18BT01036

Experiment 1
Manometer

Aim:
To understand the working principle of manometer and to find the pressure drop between two
points in a straight pipe.

Apparatus:
A supply tank of water, pipe, U-tube manometer

Introduction and Theory:

A manometer is used to measure the pressure difference, in course of flow. Assume that U-tube
is filled with liquid A having a density ρA, and that the arms of the U tube above the liquid are filled
with fluid B having density ρB. Fluid B is immiscible with liquid A and less dense than A.

A Pressure pa, is exerted in one arm of the U tube and a pressure pb in the other. As a result of
the difference in pressure pa-pb, the meniscus in one branch of the U tube is higher than in the
other, and the vertical distance between the two meniscuses Rm may be used to measure the
difference in pressure.

The following equation is used to measure pressure difference using U tube manometer,
pa - pb = (g/gc) Rm (ρA - ρB)

Schematic Diagram:
18BT01036

Experimental Procedure:
1. Fill up the tank with water.
2. Attach U-tube manometer to the pipe.
3. Open the bypass valve.
4. Switch on the motor.
5. Open manometer valves to remove air and then close it.
6. Open valves which connect U-tube manometer and pipe.
7. If pressure drop is to be increased, bypass valve should be closed.
8. Close both the manometer valves attached to the pipe simultaneously.
9. Remove air and Switch off the set up.

Precautions:
1. Carefully keep sufficient level of fluid in the supply tank.
2. Make sure that mercury level in any end of the U tube manometer does not go very low.

Observation Table:
1

Height (Left), mm Height (Right), mm

140 145

Rm (mm) =145-140
=5

ρA 13600kg/m3
((mercury)

ρB 1000kg/m3
(water)

Calculations:

pa – pb= g Rm(ρA- ρb)

=(9.8)(5*10-3)(12600)
=617400*10-3
=617.4 Pa
Result:
The change in pressure between two point is 617.4 Pa.

Conclusion:
18BT01036

Manometer is used to measured the pressure difference between two point on the
same pipe.
Experiment 2
Friction factor for pipe

Aim: To determine friction factor for the pipe by major losses.

Apparatus: A flow pipe of different diameter 15 mm, 25 mm, 32 mm, U-tube manometer,
collecting tank.

Introduction and Theory:

A pipe is closed conduit through which fluid flows under the pressure. When in the pipe, fluid
flows, some of the potential energy is lost to overcome hydraulic resistance which is classified as:
1. The viscous friction effect associated with fluid flow.
2. The local resistance which result from flow disturbances caused by
- Sudden expansion and contraction in pipe
- Obstruction in the form of valvn and contraction in pipe
- Obstruction in the form of valves, elbows and other pipe fittings.
- Curves and bend in the pipe.
- Entrance and exit losses.
The viscous friction loss or major loss in head potential energy due to friction is given by
hf = 4 f l v2 / 2 g d

Schematic Diagram:
18BT01036

Experimental Procedure:
1. Pressure tapping of a pipe is kept open while for other pipe is closed.
2. The flow rate was adjusted to it's maximum value. By maintaining suitable amount of
steady flow in the pipe.
3. The discharge flowing in the circuit is recorded together with the water level in the left and
right limbs of manometer tube.
4. This procedure is repeated by closing the pressure tapping of this pipe and for opening of
other pipe.
5. Also, note down the length of the pipe between the pressure tapping.

Precautions:
1. When fluid is flowing, there is a fluctuation in the height of manometer tubes, note the
mean position carefully.
2. Carefully keep some level of fluid in inlet and outlet supply tank.

Observation Table:
Diameter of pipe, D = 15 mm
Length of pipe between pressure tapping, L = 435 mm
Area of collecting tank = 160000 mm2
Diameter of pipe, D = 25 mm
Length of pipe between pressure tapping, L = 435 mm
18BT01036

Area of collecting tank = 160000 mm2

Diameter of pipe, D = 32 mm
Length of pipe between pressure tapping, L = 550 mm
Area of collecting tank = 160000 mm2

Sr. No. Manometer reading Discharge measurement Head F = π2 g

loss D5 /
8LQ2 hf
Left Right h1 - h2 Initial Final Time Dischar hf*10-9
limb, h1 limb, h2 (cm) (Cm) (sec) ge, Q
(cm) (cm) (cm3/se
c)

