NIRVANA IAS ACADEMY

GEOGRAPHY

· The sun, the moon and all those objects shining in the night sky are called celestial bodies.
· Full moon night or poornima : When the moon appears as full.
· New moon night or Amavasya: when the moon does not appear at all.
· The difference between these two nights is of fourteen days.
· Various pattern formed by the group of stars is called Constellation. Example: Ursamajor or big beer and
small beer or saptarishi.

Q. Difference between Planet and Stars.

Star: A star has its own light.Stars twinkle at night.The relative positions of the stars do not undergo any noticeable
change.Since the stars are very far away, the telescope can only make them look brighter but not larger.A star has very
high temperature.There are billions of stars in the celestial sphere.
Planet: A planet has no light of its own. It shines by reflecting the light of the sun.Planets do not twinkle.Since planets
are very much closer to the earth than the stars are, their motion around the sun is noticeable as a daily shifting of their
relative positions in the sky.Most planets on the other hand are near enough to the earth to be magnified by the
telescope.Planets have low temperatures.There are only eight planets in the solar system.

Q. What is the reason for existence of life on Planet Earth?

Atmosphere, Climate, Water, Light

Solar system
Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune.
MY VERY EFFICIENT MOTHER JUST SERVED US NUTS.
Venus is called as Earth Twin.
Pole star indicates the direction of North.

Asteroids: Numerous tiny bodies called asteroidsfound between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter.
Meteoroids: The small pieces of rocks are called meteoroids these meteoroids come near the earth and tend to drop
upon it. During this process due to friction with the air they get heated up and burn. It causes a flash of light.
Sometimes, a meteor without being completely burnt, falls on the earth and creates a hollow.

Important latitude and heat zones

Rotation is the movement of the earth on its axis. The movement
of the earth around the sun in a fixed path or orbit is called
Revolution.

Q. What would happen if Earth stops rotating?

Ans. Gravity will increase and shape of earth will become sphere.

Q. What is the reason for Day and Night on Earth?

Ans. Rotation on earth on its own axis around the sun.

Revolution of earth and season

The Biosphere is the narrow zone where we find land, water and air together, which contains all forms of life.
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The surface of the earth is a complex zone in which three main components of the environment meet, overlap and
interact i.e, Atmosphere, Lithosphere and Hydrosphere.

Q. Name of Continents and Ocean around the World, list them in descending order according to their size.
Ans. Continents: Asia, Africa, North America, South America, Antarctica, Europe, Australia
Ocean: Pacific Ocean, Atlantic ocean, Indian Ocean, Southern Ocean, Arctic Ocean

Strait: It is a narrow passage of water connecting two large water bodies like seas and oceans.
Isthmus: It is narrow strip of land joining two land masses.

Q. How the landforms on earth form?

Ans. Due to two reasons. 1. Internal process that leads to upliftment and sinking of earth surface at several places.
2. External process is the continuous wearing down and rebuilding of the land surface. This is done by two process of
erosion and deposition.

Q. What are different type of mountain and their characteristics?

Ans. There are five basic kinds of mountains:
1. Fold Mountains (Folded Mountains)
2. Fault-block Mountains (Block Mountains)
3. Dome Mountains
4. Volcanic Mountains
5. Plateau Mountains

These different types of mountain names not only distinguish the physical characteristics of the mountains, but also
how they were formed.

Fold Mountain: Fold mountains are formed when two plates collide head on, and their edges crumbled, much the
same way as a piece of paper folds when pushed together.
Examples of fold mountains include:Himalayan Mountains in Asia, the Alps in Europe, the Andes in South America,
the Rockies in North America, the Urals in Russia.

Fault-block Mountain: These mountains form when faults or cracks in the earth's crust force some materials or
blocks of rock up and others down.
Instead of the earth folding over, the earth's crust fractures (pulls apart). It breaks up into blocks or chunks. Sometimes
these blocks of rock move up and down, as they move apart and blocks of rock end up being stacked on one another.

Dome Mountain: Dome mountains are the result of a great amount of melted rock (magma) pushing its way up under
the earth crust. Without actually erupting onto the surface, the magma pushes up overlaying rock layers. At some
point, the magma cools and forms hardened rock. The uplifted area created by rising magma is called a dome because
of looking like the top half of a sphere (ball). The rock layers over the hardened magma are warped upward to form
the dome. But the rock layers of the surrounding area remain flat.

Volcanic Mountain: Volcanic Mountains are formed when molten rock (magma) deep within the earth, erupts, and
piles upon the surface. Magma is called lava when it breaks through the earth's crust. When the ash and lava cools, it
builds a cone of rock. Rock and lava pile up, layer on top of layer.

Plateau Mountain: Plateau mountains are not formed by internal activity. Instead, these mountains are formed by
erosion. Plateaus are large flat areas that have been pushed above sea level by forces within the Earth, or have been
formed by layers of lava.

Q. How do the plateau forms?

Ans. Plateaus can be formed by a number of processes, including upwelling of volcanic magma, extrusion of lava,
and erosion by water and glaciers. Magma rises from the mantle causing the ground to swell upward, in this way large,
flat areas of rock are uplifted.

Alluvial deposits: These are very fine soils, brought by rivers and deposited in the river basins.
Tributary: A river or stream which contributes its water to a main river by discharging it into main river from either
side.

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Himalaya means abode of the snow. Himalayas are divided into three parallel zones: Great Himalaya or himadri,
Middle Himalaya or Himachal and Shiwalik.

Corals areskeletons oftiny marineanimals called Polyps.When the living polypsdie, their skeletons areleft. Other
polyps growon top of the hardskeleton which growshigher and higher, thusforming the coral islands.

Weatheris about day to day changes in the atmosphere. It includes changes in temperature, rainfall and sunshine etc.
whereas the climate is about the average weather condition, which have been measured over many years.

The major seasons recognized in India:

• Cold weather season (Winter) December toFebruary
• Hot Weather Season (Summer) March to May
• Southwest Monsoon Season (Rainy)June to September
• Season of Retreating Monsoon (Autumn) Octoberand November

The climate of a place is affected by its location, altitude, distance from the sea, and relief.
Vegetation of India can be divided into five types – Tropical evergreen forest, Tropical
deciduous forest, Thorny bushes, Mountain vegetation and Mangrove forests.

Environment: The place, people, things and nature that surround any living organism is called environment. It is a
combination of natural and human made phenomena. While the natural environment refers to both biotic and abiotic
conditions existing on the earth, human environment reveals the activities, creations and interactions among human
beings.

Ecosystem: An ecosystem is a community of living organisms (plants, animals and microbes) in conjunction with the
nonliving components of their environment (things like air, water and mineral soil), interacting as a system.

Interior of earth
Core: It is the inner most layer with radius of about 3500 km. The main mineral constituents are Nickel and Iron
(NiFe).

Mantle: It is the middle layer, it extends up to a depth of 2900 km. The main mineral constituents are Silica and
Magnesium (SiMa).

Crust: Upper most layer of earth surface. It is thinnest of all the layers. It is about 35 km on continental mass and 5
km on the ocean floors. Main mineral constituents are Silica and Aluminium (Sial) .

Rock cycle

Three types of rock: igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic rock.

Origin of earthquake

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There are three types of wave: P wave or Longitudinal wave, S wave or transverse wave, L wave or surface wave
An earthquake is measured with a machine called a seismograph. The magnitude of the
earthquake is measured on the Richter scale.

