by the black
testers.

The Effect of a Criminal Record for Whites:

-Often, the employers' level of responsiveness changed dramatically after they found out a potential
employee had a criminal record. Thus it is clear that criminal records close doors in employment
situations.
-However, this is not true for all employers. Some actually preferred workers who were recently
released from prison because they tended to be more motivated, and more likely to be hard workers
(not wanting to return to prison). Some even dissuaded a white non-criminal tester from applying
because the job required a lot of “dirty work” (cleaning service), but hired the tester with a criminal
record on the spot.

The Effect of Race:

-Race continues to play a dominant role in shaping employment opportunities, equal to or greater than
the impact of a criminal record. (whites with criminal pasts were more likely to be hired than blacks
who had held law abiding lives).

Racial Differences in the Effects of a Criminal Record:

-The effect of a criminal record appears to be more pronounced for blacks than it is for whites (40%
more).
-Employment barriers of minority status and criminal record are compounded, intensifying the stigma
toward this group.
-The salience of employer's sensitivity toward criminal involvement among blacks was highlighted in
several interactions documented by testers. On 3 separate occasions for example, black testers were
asked in person whether they had a prior criminal history, whereas none of the white testers were asked
about their criminal histories up front.

Discussion:
-There is serious disagreement between academics, policy makers, and practitioners over the extent to
which contact with the criminal justice system-in itself, leads to harmful consequences for
employment.
-With over 2 million people behind bars, and over 12 million people with prior felony convictions, the
consequences for labor market inequalities are potentially profound.
-Current public opinion about persisting racial inequality seems largely misinformed.
-Not only are blacks much more likely to be incarcerated than whites,
-they may also be more strongly affected by the consequences of a criminal record, thus such
individuals, particularly blacks, are left with fewer employment opportunities, and are therefore left
with fewer viable alternatives (and thus may be more likely to resort to crime).
-In terms of policy implications, our “crime control” policies may in fact, be contributing to the
conditions that lead to crime in the first place.
-No longer a peripheral institution, the criminal justice system has become a dominant presence in the
lives of young, disadvantaged men, playing a key role in the sorting and stratifying of labor market
opportunities.

-Effects on other races? Thus, is it pro-white or anti-black?

-Were the employers black?
-Labeling theory and black stereotyping.