1 29.5 15.5 14 0 10 76.47 209.232 880851. 547.33

1342

2 23.4 22 1.4 0 10 36.24 441.50 401475. 3468.84

336

3 22.9 22.7 0.2 0 10 42.11 379.95 208304. 25053.4

252

Calculations:
1. Q=area*height/sec
Q=209.232*10-6 cm3/sec
hf=2flv2/d f= 16/Re
hf=880851.1342
F= π2 g D5 / 8LQ2 hf
F=547.33
2. Q=area*height/sec
Q=441.50*10-6 cm3/sec
hf=2flv2/d f= 16/Re
hf=401475.336
F= π2 g D5 / 8LQ2 hf
F=3468.84
3. Q=area*height/sec
Q=379.95*10-6 cm3/sec
hf=2flv2/d f= 16/Re
hf=208304.252
F= π2 g D5 / 8LQ2 hf
F=25053.4
18BT01036

Result:
Fanning friction factor of pipes are;
1. For small pipe =547.33
2. For medium pipe = 3468.84
3. For large pipe=25053.4

Conclusion:
Friction factor of pipe depend on diameter, flow rate, Length of pipe.

Experiment 3
Bernoulli’s Theorem

Aim:
To validate Bernoulli’s Theorem as applied to the flow of water in a tapering circular duct.

Apparatus:
A supply tank of water, Tapered circular pipe, 8 no.s piezometer tubes, measuring tank, level
indicator, stop watch

Introduction and Theory:

Bernoulli's principle is named after the Dutch-Swiss mathematician Daniel Bernoulli who
published his principle in his book Hydrodynamica in 1738. Bernoulli’s principle in its simplest
form states that "the pressure of a fluid [liquid or gas] decreases as the speed of the fluid
increases." The principle behind Bernoulli’s theorem is the law of conservation of energy. It states
that energy can be neither created nor destroyed, but merely changed from one form to another.
The energy, in general, may be defined as the capacity to do work. Though the energy exists in
many forms, yet the following are important from the subject point of view: 1) Potential Energy 2)
Kinetic Energy and 3) Pressure Energy.
18BT01036

Potential energy of a Liquid in Motion: It is the energy possessed by a liquid particle, by virtue of
its position. If a liquid particle is Z meters above the horizontal datum (arbitrary chosen), the
potential energy of the particle will be Z meter-kilogram (briefly written as mkg) per kg of liquid.
Potential head of the liquid, at that point, will be Z meters of the liquid.

Kinetic Energy of a liquid Particle in Motion It is the energy possessed by a liquid particle, by virtue
of its motion or velocity. If a liquid particle is flowing with a mean velocity of v meter per second,
then the kinetic energy of the particle will be v2 /2g meter of the liquid. Velocity head of the liquid,
at that velocity, will be v2 /2g meter of liquid.

Pressure Energy of a liquid Particle in Motion: It is the energy possessed by a liquid particle, by
virtue of its existing pressure. If a liquid particle is under a pressure of p kg/m2 , then the pressure
energy of the particle will be p/w mkg per kg of liquid, where w is the specific weight of the liquid.
Pressure head of the liquid under that pressure will be p/w meter of the liquid.

Total Energy of a liquid Particle in Motion: The total energy of a liquid particle, in motion, is the
sum of its potential energy, kinetic energy and pressure energy. Mathematically,
Total Energy kg m/kg of liquid,

Bernoulli’s Equation: It states, “For a perfect incompressible liquid, flowing in a continuous stream,
the total energy of a particle remains the same; while the particle moves from one point to
another.” This statement is based on the assumption that there are no losses due to friction in
pipe. Mathematically,

Schematic Diagram:
18BT01036

Experimental Procedure:
1. Note down the area of cross-section of the conduit at sections where piezometers have been
fixed.
2. Open the supply valve and adjust the flow in the conduit so that the water level in the inlet tank
remains at a constant level (i.e., the flow becomes steady).
3. Measure the height of water level (above an arbitrarily selected suitable horizontal plane) in
different piezometer tubes.
4. Measure the discharge by calculating time taken for 5litres or 10 liters flow.
5. Repeat steps (2) to (4) for other discharges.
Precautions:
1. When fluid is flowing there is a fluctuation in the height of fluid in the piezometer tubes,
note the mean position carefully.
2. Carefully keep some level of fluid in the supply tank.