Seawaves: Seawaves continuously strike at therocks. Cracks develop. Overtime they become larger andwider. Thus,
hollow like cavesare formed on the rocks. Theyare called sea caves. As thesecavities become bigger andbigger only
the roof of thecaves remain, thus forming seaarches. Further, erosionbreaks the roof and only wallsare left. These wall
like features are called stacks.The steep rocky coast rising almost vertically abovesea water is called sea cliff. The sea
waves depositsediments along the shores forming beaches. In deserts rocks in the shape of a mushroom found,
commonly called mushroom rocks. Winds erode the lower section of the rock more than the upper part. Therefore,
such rocks have narrower base and wider top. When the wind blows, it lifts and transports sand from one place to
another. When it stops blowing the sand falls and gets deposited in low hill – like structures. These are called sand
dunes. When the grains of sand are very fine and light, the wind can carry it over very long distances. When such sand
is deposited in large areas, it is called loess. Large deposits of loess is found in China.

Q. What is global warming, it causes, consequences and measures to stop this?

Ans. Global Warming is the increase of Earth's average surface temperature due to effect of greenhouse gases, such as
carbon dioxide emissions from burning fossil fuels or from deforestation, which trap heat that would otherwise escape
from Earth. This is a type of greenhouse effect.

Causes: Global warming is primarily a problem of too much carbon dioxide (CO2) in the atmosphere—which acts as
a blanket, trapping heat and warming the planet. As we burn fossil fuels like coal, oil and natural gas for energy or cut
down and burn forests to create pastures and plantations, carbon accumulates and overloads our atmosphere. Certain
waste management and agricultural practices aggravate the problem by releasing other potent global warming gases,
such as methane and nitrous oxide.

Effects:

1. Rising Sea level 7. Spread of disease

2. Changes in rainfall patterns 8. Bleaching of Coral Reefs due to warming seas
3. Increased likelihood of extreme events and acidification due to carbonic acid
4. Melting of the ice caps formation
5. Melting glaciers 9. Loss of Plankton due to warming seas -
6. Widespread vanishing of animal populations

Solutions: minimize and effective use of energy, move towards sustainable development goal.

Layers of atmosphere

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Q. What is temperature inversion? What are its causes and effects?

Ans. An inversion is a deviation from the normal change of an atmospheric property with altitude. It almost always
refers to a "temperature inversion," i.e., an increase in temperature with height, or to the layer ("inversion layer")
within which such an increase occurs.
An inversion can lead to pollution such as smog being trapped close to the ground, with possible adverse effects on
health.
Causes: A warmer, less-dense air mass moves over a cooler, denser air mass. An inversion is also produced
whenever radiation from the surface of the earth exceeds the amount of radiation received from the sun, which
commonly occurs at night, or during the winter when the angle of the sun is very low in the sky.
Effects: Temperature inversion stops atmospheric convection (which is normally present) from happening in the
affected area and can lead to the air becoming stiller and murky from the collection of dust and pollutants that are no
longer able to be lifted from the surface. This can become a problem in cities where many pollutants exist.

Different types of winds: Permanent wind

Trade winds
Westerlies
Easterlies
Seasonal wind
Local wind

Major pressure belts

Q. What are different types of rainfall?

Ans 1. Convection rainfall
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2. Cyclonic rainfall
3. Orographic rainfall

Some Principles of Sustainable Development

• Respect and care for all forms of life
• Improve the quality of human life
• Conserve the earth’s vitality and diversity
• Minimise the depletion of natural resources
• Change personal attitude and practices toward the environment
• Enable communities to care for their own environment.
Factors responsible for use of land: Topography, Soil, Climate, Minerals, Availability of water, Population and
Technology.

Q. What is Common Property Resources?

Ans. Common Property Resources is owned and managed by the community for common uses like collection of
fodder, fruits, nuts or medicinal herbs. Example. an irrigation system or fishing grounds)

Factors responsible for Soil formation: 1. Parent Rock: Determine colour, texture, chemical properties, minerals,
content permeability.
2. Climate: Temperature, rainfall influence, rate of weathering and humus
3. Relief: Altitude and slope, determine accumulation of soil
4. Flora, Fauna and Micro-organisms: Affects the rate of humus formation
5. Time: Determines thickness of soil profile

Some methods of soil conservation are

Mulching: The bare ground between plants is covered with a layer of organic matter like straw. It helps to retain soil
moisture.
Contour barriers: Stones, grass, soil are used to build barriers along contours. Trenches are made in front of the
barriers to collect water.
Rock dam: Rocks are piled up to slow down the flow of water. This prevents gullies and further soil loss.
Terrace farming:These are made on the steep slopes so that flat surfaces are available to grow crops. They can
reduce surface run-off and soil erosion.
Intercropping: Different crops are grown in alternate rows and are sown at different times to protect the soil from
rain wash.
Contour ploughing: Ploughing parallel to the contours of a hill slope to form a natural barrier for water to flow down
the slope.
Shelter belts: In the coastal and dry regions, rows of trees are planted to check the wind movement to protect soil
cover.

Mineral distributionin India

Iron: India has deposits of high grade iron ore. The mineral is found mainly in Jharkhand, Odisha, Chhattisgarh,
Madhya Pradesh, Goa, Maharashtra and Karnataka.
Bauxite: Major bauxite producing areas are Jharkhand, Odisha, Chhattisgarh, Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat, Maharashtra
and Tamil Nadu.
Mica: Mica deposits mainly occur in Jharkhand, Bihar, Andhra Pradesh and Rajasthan. India is the largest producer
and exporter of mica in the world.
Copper: It is mainly produced in Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Jharkhand, Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh.
Manganese: India’s manganese deposits lie in Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Odisha, Karnataka and
Andhra Pradesh. Limestone: Major limestone producing states in India are Bihar, Jharkhand, Odisha, Madhya
Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Rajasthan, Gujarat and Tamil Nadu.
Gold:Kolar in Karnataka has deposits of gold in India. These mines are among the deepest in the world which makes
mining of this ore a very expensive process.
Salt: It is obtained from seas, lakes and rocks. India is one of the world’s leading producers and exporters of salt.

Organic Farming In this type of farming, organic manure and natural pesticides are used instead of chemicals. No
genetic modification is done to increase the yield of the crop.

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Types of Farming: Farming is practised in various ways across the world. Depending upon the geographical
conditions, demand of produce, labour and level of technology, farming can be classified into two main types. These
are subsistence farming and commercial farming.

Subsistence Farming: This type of farming is practised to meet the needs of the farmer’s family. Traditionally, low
levels of technology and household labour are used to produce on small output. Subsistence farming can be further
classified as intensive subsistence and primitive subsistence farming.

In intensive subsistence agriculture the farmer cultivates a small plot of land using simple tools and more labour.
Climate with large number of days with sunshine and fertile soils permit growing of more than one crop annually on
the same plot. Rice is the main crop. Other crops include wheat, maize, pulses and oilseeds. Intensive subsistence
agriculture is prevalent in the thickly populated areas of the monsoon regions of south, southeast and east Asia.

Primitive subsistence agriculture includes shifting cultivation and nomadic herding.

Shifting cultivation is practised in the thickly forested areas of Amazon basin, tropical Africa, parts of southeast Asia
and Northeast India. These are the areas of heavy rainfall and quick regeneration of vegetation. A plot of land is
cleared by felling the trees and burning them. The ashes are then mixed with the soil and crops like maize, yam,
potatoes and cassava are grown. After the soil loses its fertility, the land is abandoned and the cultivator moves to a
new plot. Shifting cultivation is also known as ‘slash and burn’ agriculture.

Nomadic herding is practised in the semi-arid and arid regions of Sahara, Central Asia and some parts of India, like
Rajasthan and Jammu and Kashmir. In this type of farming, herdsmen move from place to place with their animals for
fodder and water, along defined routes. This type of movement arises in response to climatic constraints and terrain.
Sheep, camel, yak and goats are most commonly reared. They provide milk, meat, wool, hides and other products to
the herders and their families.

Commercial Farming: In commercial farming crops are grown and animals are reared for sale in market. The area
cultivated and the amount of capital used is large. Most of the work is done by machines. Commercial farming
includes commercial grain farming, mixed farming and plantation agriculture.
In commercial grain farmingcrops are grown for commercial purpose. Wheat and maize are common commercially
grown grains. Major areas where commercial grain farming is pracised are temperate grasslands of North America,
Europe and Asia. These areas are sparsely populated with large farms spreading over hundreds of hectares. Severe
winters restrict the growing season and only a single crop can be grown.

In mixed farming the land is used for growing food and fodder crops and rearing livestock.
It is practised in Europe, eastern USA, Argentina, southeast Australia, New Zealand and South Africa.
Plantations are a type of commercial farming where single crop of tea, coffee, sugarcane, cashew, rubber, banana or
cotton are grown. Large amount of labour and capital are required. The produce may be processed on the farm itself or
in nearby factories. The development of a transport network is thus essential for such farming.
Major plantations are found in the tropical regions of the world. Rubber in Malaysia, coffee in Brazil, tea in India and
Sri Lanka are some examples.

The factors affecting the location of industries are the availability of raw material, land, water, labour, power,
capital, transport and market.

FACTORS AFFECTING DISTRIBUTION OF POPULATION

Geographical Factors
Topography:People always prefer to live on plains rather than mountains and plateaus because these areas are
suitable for farming, manufacturing and service activities. The Ganga plains are the most densely populated areas of
the world while mountains like Andes, Alps and Himalayas are sparsely populated.
Climate:People usually avoid extreme climates that are very hot or very cold like Sahara desert, polar regions of
Russia, Canada and Antarctica.
Soil:Fertile soils provide suitable land for agriculture. Fertile plains such as Ganga and Brahmaputra in India, Hwang-
He, Chang Jiang in China and the Nile in Egypt are densely populated.
Water: People prefer to live in the areas where fresh water is easily available. The river valleys of the world are
densely populated while deserts have spare population.

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Minerals: Areas with mineral deposits are more populated. Diamond mines of South Africa and discovery of oil in
the Middle east lead to settling of people in these areas.
Social, Cultural and Economic Factors
Social: Areas of better housing, education and health facilities are more densely populated e.g., Pune.
Cultural: Places with religion or cultural significance attract people. Varanasi, Jerusalem and Vatican city are some
examples.
Economic: Industrial areas provide employment opportunities. Large number of people are attracted to these areas.
Osaka in Japan and Mumbai in India are two densely populated areas.

India
Location: -latitudes 8°4'N and 37°6'N and longitudes 68°7'E and 97°25'E.
Tropic of Cancer (23° 30'N) divides the country into almost two equal parts.
The southernmost point of the Indian Union– ‘Indira Point’ got submerged under the sea water in 2004 during the
Tsunami.
Area: -3.28 million square km
India’s total area accounts for about 2.4 per cent of the total geographical area of the world.
India is the seventh largest country of the world.( Russia, Canada, USA, China, Brazil, Australia, India).
India has a land boundary of about 15,200 km and the total length of the coast line of the mainland including
Andaman and Nicobar and Lakshadweep is 7,516.6 km.
From east to west: -2933KM, From north to south: -3214KM.

From Gujarat to Arunachal Pradesh there is a time lag of two hours. Hence, time along the Standard Meridian of India
(82°30'E) passing through Mirzapur (in Uttar Pradesh) is taken as the standard time for the whole country. The
latitudinal extent influences the duration of the day and night, as one moves from south to north.

Tropic of Cancer passes through Gujarat, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, West Bengal, Tripura,
Mizoram.

India has 29 states and 7 Union Territories. Smallest State:- Sikkim, Largest State: - Madhya Pradesh
India’s neighbouring countries: - Pakistan, Afghanistan, Nepal, China, Bhutan, Bangladesh, Myanmar, Sri Lanka and
Maldives.
India separated from Sri lanka by Palk Strait.
India shares largest border with Bangladesh.
Largest Coast line is of Gujarat.

Earth has varied physicalfeatures. This is explained on the basis of Theory of Tectonic Plates. According to this
theory Earth crust is supposed to be made of seven major and some minor plates. The movement of the plates results
in the building up of stresses within the plates and the continental rocks above, leading to folding, faulting and
volcanic activity. Broadly, these
plate movements are classified into three types as Convergent, Divergent and Transform. The movement of these
plates have changed the position and size of the continents over millions of years.

Most volcanoes and earthquakes in the world are located at plate margins, but some do occur within the plates.

The oldest landmass (the peninsula part), was a[part of Gondwana land. The Gondwanaland include India, Australia,
South Africa, South America and Antarctica as one single land mass. The convectional currents splits the land mass
into number of pieces, thus leading to the drifting of the indo-australian after being separated from Gondwana land,
toward north. The northward drift resulted in the collision of the plate with much larger Eurasian plate. Due to this
collision, the sedimentary rocks which were accumulated in the Geosyncline known as Tethys were folded to form the
mountain of west Asia and Himalaya.
The Himalayan uplift out of the Tethys sea and the subsidence of the northern flank of the peninsula plateau resulted
in the formation of large basin. In due course of time this depression, gradually got filled with deposition of sediments
by the rivers flowing from the mountains in the north and the peninsular plateau in the south. A flat land of extensive
alluvial deposits led to the formation of the northern plains of India.
The peninsular plateau is most stable and oldest land mass on the Earth. It is formed of igneous and metamorphic
rocks.
The whole mountain system of Himalaya represents a youthful topography and it is unstable.

MAJOR PHYSIOGRAPHIC DIVISIONS

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The physical features of India can be grouped under the following physiographic divisions
(1) The Himalayan Mountains
(2) The Northern Plains
(3) The Peninsular Plateau
(4) The Indian Desert
(5) The Coastal Plains
(6) The Islands

Himalayas form an arc, which covers a distance of about 2,400 Km. Their width varies from 400 Km in Kashmir to
150 Km in Arunachal Pradesh. The Himalaya consists of three parallelranges in its longitudinal extent – Himadri,
PirPanjal and Shiwalik

Some famous peaks of the Himalayas:-

Nanda Devi India 7817

Kamet India 7756
NamchaBarwa India 7756
GurlaMandhata Nepal 7728

Himalaya also been divided on the basis of regions separated by River valleys as: -
1. Between Indus and Satluj as Punjab Hialaya
2. Between Satluj and kali as Kumaon Himalayas
3. Between kali and Tista as Nepal Himalayas
4. Between Tista and Dihang as Assam Himalayas

Beyond the Dihang George, Himalaya bend sharply and form Patkai hills, Naga Hills, Mizo Hills, Manipur
Hills.

Majuli, in the Brahmaputra River is the largest inhabited riverine island in the world.

Peninsular plateau divided into three parts as 1). Bundelkhand (Baghelkhand)

2). Chhota Nagpur
3). Karbi – Anglong
Peninsular plateau has distinctive feature of black soil.

Western coast has three sections as 1. Konkan (Mumbai – Goa)

2. Kannad plains
3. Malabar coast
On Eastern coast: - 1. Northern Circar
2. Coromandel Coast

Corals
Coral polyps are short-lived microscopic organisms, which live in colonies. They flourish in shallow, mud free and
warm waters. They secrete calcium carbonate. The coral secretion and their skeletons from coral deposits in the form
of reefs:.they are mainly of three kinds:barrier reef. fringing reef and atolls. The Great Barrier Reef of Australia is a
good example of the first kind of coral reefs. Atolls are circular or horse shoe shaped coral reefs.