Observation Table:
Z=0 m
For 1st observation:- Flow rate Q1 = .1277 L/s
For 2nd observation:- Flow rate Q2 = 0.4814 L/s
18BT01036

Piezometer tube no. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

Cross-sectional 9.08 5.94 4.12 4.91 6.20 7.6 9.19 10.87

area(cm)2

1 V=Q1/A (m/s) 0.1406 0.2149 0.3099 0.260 0.2059 0.1680 0.1389 0.1174

V2 /2g(m) 0.001 0.0023 0.00489 0.00344 0.00216 0.00144 0.00098 0.000703

(p/ρg) + z 0.118 0.118 0.115 0.116 0.117 0.118 0.119 0.119

E 0.119 0.1203 0.11989 0.11944 0.11916 0.11944 0.11998 0.11703

2 V=Q2/A 0.5301 0.8104 1.1684 0.9804 0.7764 0.6334 0.5238 0.4428

(m/s)

V2 /2g(m) 0.0143 0.0335 0.06965 0.0490 0.03075 0.02245 0.01399 0.010

(p/ρg) + z 0.255 0.236 0.204 0.214 0.231 0.241 0.247 0.252

E 0.2693 0.2695 0.2736 0.24475 0.26175 0.2634 0.2609 0.262

Calculations:
For Q1=0.1277 L/s
=0.1277*10^-3 m3/s

PIPE 1
E=0.119 m , H=11.8 cm
PIPE 2
E=0.1203m ,H=11.8 cm
PIPE 3
E=0.11989 m , H=11.5 cm
PIPE 4
E=0.11944 m , H=11.6 cm
PIPE 5
E=0.11916 m , H=11.7 cm
PIPE 6
E=0.11944 m , H=11.8 cm
18BT01036

PIPE 7
E=0.11998 m , H=11.9 cm
PIPE 8
E=0.119703 m , H=11.9 cm

FOR Q2=0.4814 L/s

= 0.4814*10^-3 m3/s

PIPE 1
E=0.2693 m , H=25.2 cm
PIPE 2
E=0.2695m , H=23.6 cm
PIPE 3
E=0.2736 m , H=20.4 cm
PIPE 4
E=0.24475 m , H=21.4 cm
PIPE 5
E=0.026175 m , H=23.1 cm
PIPE 6
E=0.2634 m , H=24.1 cm
PIPE 7
E=0.2609 m , H=24.7 cm
PIPE 8
E=0.2620 m , H=25.2 cm

Result:
It is observed from calculated value that at section with less area having high velocity and less
pressure which shows that Bernoulli’s Equation is valid. Here we aren’t having constant value
due to error occur during experiment.

Conclusion:
18BT01036

Here we can conclude that the Bernoulli’s Equation is valid for flow we have
taken, and area having relation directly with pressure and inversely with velocity.

Experiment 4
Reynolds Number

Aim: To find Reynolds number for a pipe flow.

Apparatus: Flow condition inlet supply, glass pipe, collecting tank.

Introduction and Theory:

Reynolds number is defined as ratio of inertia force of a flowing fluid and the viscous force of the
fluid. The expression is as follows:
Re = d V ⍴ / 𝜇

Schematic Diagram:
18BT01036

Experimental Procedure:
1. Fill the supply tank some times before the experiment.
2. Set the discharge by using the valve of that particular flow can be obtained.
3. The type of flow in glass tube may be seen using dye.
4. Take the reading of discharge for particular flow.
5. Repeat the procedure for different flow rates.

Precautions:
1. Take reading of discharge accurately.
2. Set the discharge valve accurately for each flow.