India’s only active volcano is found on Barren island in Andaman and Nicobar group of Islands.

The world’s largest drainage basin is of the Amazon river. The river Ganga has the largest river basin in India.

Q. What is the difference between Himalayan Rivers and Peninsular rivers?

Ans. 1. Himalayan rivers have youthful topography and still shaping through gorges. Peninsular rivers have old
topography and maintained their path through deep gorges.
2. Himalayan rivers have well developed dendritic pattern of drainage. Peninsular rivers are obstructed by dykes and
quartz veins.
3. Peninsular rivers make shallow meanders whereas Himalayan rivers make many sharp meanders and ox-bow lakes
in plains.
4. Himalayan river flows through large area compared to Peninsular river.
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5. Peninsular rivers are more suited to power generation because of sharp gradients. Himalayan rivers more suited to
irrigational purpose, particularly canal.

71 per cent of the world’s surface is covered with water, but 97 per cent of that is salt water. Of the 3 per cent that is
available as freshwater, three quarters of it is trapped as ice.

Q. what are the causes of River pollution and how it can be treated?
Ans. Causes: industrial waste, domestic waste, sewage etc.
Effects: On human health, ecology, economy
Solution: treating the industrial and sewage before discharging to the river

Climate refers to the sum total of weather conditions and variations over a large area for a long period of time (more
than thirty years).

Weather refers to the state of the atmosphere over an area at any point of time. The elements of weather and climate
are the same, i.e. temperature, atmospheric pressure, wind, humidity and precipitation.

The climate of India is described as the ‘monsoon’ type. In Asia, this type of climate is found mainly in the south and
the southeast. The word Monsoon is derived from Arabic word “mausim” which literally means season. Monsoon
refers to the seasonal reversal in the wind direction during a year.

Q. Why most of the world’s deserts are located in the western margins of continents in the subtropics?
Ans. Tropical deserts are on western side of the continent because:1 Trade winds that blow in the region shed their
moisture on the eastern side. They become dry by the time they reach the western margin of the continent.
2. Cold ocean currents also help in the formation of deserts as they do not cause rain, mist, fog and lower the
temperature.
3. As these deserts lie in the subtropical high pressure belts they are associated with sinking air currents which do not
help in rain.
4. In most of the cases mountains are present on the western side of the continent which do not allow wind to shed
moisture in the west.

Q. What are the factors affecting Climate of the region?

Ans. Latitude, Altitude, Pressure and Winds, distance from the sea, Oceanic Currents and relief feature

Coriolis force: An apparent force caused by the earth’s rotation. The Coriolis force is responsible for deflecting winds
towards the right in the northern hemisphere and towards the left in the southern hemisphere. This is also known as
‘Ferrel’s Law’.

Q. What are the causes for the Indian Monsoon?

Ans. Because of the rapid solar heating, mainly between April and May, a low-pressure zone develops over the
subcontinent. To fill up this void, the moisture-laden winds from the Indian Ocean rushes in. The ITCZ also shifts
northwards towards the subcontinent causing monsoon rains, which typically reach the mainland in the last week of
May or the first week of June.

Q. What is El-Nino, La-Nino, ITCZ.

Inter Tropical Convertible Zone (ITCZ): -It is a broad trough of low pressure in equatorial lattitudes. This is where
the north east and south east trade winds converge. This convergence zone lies more or less parallel to the equator but
moves north or south with the apparent movement of the Sun.

El Nino: This is a name given to the periodic development of a warm ocean current along the coast of Peru as a
temporary replacement of the cold Peruvian current. ‘El Nino’ is a Spanish word meaning ‘the child’, and refers to the
baby Christ, as this current starts flowing during Christmas. The presence of the El Nino leads to an increase in sea-
surface temperatures and weakening of the trade winds in the region.

La nina: La Nina represent periods of below-average sea surface temperatures across the east-central Equatorial
Pacific. Global climate La Nina impacts tend to be opposite those of El Nino impacts. In the tropics, ocean
temperature variations in La Nina also tend to be opposite those of El Nino.

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During a La Nina year, winter temperatures are warmer than normal in the Southeast and cooler than normal in the
Northwest.

The following factors are important for Monsoon: -

(a) The differential heating and cooling of land and water creates low pressure on the landmass of India while the
seas around experience comparatively high pressure.
(b) The shift of the position of Inter Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) in summer, over the Ganga plain (this is
the equatorial trough normally positioned about 5°N of the equator. It is also known as the monsoon trough during the
monsoon season).
(c) The presence of the high-pressure area, east of Madagascar, approximately at 20°S over the Indian Ocean. The
intensity and position of this high-pressure area affects the Indian Monsoon.
(d) The Tibetan plateau gets intensely heated during summer, which results in strong vertical air currents and the
formation of low pressure over the plateau at about 9 km above sea level.
(e) The movement of the westerly jet stream to the north of the Himalayas and the
presence of the tropical easterly jet stream over the Indian peninsula during summer.

Q. Mango shower
Ans. Mango shower also known as pre-monsoon shower. In India the mango showers occurs as the result
of thunderstorm development over the Bay of Bengal. Towards the close of the summer season, pre-monsoon showers
are common especially in Kerala, Karnataka and parts of Tamil Nadu in India. They help in the early ripening of
mangoes and often referred to as 'mango showers'.

Q. Importance of monsoon to the India

Ans. Indian Agriculture is largely dependent on the Monsoon. So it is important for both Economy as well as
livelihood of people.

kaal,baishakhi: it is temporary wind, shortlived dusty squall at the onset of the southwest monsoon (April-
June) in Bengal .
loo: It is seasonal wind. It is especially strong in the months of May and June. Due to its very high temperatures
(45 °C–50 °C ), exposure to it often leads to fatal heatstroke.
Western ghats Eastern ghats
1. Western Ghats face Arabian Sea and run 1. Eastern Ghats face the Bay of Bengal and run
along the Western plateau. along the eastern plateau.
2. Parallel to western coast from Tapti to 2. Parallel to eastern coast from Odisha to the
Kanyakumari. nilgiri hills.
3. Narrower than the eastern ghat. 3. Wider than the western ghats.
4. Average elevation is 900 to 1100 m above 4. Average elevation is about 600 m above sea
sea level. level.
5. Continuous to be passed through passes 5. Divided into several parts by large rivers.
only.
6. Possess structural unity. 6. Lack structural unity.
7. Western Ghats receive much more rainfall. 7. Lesser rainfall.
8. Greater diversity of flora and fauna. 8. Comparatively lesser diversity.
9. Greater variety in height. 9. Lesser variety in height.
10. More continuous than Eastern Ghats. 10. Less continuous than Western Ghats.
11. Anai Mudi is the highest peak. 11. Mahendragiri is the highest peak.

West coastal plains East coastal plains

1.Located between the western ghats and the
Arabian sea coast
2. a narrow plain with an average width of 64 km.
3. drained by short and swift sreams which are
unable to form deltas.
4. several lagoons
5. have indented coast which supports many ports.
Located between the eaternghats and the bay of
Bengal coast
Comparatively a broader plain with an average
width of 80-100 km
Drained by big rivers like mahandi, Godavari,
Krishna and cauvery that have formed large deltas.
Comparatively less
Have more or less a straight coast where good ports
are lacking
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Natural vegetation refers to a plant community which has grown naturally without human aid and has been left
undisturbed by humans for a long time. This is termed as a virgin vegetation. Thus, cultivated crops and fruits,
orchards form part of vegetation but not natural vegetation.

The virgin vegetation, which are purely Indian are known as endemic or indigenous species but those which have
come from outside India are termed as exotic plants.
The term flora is used to denote plants of a particular region or period. Similarly, the species of animals are referred to
as fauna.
a very large ecosystem on land having distinct types of vegetation and animal life is called a biome.
This huge diversity in flora and fauna kingdom is due to the following factors.
1. Land
2. Soil
3. Temperature
4. Sun Light (photo period)
5. Precipitation

Q. Why have the western slopes of the Western Ghats covered with thick forests and not the eastern slopes?
Ans. The Arabian Sea lies to the west of the Western Ghats. So, the Western slopes face the monsoon winds blowing
towards the land. As the winds blow from the sea they are laden with moisture. As they ascend the western slope, they
cool down with increasing altitude, become saturated, result in the formation of rain clouds and bring heavy rainfall to
the windward western slope. When the winds descend down the eastern slope, they have already shed much of their
moisture. Further, they get warmer as they descend the slopes & hence produce negligible amount of rainfall on the
leeward eastern slope.
Natural vegetation follows rainfall patterns. Places receiving high rainfall are richly covered by forests while sparse
rainfall leads to sparse vegetation.
Hence the difference in vegetation on the two slopes of the Western Ghats.

TYPES OF VEGETATION
The following major types of vegetation may be identified in our country.
(i) Tropical Evergreen Forests
(ii) Tropical Deciduous Forests
(iii) Tropical Thorn Forests and Scrubs
(iv) Montane Forests
(v) Mangrove Forests

MEDICINAL PLANTS
India is known for its herbs and spices from ancient times. Some 2,000 plants have been described in Ayurveda and
atleast 500 are in regular use. The World Conservation Union’s Red list has named 352 medicinal plants of which 52
are critically threatened and 49 endangered.
The main causes for this major threat to nature are hunting by greedy hunters for commercial purposes. Pollution due
to chemical and industrial waste, acid deposits, introduction of alien species and reckless cutting of the forests to bring
land under cultivation and inhabitation, are also responsible for the imbalance.

Q. Steps taken by the Indian Government to protect Flora and Fauna

1. Setting up Biosphere reserve
2.Setting up National parks, Wild life sanctuaries, Zoological gardens
3. Financial and technical Assistance to botanical gardens
4. Projects launched to conserve endangered species such as Project Tiger, Project Rhino, Project Great Indian Bustard
etc.
Q. Difference between biosphere reserve wild life and national park.
Ans.
National park Sanctuary Biosphere reserve
1. Habitat for particular Generally species oriented such Hitched to the whole ecosystem,
animal species. as citrus, pitcher plant etc. i.e., totally of all forms of life,
i.e., ecosystem-oriented.
Fixed by legislation
2. Boundaries fixed by Boundaries are not sacrosanct
legislation Except the buffer zone, no biotic
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3. Except the buffer zone Limited biotic interference interference.

no biotic interference Normally not permissible
4. Tourism permissible Permissible managed
5. Research and scientific lacking
management lacking

Social forestry : - It lays emphasis on people’s involvement in the development and protection of degraded forests as
a permanenet resource base to fulfill the requirements of fuelwood, fodder and small timbr to local communities as
well as to develop the forests for improving the environment.

Objective of social forestry

1. Fuelwood supply, so as to replace cow dung as source of energy.
2. Small timber supply
3. Protection of agricultural fields against wind
4. Fodder supply
5. Recreation needs

Agro forestry is a collective name for land use systems involving trees combined with crops and/or animals
on the same unit of land. It actually involves cycling of nutients and flow of energy through various trophic
levels interacting positively for higher ecological efficiency.

Community forestry is the raising of trees on community land and not on private land as in farm forestry.

Birth rate is the number of live births per thousand persons in a year. It is a major component of growth because in
India, birth rates have always been higher than death rates.
Death rate is the number of deaths perthousand persons in a year. The main causeof the rate of growth of the Indian
populationhas been the rapid decline in death rates.
Migration is the movement of people across regions and territories. Migration can be internal (within the country) or
international (between the countries). Internal migration does not change the size of the population, but influences the
distribution of population within the nation. Migration plays a very significant role in changing the composition and
distribution of population.
Sex ratio is defined as the number of females per 1000 males in the population.
Primary activities include agriculture, animal husbandry, forestry, fishing, mining and quarrying etc. Secondary
activities include manufacturing industry, building and construction work etc. Tertiary activities include transport,
communications, commerce, administration and other services.
Resource: -used to satisfy our needs, provided, it is technologically accessible economically feasible and culturally
acceptable.
These resources can be classified in the following ways –
(a) On the basis of origin – biotic and abiotic
(b) On the basis of exhaustibility – renewable and non-renewable
(c) On the basis of ownership – individual, community, national and international
(d) On the basis of status of development – potential, developed, stock and reserves.
Indiscriminate use of natural resources led to: - depletion and accumulation of resources in few hands as have and
have not’s. Also global ecological crisis such as global warming, ozone layer depletion, environmental pollution and
land degradation.

Equitable distribution of resources is required for sustainable development and global peace. So resource planning is
important for sustainable existence. Sustainable existence is a part of sustainable development which means
development should take place without damaging the environment, and development in the present should not
compromise with the needs of the future generations’.
The concept of Sustainable development emerged from Rio,1992 United Nations Conference on Environment and
Development. It also led the concept of Agenda 21, Polluter pay Principle and Common but Differentiated
Responsibility.

Q. Why resource planning important for India?

Ans. 1. Enormous diversity in availability of reosuces. Some are rich, some are deficient and some are self sufficient
in resources.2. Lack of resources to tap the potential.So, requirement of planning of resources at National, State,
Regional, and Local Level.

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Resource Planning in India

Resource planning is a complex process which involves : (i) identification and inventory of resources across the
regions of the country. This involves surveying, mapping and qualitative and quantitative estimation and measurement
of the resources. (ii) Evolving a planning structure endowed with appropriate technology, skill and institutional set up
for implementing resource development plans. (iii) Matching the resource development plans with overall national
development plans.
Regions which are rich in resources does not guarantee development unless accompanied by technological utilization
and quality of human resource. Infact, this has led to colonization of resource rich countries by technologically
advanced countries.
Conservation of resources vital for sustainable development. Gandhiji said “ There is enough for everyone’s need but
for everyone’s greed. He voiced for production by masses as compared to mass production.
Land in India
It supports natural vegetation, wild life, human life, economic activities, transport and communication systems.
land under a variety of relief features, namely; mountains, plateaus, plains and islands.
About 43 per cent of the land area is plain, which provides facilities for agriculture and industry.
Mountains account for 30 per cent of the total surface area of the country and ensure perennial flow of some rivers,
provide facilities for tourism and ecological aspects.
About 27 per cent of the area of the country is the plateau region. It possesses rich reserves minerals, fossil fuels and
forests.
LAND UTILISATION
Land resources are used for the following purposes:
1. Forests
2. Land not available for cultivation (a) Barren and waste land (b) Land put to non-agricultural uses, e.g. buildings,
roads, factories, etc.
3. Other uncultivated land (excluding fallow land)
(a) Permanent pastures and grazing land,
(b) Land under miscellaneous tree crops groves (not included in net sown area),
(c) Cultruable waste land (left uncultivated for more than 5 agricultural years).
4. Fallow lands
(a) Current fallow-(left without cultivation for
one or less than one agricultural year),
(b) Other than current fallow-(left uncultivated for the past 1 to 5 agricultural years).
5. Net sown area Area sown more than once in an agricultural year plus net sown area is known as gross cropped
area.