Observation Table:

1. 2sec→10 ml
2. 2sec→46ml
Temperature = 30oc

Sr. No. Diameter of Velocity of fluid Density of fluid Viscosity of fluid

glass pipe

1 0.0254m 0.987x10-2 m/s 995.67 kg/m3 0.7978x10-3 Pas

2 0.0254m 4.541x10-2 m/s 995.67 kg/m3 0.7978x10-3 Pas

Calculations:
18BT01036

1. Area =𝜋𝑑2/4
= 5.0645x10-4 m2
Velocity= volume flow rate/area
= 0.987x10-2 m/s
𝜌𝑣𝑑
Nre=
𝜇

=995.67x0.987x10-2x0.0254/0.7978x10-3
= 312.87

1. Area =𝜋𝑑2/4
= 5.0645x10-4 m2
Velocity= volume flow rate/area
= 4.541x10-2 m/s
𝜌𝑣𝑑
Nre=
𝜇

=995.67x4.541x10-2x0.0254/0.7978x10-3
= 1439.48

Result:
Therefore both the flow are laminar as they are in the range of laminar flow of <2100.

Conclusion:

The flow nature of fluid depends on flow rate, area, diameter of pipe, viscosity of fluid.

Experiment 5
Minor losses in a pipe

Aim:
To determine the minor losses through sudden enlargement, sudden contraction, elbow and
bend.

Apparatus: -----------

Introduction and Theory:-----------------------------

Schematic Diagram:---------------------------------------
18BT01036

Experimental Procedure
Precautions:------------------------

Observation Table:-------------------------
Plot:

Result:------------------------

Conclusion:---------------------------

Experiment 6
Rotameter

Aim: To calibrate and study rotameter.

Apparatus: Rotameter, Supply tank of water, pump, collecting tank

Introduction and Theory:

The most important class of flow meter is that in which the flow is either accelerated or retarded
at the measuring sections by reducing the flow area, and the change in the kinetic energy is
measuring sections by reducing the flow area and the change in the kinetic energy is measured
by recording the pressure difference produced.

The rotameter is an industrial flowmeter used to measure the flowrate of liquids and gases. The
rotameter consists of a tube and float. The float response to flowrate changes is linear. The
18BT01036

rotameter is popular because it has a linear scale, a relatively long measurement range, and low
pressure drop. It is simple to install and maintain.

The rotameter's operation is based on the variable area principle: fluid flow raises a float in a
tapered tube, increasing the area for passage of the fluid. The greater the flow, the higher the
float is raised. The height of the float is directly proportional to the flowrate. With liquids, the float
is raised by a combination of the buoyancy of the liquid and the velocity head of the fluid. With
gases, buoyancy is negligible, and the float responds to the velocity head alone.

All flowmeters are mounted along a pipeline with sufficient distance to stabilize flow between two
meters. The pressure taps are provided at sections as given in the fig. Pressure head difference
between sections can be read on manometer having mercury as the manometer fluid. A valve,
fitted at the end of the pipeline, is used for regulating the discharge in the pipeline

Rotameter:
Size = 1- 1000 LPH
Type = Thread Ends

Schematic Diagram:
18BT01036

Experimental Procedure:
1)Fill the storage tank/sump with the water.
2) Switch on the pump and keep the control valve fully open and close the bypass valve to have
maximum flow rate through the meter.
3) To calibrate Rotameter open control valve of the same.
4) Keep the drain valve of the measuring tank closed till its time to start collecting the water.
5) Measure the level of knob in the rotameter.
6) Close the drain valve of the measuring tank and note down the initial level of the water in the
collection tank.
8) Collect known quantity of water in the measuring tank and note down the time required for the
same.
9) Change the flow rate of water through the meter with the help of control valve and repeat the
above procedure.
10) Take about 2-3 readings for different flow rates.

Precautions:
1. Take the reading of the discharge accurately.
2. The parallax error should be avoided.
Observation Table:
18BT01036

Sr. No. Rotameter Scale (in LPH) Flow rate (in LPS)

1 800 0.2021

2 1200 0.3158

3 1600 0.3937

Calculations:
1. Discharge from Rotameter in LPH =800
Actual Discharge , Qa = 0.001/t m3/sec =0.0002021
In LPH Qa * 3600000 =727.56

2. Discharge from Rotameter in LPH =1200

Actual Discharge , Qa = 0.001/t m3/sec =0.0003158
In LPH Qa * 3600000 =1136.88

3. Discharge from Rotameter in LPH =1600

Actual Discharge , Qa = 0.001/t m3/sec =0.0003937
In LPH Qa * 3600000 =1417.32

Result:
Error in first reading= (800-727.56/800)*100
=9.055%
Error in second reading= (1200-1136.88/1200)*100
=5.026%
Error in third reading= (1600-1417.32/1600)*100
=11.4175%

Conclusion:
To measure the flow of fluids when it is passed at low flow rates. It is used when cost matters lot.