The use of land is determined both by physical factors such as topography, climate, soil types as well as human factors
such as population density, technological capability and culture and traditions etc.
Continuous use of land over along period of time without taking appropriate measures to conserve and manage it, has
resulted in land degradation. This, in turn, has serious repercussions on society and the environment.
The land under permanent pasture has decreased due to increase in population and increasing infrastructural activities.
Some land is of poor quality due to deficiency of minerals in it. The pattern of Net Sown Area also varies due to relief
feature of land and quality of land.
Degradation of land: due to human activities, water logging, over irrigation, salinity and alkalinity, deforestation,
over grazing, mining and quarrying.

Ways to solve land degradation: - Afforestation and proper management of grazing, Planting of shelter belts of plants,
control on over grazing, stabilisation of sand dunes by growing thorny bushes, Proper management of waste lands,
control of mining activities, proper discharge and disposal of industrial effluents and wastes after treatment.

Soil
It takes millions of years to form soil up to a few cm in depth. Relief, parent rock or bed rock, climate, vegetation and
other forms of life and time are important factors in the formation of soil. Various forces of nature such as change in
temperature, actions of running water, wind and glaciers, activities of decomposers etc. contribute to the formation of
soil. Chemical and organic changes which take place in the soil are equally important. Soil also consists of organic
(humus) and inorganic materials.
On the basis of the factors responsible for soil formation, colour, thickness, texture, age, chemical and physical
properties, the soils of India can be classified in different types.

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Alluvial Soil: - Most widely spread, Formed mostly by deposition of three rivers- Indus, Ganga, Brahmaputra. Also
found in narrow corridor of Rajasthan and Gujrat and in delta of Godavari, Krishna, Mahanadi, Kaveri. Soil is
common in Duars, Chos and Terai.

It is also classified on the basis of age as Bangar (old aluvial) – High presence of kankar and Khadar (New alluvial) –
High presence of fine particles and more fertile than Bangar.
Alluvial Soil contain adequate proportion of Potash, Phosphoric acid and Lime which are ideal for growth of sugar
cane, paddy, wheat and other cereal and pulse crops.

Black Soil (Regur Soil, Black Cotton Soil)

Black in colour, Typical of the Deccan trap (Basalt) region spread over northwest Deccan plateau and is made up of
lava flows. They cover the plateaus of Maharashtra, Saurashtra, Malwa, Madhya Pradesh and Chhattisgarh and extend
in the south east direction along the Godavari and the Krishna valleys. The black soils are made up of extremely fine
i.e. clayey material, capacity to hold moisture, rich in soil nutrients, such as calcium carbonate, magnesium, potash
and lime. poor in phosphoric contents. Develop deep cracks during hot weather, which helps in the proper aeration of
the soil.

Red and Yellow Soils

Red soil develops on crystalline igneous rocks in areas of low rainfall in the eastern and southern parts of the Deccan
plateau. Yellow and red soils are also found in parts of Orissa, Chhattisgarh, southern parts of the middle Ganga plain
and along the piedmont zone of the Western Ghats. These soils develop a reddish colour due to diffusion of iron in
crystalline and metamorphic rocks. It looks yellow when it occurs in a hydrated form.

Laterite Soil
Laterite has been derived from the Latin word ‘later’ which means brick.
Develops in areas with high temperature and heavy rainfall. Intense leaching and low humus content due to high rain
fall and high temperature. Suitable for cultivation with adequate doses of manures and fertilizers. These soils are
mainly found in Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Madhya Pradesh, and the hilly areas of Orissa and Assam. Useful for
growing tea and coffee and crops like cashew nut.

Arid Soils
Red to brown in colour, Sandy in texture and saline in nature. In some areas the salt content is very high and common
salt is obtained by evaporating the water. Due to the dry Climate, high temperature, evaporation is faster and the soil
lacks humus and moisture. The lower horizons of the soil are occupied by Kankar because of the increasing calcium
content downwards. The Kankar layer formations in the bottom horizons restrict the infiltration of water. After proper
irrigation these soils become cultivable as has been in the case of western Rajasthan.

Forest Soils
Found in the hilly and mountainous areas. They are loamy and silty invalley sides and coarse grained in the upper
slopes. In the snow covered areas of Himalayas, these soils experience denudation and are acidic with low humus
content. The soils found in the lower parts of the valleysparticularly on the river terraces and alluvial fans are fertile.

Soil Erosion
Due to water, wind, glaciers and human activities like deforestation, over grazing.
How to control soil erosion in hilly areas: contour ploughing, terrace cultivation and effective cultivation methods.

Biodiversity or Biological Diversity is immensely rich in wildlife and cultivated species, diverse in form and
function but closely integrated in a system through multiple network of interdependencies. India is one of the world’s
richest countries in terms of biological diversity, and has nearly 8 per cent of the total number of species in the world
(estimated to be 1.6 million). Some estimates suggest that at least 10per cent of India’s recorded wild flora and 20 per
cent of its mammals are on the threatened list.
Based on the International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN), we can classify plants
and animals as:
Normal Species: Species whose population levels are considered to be normal for their survival, such as cattle, sal,
pine, rodents, etc.

Endangered Species: Species which are in danger of extinction. The survival of such species is difficult if the
negative factors that have led to a decline in their population continue to operate. Examples -Black buck, crocodile,
Indian wild ass, Indian rhino, lion tailed macaque, sangai (brow anter deer in Manipur), etc.
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Vulnerable Species: Species whose population has declined to levels from where it is likely to move into the
endangered category in the near future if the negative factors continue to operate. Examples - blue sheep, Asiatic
elephant, Gangetic dolphin, etc.

Rare Species: Species with small population may move into the endangered or vulnerable category if the negative
factors affecting them continue to operate. Examples - Himalayan brown bear, wild Asiatic buffalo, desert fox and
hornbill, etc.

Endemic Species: Species which are only found in some particular areas usually isolated by natural or geographical
barriers. Examples - Andaman teal, Nicobar pigeon, Andamanwild pig, mithun in Arunchal Pradesh.

Extinct Species: Species which are not found after searches of known or likely areas where they may occur. A species
may be extinct from a local area, region, country, continent or the entire earth. Examples - Asiatic cheetah, pink head
duck.
Negative factors that cause depletion of flaura and fauna: - Human activities like expansion of the railways,
agriculture, commercial and scientific forestry and mining activities, formation of dam. In tribal areas deforestry
caused by Jhum (burn and slash) cultivation. Habitat destruction, hunting, poaching, over-exploitation, environmental
pollution, poisoning and forest fires, unequal access, inequitable consumption of resources and differential sharing of
responsibility for environmental well-being, Over-population and consumerism led to decline in biological diversity.

Decrease in Biological Diversity is not only biological loss but also led to marginalization and impoverishment of
many forest dwellers, who directly depend on forest and wild life for food, drink, medicine, culture, spirituality, etc.
Within the poor, women are affected more than men. It led to social and health implication over women.

Why conservation of diversity: - Conservation preserves the ecological diversity and our life support systems –
water, air and soil. Also preserves the genetic diversity of plants and animals for better growth of species and
breeding. Indian wild life protection Act,1972 with aim of protecting the remaining population of certain endangered
species by banning hunting, giving legal protection to their habitats, and restricting trade in wildlife.

Various animals for whom legal protection has been given – tiger, one horned rhinoceros, the Kashmir stag or hangul,
three types of crocodiles – fresh water crocodile, saltwater crocodile and the Gharial,the Asiatic lion, and others. Most
recently, the Indian elephant, black buck (chinkara), the great Indian bustard (godawan) and the snow leopard, etc

Under Wildlife Act of 1980 and 1986, several hundred butterflies, moths, beetles, and one dragonfly have been added
to the list of protected species. Plants were also added to the list, starting with six species.