Experiment 7
18BT01036

Venturimeter

Aim: To calibrate and study Venturimeter.

Apparatus: Rotameter, Supply tank of water, pump, collecting tank

Introduction and Theory:

The most important class of flow meter is that in which the flow is either accelerated or retarded
at the measuring sections by reducing the flow area, and the change in the kinetic energy is
measuring sections by reducing the flow area and the change in the kinetic energy is measured
by recording the pressure difference produced.

Like orifice meter, a venturimeter is also used for the measurement of discharge in a pipeline.
Since head loss caused due to installation of venturi meter in a pipeline is less than that caused
due to installation of orficemeter, the former is usually preferred particularly for higher flow rates.
A venturimeter consists of a converging tube which is followed by a diverging tube. The junction
of the two is termed as 'throat' which is the section of minimum cross-section.

Venturimeter:
Size = 26 mm
Throat Size = 16 mm
Dia. Ratio = 0.615

Schematic Diagram:
18BT01036

Experimental Procedure:
1) Fill the storage tank/sump with the water.
2) Switch on the pump and keep the control valve fully open and close the bypass valve to have
maximum flow rate through the meter.
3) To calibrate Venturimeter open control valve of the same.
4) Open the vent cocks provided at the top of the manometer to drive out the air from the
manometer limbs and close both of them as soon as water start coming out.
5) Note down the difference of level of mercury in the manometer limbs.
6) Keep the drain valve of the measuring tank closed till its time to start collecting the water.
7) Close the drain valve of the measuring tank and note down the initial level of the water in the
collection tank.
8) Collect known quantity of water in the measuring tank and note down the time required for the
same.
9) Change the flow rate of water through the meter with the help of control valve and repeat the
above procedure.
10) Take about 2-3 readings for different flow rates.

Precautions:
1. Take the reading of the discharge accurately.
2. The parallax error should be avoided.

Observation Table:
18BT01036

Diameter at Inlet D1 = 26 mm; Area A1 = 5.31 x 10-4 m2

Diameter at Orifice D2 = 16 mm; Area A2 = 2.01 x 10-4 m2

Sr. No. Manometer difference in mm Flow rate (in LPS)

of Hg

1 5 0.2536

2 9 0.3739

Calculations:

1. Actual Discharge , Qa = 0.001/t m3/sec =0.0002536

Q = Cd x A2 ((2g (h1- h2)) / (1- (A2/A1)2)0.5

Coefficient of Discharge, Cd =3.730

2. Actual Discharge , Qa = 0.001/t m3/sec =0.0003739

Q = Cd x A2 ((2g (h1- h2)) / (1- (A2/A1)2)0.5

Coefficient of Discharge, Cd =4.10

Result:
Coefficient of discharge for given venturimeter is found out 3.730 and 4.10 respectively.

Conclusion:

Coefficient of discharge varies with different flow rates.

18BT01036

Experiment 8
Orificemeter

Aim: To calibrate and study Orificemeter.

Apparatus: Rotameter, Supply tank of water, pump, collecting tank

Introduction and Theory:

The most important class of flow meter is that in which the flow is either accelerated or retarded
at the measuring sections by reducing the flow area, and the change in the kinetic energy is
measuring sections by reducing the flow area and the change in the kinetic energy is measured
by recording the pressure difference produced.

A circular Opening in a plate which is fitted suitably in a pipeline is a simple device to measure
the discharge flowing in the pipeline. Such a device is known as orifice meter and is as shown in
the figure. the opening is normally at the centre of the plate as shown in figure. Applying Bernoulli's
equation between section 1 and 2 and using the continuity equation, it can be shown that,
Qa = Cd x A2 ((2g (h1- h2)) / (1- (A2/A1))0.5
where A2 is the area of cross section of the orifice, and (h1 – h2) is the difference in the
piezometeric heads at section 1 and 2.

Orificemeter:
Size = 26 mm
Orifice Size = 16 mm
Dia. Ratio = 0.615

Schematic Diagram:
18BT01036

Experimental Procedure:
1) Fill the storage tank/sump with the water.
2) Switch on the pump and keep the control valve fully open and close the bypass valve to have
maximum flow rate through the meter.
3) To calibrate Orificemeter open control valve of the same.
4) Open the vent cocks provided at the top of the manometer to drive out the air from the
manometer limbs and close both of them as soon as water start coming out.
5) Note down the difference of level of mercury in the manometer limbs.
6) Keep the drain valve of the measuring tank closed till its time to start collecting the water.
7) Close the drain valve of the measuring tank and note down the initial level of the water in the
collection tank.
8) Collect known quantity of water in the measuring tank and note down the time required for the
same.
9) Change the flow rate of water through the meter with the help of control valve and repeat the
above procedure.
10) Take about 2-3 readings for different flow rates.

Precautions:
1. Take the reading of the discharge accurately.
2. The parallax error should be avoided.

Observation Table:
18BT01036

Diameter at Inlet D1 = 26 mm; Area A1 = 5.31 x 10-4 m2

Diameter at Orifice D2 = 16 mm; Area A2 = 2.01 x 10-4 m2

Sr. No. Manometer difference in mm Flow rate (in LPS)

of Hg

1 17 0.2444

2 36 0.3178

Calculations:
1. Actual Discharge , Qa = 0.001/t m3/sec =0.0002444

Q = Cd x A2 ((2g (h1- h2)) / (1- (A2/A1)2)0.5

Coefficient of Discharge, Cd =1.9465

2. Actual Discharge , Qa = 0.001/t m3/sec =0.0003178

Q = Cd x A2 ((2g (h1- h2)) / (1- (A2/A1)2)0.5

Coefficient of Discharge, Cd =1.7422

Result:
Coefficient of discharge for given orificemeter is found out 1.9465 and 1.7422 respectively.
Conclusion:
Coefficient of discharge varies with different flow rates.

Experiment 9
18BT01036

Pitot Tube

Aim: To understand working principle of Pitot tube and to measure velocity profile.

Apparatus: Long smooth walled pipe connected to the suction of a blower, manometer.

Introduction and Theory:

When a fluid is flowing through a circular conduit, the velocity is given by dividing the volumetric
flow rate by the area of the cross section of the conduit.This velocity is average mean velocity.
Actually, the velocity of the fluid is not the same at all points in the pipe. The velocity is maximum
at the axis of the pipe and tapers off the zero at the wall of the pipe.

Pitot tube is used for determining the local velocity at various points in a pipe. It consists of an
impact tube, which is positioned perpendicular to the direction of flow and a static tube, which is
positioned parallel to the direction of flow. One end of the manometer is connected to the impact
tube and the other end to the static tube.
hm = hm1 - hm2
V = (2 * g * h)1/2
Where h = hm (⍴m - ⍴a) / ⍴a

Schematic Diagram:

Experimental Procedure:
1) Make electric connection to the blower and plug in.
2) Switch on the motor of the blower.
3) Start with a particular flow rate of air in the tube.
4) Adjust the position of the impact tube at a definite position in pipe.
5) Measure the distance from the end.
6) When a steady state is reached, record the manometer reading.
7) Take readings for different flow rates of air.

Observations:
18BT01036

Inside diameter of pipe = 100 mm

Length of test pipe = 1000 mm
Cross sectional area of pipe, A = 0.00785 m2
Density of air, ⍴a = 1.205 kg/m3
Density of manometer fluid, ⍴m = 1000 kg/m3
Cp = 0.99-0.995
G = 9.81 m/s2

Manometer reading (hm1) (m) Air velocity V = 4.385 * (hv)½

(m/s)

1 0.021 18.31

2 0.027 20.76

3 0.021 18.31

Calculations:

hv = Manometer reading * ⍴m / ⍴a = 829.875* Manometer reading

hv Air velocity(m/s) Air volumetric flow Air mass flow rate
rate(V*area)(m3/s) (⍴a*Vol. flow
rate)(kg/s)
17.427 18.31 0.14373 0.1731
22.4066 20.76 0.17589 0.2119
17.427 18.31 0.14373 0.1731

Result:
At stagnation point, pressure is maximum. By that pressure, we find the actual velocity of air.

Conclusion:
By using stagnation point concept, we can find the actual velocity of flow.