Type and distribution of Forests and Wild Life Resources: -

(1)Reserved Forests: More than half of the total forest land has been declared reserved forests. Reserved forests are
regarded as the most valuable as far as the conservation of forest and wildlife resources are concerned.

(2) Protected Forests: Almost one-third of the total forest area is protected forest, as declared by the Forest
Department. This forest land are protected from any further depletion.

(3) Un classed Forests: These are other forests and wastelands belonging to both government and private individuals
and communities.

Community and Conservation

Traditional Communities living in Forest have lots of stake in conserving forest as they are dependent on them for
various things. Communities preserve wide Flaura and Fauna by recognizing it as sacred like some ponds, trees(
Banyan, peepal, basil etc.) and animal like langur, monkey etc.
Chipko movement is leading example to protect forest from deforestation. Farmers and citizen group like beej bachao
andolan in tehri and Navdanya have shown that adequate level of crop diversification is possible without the use of
synthetic chemicals. Joint forest management is important initiative to involve the local community in forest
protection and conservation.

Q. Why human settlements through the ages found along the river courses?
Ans. Becuase of access to water, fertile land along river course.
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Q. Why there is scarcity of water around the globe despite having 75 % surface area covered with water?
Ans: 96.5 per cent of the total volume of world’s water is estimated to exist as oceans and
only 2.5 per cent as freshwater. Nearly70 per cent of this freshwater occurs as ice sheets and glaciers in Antarctica,
Greenland and the mountainous regions of the world, while a little less than 30per cent is stored as groundwater in the
world’s aquifers.
India receives nearly 4 per cent of the global precipitation and ranks 133 in the world in terms of water availability per
person per annum. The total renewable water resources of India are estimated at 1,897 sq km per annum. By 2025, it is
predicted that large parts of India will join countries or regions having absolute water scarcity.

WATER SCARCITY AND THE NEED FOR WATER CONSERVATION AND MANAGEMENT
The availability of water resources varies over space and time, mainly due to the variations in seasonal and annual
precipitation, but water scarcity in most cases is caused by over- exploitation, excessive use and unequal access to
water among different social groups.
There is interesting example of Israel where average annual rainfall of 25cm, but they conserve and manage it
properly that they don’t feel its scarcity. The scarcity of water increased due to increase in population,
industrialization, urbanization, agricultural modernization, bad quality of water, inefficient use of water resources.

MULTI-PURPOSE RIVER PROJECTS AND INTEGRATED WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT

Dams are built not just for irrigation but for electricity generation, water supply for domestic and industrial uses, flood
control, recreation, inland navigation and fish breeding.
Example - Sutluj-Beas river basin, the Bhakhra –Nangal project water is being used both for hydel power production
and irrigation. Similarly, the Hirakund project in the Mahanadi basin integrates conservation of water with flood
control.
Jawaharlal Nehru proudly proclaimed the dams as the ‘temples of modern India’; the reason being that it would
integrate development of agriculture and the village economy with rapid industrialisation and growth of the urban
economy.

Problem with multipurpose dam ; -affect their natural flow causing poor sediment flow and excessive
sedimentation at the bottom of the reservoir, resulting in rockier stream beds andpoorer habitats for the rivers’ aquatic
life. Difficulties for aquatic fauna to migrate, especially for spawning. Submerge the existing vegetation and soil,
large-scale displacement of local communities, inter-state disputes. Also it led to flood when excessive rain occurs.
The floods have not only devastated life and property but also caused extensive soil erosion. Sedimentation also meant
that the flood plains were deprived of silt, a natural fertiliser, further adding on to the problem of land degradation.
Multi-purpose projects induced earthquakes, caused water borne diseases and pests and pollution resulting from
excessive use of water. It also led to movements like Narmada Bachao Andolan, Tehri Dam Andolan.

Q. What is Rain water harvesting and its advantages?

Ans. Rainwater harvesting is the accumulation and deposition of rainwater for reuse on-site, rather than allowing it
to run off. Its uses include water for garden, water for livestock water for irrigation, water for domestic use with
proper treatment, and indoor heating for houses etc.

Advantage:
1. Easy to Maintain 5. Reduces Floods and Soil Erosion
2. Reducing Water Bills 6. Can be Used for Several Non-drinking
3. Suitable for Irrigation Purposes
4. Reduces Demand on Ground Water

Q. What is Drip irrigation and its advantages?

Ans. Drip irrigation, also known as trickle irrigation or micro irrigation or localized irrigation, is
an irrigation method that saves water and fertilizer by allowing water to drip slowly to the roots of plants, either onto
the soil surface or directly onto the root zone, through a network of valves, pipes, tubing, and emmiter. It is done
through narrow tubes that deliver water directly to the base of the plant.
Advantage: Effective use of resource and minimize wastage of resources.
India is agricultural country, two-third of its population still engaged in agriculture. The performance of agricultural
sector have direct impact over manufacturing and the economy of the country.

Types of Agriculture: -
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1. Primitive Subsistence Farming: - Practiced on small patch of land with primitive tools, depend on monsoon
and natural fertility of soil and suitability of environmental conditions to the crop. Ex. Slash and burn
agriculture ( Jhum cultivation)
2. Intensive Subsistence Farming: -Large area of land, Modern technique, Fertilisers and irrigation.

Commercial Farming: -Use of high dose of Chemical Fertilisers, insecticide, pesticides, irrigation, High Yielding
Varieties Seeds. Commercialisation varies from region to region Rice cultivation is commercial farming in Haryana
but subsistence farming in Orissa. Plantation is also a type of commercial farming. Example- tea, coffee, rubber,
sugarcane, banana etc..

Cropping Pattern
India has three cropping seasons —rabi, kharif and zaid

Rabi crops are sown in winter from October to December and harvested in summer from April to June. Some of the
important rabi crops are wheat, barley, peas, gram and mustard. Availability of precipitation during winter months due
to the western temperate cyclones helps in the success of these crops.

Kharif crops are grown with the onset of monsoon in different parts of the country and these are harvested in
September-October. Important crops grown during this season are paddy, maize, jowar, bajra, tur (arhar), moong,
urad, cotton, jute, groundnut and soyabean. In states like Assam, West Bengal and Orissa, three crops of paddy are
grown in a year. These are Aus, Aman and Boro.

In between the rabi and the kharif seasons, there is a short season during the summer months known as the Zaid
season. Some of the crops produced during ‘zaid’ are watermelon, muskmelon, cucumber, vegetables and fodder
crops. Sugarcane takes almost a year to grow.

Major Crops
Rice: Staple food crop. India is the second largest producer of rice in the world after China. It is a kharif crop which
requires high temperature, (above 25°C) and high humidity with annual rainfall above 100 cm. In the areas of less
rainfall, it grows with the help of irrigation. Rice is grown mainly in the plains of north and north-eastern India,
coastal areas and the deltaic regions.

Wheat: Second most important cereal crop. This rabi crop requires a cool growing season and a bright sunshine at the
time of ripening. It requires 50 to 75 cm of annual rainfall evenly distributed over the growing season. There are two
important wheat-growing zones in the country – the Ganga-Satluj plains in the northwest and black soil region of the
Deccan. The major wheat-producing states are Punjab, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Rajasthan and parts of Madhya
Pradesh.

Millets: Jowar, bajra and ragi are the important millets grown in India.known as coarse grains, they have very high
nutritional value. For example, ragi is very rich in iron, calcium, other micro nutrients and roughage. Jowar is the third
most important food crop with respect to area and production. It is a rain-fed crop mostly grown in the moist areas
which hardly needs irrigation. Maharashtra is the largest producer of jowar followed by Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh
and Madhya Pradesh.

Bajra grows well on sandy soils and shallow black soil. Rajasthan is the largest producer of bajra followed by Uttar
Pradesh, Maharashtra,Gujarat and Haryana.

Ragi is a crop of dry regions and grows well on red, black, sandy, loamy and shallow black soils. Karnataka is the
largest producer of ragi followed by Tamil Nadu.

Maize: Used both as food and fodder. It is a kharif crop which requires temperature between 21°C to 27°C and grows
well in old alluvial soil. Major maize-producing states are Karnataka, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Andhra Pradesh and
Madhya Pradesh.

Pulses: India is the largest producer as well as the consumer of pulses in the world. These are the major source of
protein in a vegetarian diet. Major pulses that are grown in India are tur (arhar), urad, moong, masur, peas and gram.
Being leguminous crops, all these crops except arhar help in restoring soil fertility by fixing nitrogen from the air.
Therefore, these are mostly grown in rotation with other crops. Major pulse producing states in India are Madhya
Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthan, Maharashtra and Karnataka.
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Food Crops other than Grains

Sugarcane: It is a tropical as well as a subtropical crop. It grows well in hot and humid climate with a temperature of
21°C to 27°C and an annual rainfall between 75cm. and 100cm. It can be grown on a variety of soils and needs
manual labour from sowing to harvesting. India is the second largest producer of sugarcane only after Brazil. Source
of sugar, gur (jaggary), khandsari and molasses. The major sugarcane-producing states are Uttar Pradesh,
Maharashtra, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Punjab and Haryana.

Oil Seeds: India is the largest producer of oilseeds in the world. Grown in approximately 12 per cent of the total
cropped area of the country. Main oil-seeds produced in India are groundnut, mustard, coconut, sesamum (til),
soyabean, castor seeds, cotton seeds, linseed and sunflower. Most of these are edible and used as cooking mediums.
Also used as raw material in the production of soap, cosmetics and ointments.
Groundnut is a kharif crop. Andhra Pradesh is the largest producer of groundnut followed by Tamil Nadu, Karnataka,
Gujarat and Maharashtra – linseed and mustard are rabi crops. Sesamum is a kharif crop in north and rabi crop in
south India. Castor seed is grown both as rabi and kharif crop.

Tea: -The tea plant grows well in tropical and sub-tropical climates endowed with deep and fertile well-drained soil,
rich in humus and organic matter. Tea bushes require warm and moist frost-free climate all through the year. Frequent
showers evenly distributed over the year ensure continuous growth of tender leaves. Tea is a labour intensive industry.
It requires abundant, cheap and skilled labour.
Major tea producing states -Assam, hills of Darjeeling and Jalpaiguri districts, West Bengal, Tamil Naduand Kerala.
India is the leading producer as well as exporter of tea in the world.
Coffee: -Coffee Arabica is produce in India. It is mainly produced in Kerala and Karnataka.

Horticultural Crops: India is the largest producer of fruits and vegetables in the world. India is a producer of tropical
as well as temperate fruits.

Non Food Crop

Rubber: It is an equatorial crop, but under special conditions, it is also grown in tropical and sub-tropical areas. It
requires moist and humid climate with rainfall of more than 200 cm. and temperature above 25°C.
Rubber is an important industrial raw material. It is mainly grown in Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka and Andaman
and Nicabar islands and Garo hills of Meghalaya. India ranks fifth among the world’s natural rubber producers.

Fibre Crop: Cotton, jute, hemp and natural silk are the four major fibre crops grown in India. The first three are
derived from the crops grown in the soil, the latter is obtained from cocoons of the silkworms fed on green leaves
specially mulberry. Rearing of silk worms for the production of silk fibre is known as sericulture.

Cotton: India is original home of the cotton plant. Third-largest producer of cotton in the world. Grows well in drier
parts of the black cotton soil of the Deccan plateau. It requires high temperature, light rainfall or irrigation, 210 frost-
free days and bright sunshine for its growth. It is a kharif crop. Major cotton-producing states are – Maharashtra,
Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Punjab, Haryana and Uttar Pradesh.

Jute: It is known as the golden fibre. Jute grows well on well-drained fertile soils. High temperature is required during
the time of growth. West Bengal, Bihar, Assam, Orissa and Meghalaya are the major jute producing states. It is used
in making gunny bags, mats, ropes, yarn, carpets and other artefacts. Due to its high cost, it is losing market to
synthetic fibres and packing materials, particularly the nylon.

Institutional changes in agricultural sector Brought by Govt. of India: -

Land Reforms: - Land Consolidation, Abolition of Zamindari, Cooperation, Green Revolution, Operation Flood,
Minimum Support Price, Crop Insurance against Draught, Flood, Cyclone, Fire, Disease, Grameen Bank, Kisan Credit
Card, Co-operative Societies.
Apart from it technological changes and introduction of new varieties are essential.

Feature of Indian Agriculture: - Monsoon dependence, primitive tools of agriculture, small land holdings, disguised
unemployment, lack technological and scientific research in agriculture.

Q. What are the positive and negatives of Green Revolution in India?

Ans. Positive: Increase in production, livelihood, living standard increased, self sufficient in agriculture production.
Negative: green revolution got concentrated to few pockets of country, regional disparities, disparities in society.
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Q. What are the effects of Globalization on Indian Agriculture?

Ans. Positive: Access to new technology and practices like high yielding varieties, irrigation practices, seeds. Access
to international market, prices of crop.
Negatives: Competition to the agricultural production of other countries, loss of indigenous varities.

Q. What is Organic Farming and its advantages?

Ans. Organic farming is a form of agriculture that relies on techniques such as crop rotation, green manure, compost,
and biological pest control.
Nutrition Poison-free Food Tastes Better Disease and Pest Resistance Lower Input Costs

Q. What can be the steps to bring Green Revolution in entire India?

Ans. Extension of new technology and practices to the farmers. New research and development in the Agriculture
sector.
Minerals - are “homogenous, naturally occurring substance with a definable internal structure.”

Q. Why the minerals range from hard to soft?

Ans. -A particular mineral that will be formed from a certain combination of elements depends upon the physical and
chemical conditions under which the material forms. This, in turn, results in a wide range of colours, hardness, crystal
forms, lusters and density that a particular mineral possesses.

Q. What is rat hole mining? Discuss the health issues related with it?
Ans. In Meghalaya,there are large deposits of coal,iron ore ,limestone and dolomite etc. Coal mining in Jowai and
Cherapunjee is done by family members in the form of a long narrow. Tunnel,known as “Rat-hole”mining. Mining
done by family members or community which is not under government is called rat hole mining In India. This is
mainly done by tribals of north-east India. This is named so because they dig holes similar to that of rat holes to mine.
In rat hole mining the health issue are both environmental as well as occupational.

Q. What are the hazards of mining?

Ans. Environmental hazards: deforestation, change in landforms, prone to landslides, vulnerable to earthquakes, air
pollution, water pollution etc.
Health hazards: occupational health diseases like asbestosis, silicosis etc.

Q. What is the need for conservation of minerals?

Ans – Finite, non-renewable, long time for replenishment, continued extraction lead to more cost.

Q. Classify the energy resources. Also advantage and disadvantages.

Ans. Conventional - firewood, cattle dung cake, coal, petroleum, natural gas and electricity (both hydel and thermal)
Non-conventional - solar, wind, tidal, geothermal, biogas and atomic energy

Different type of coal

Lignite: -Low grade brown coal, found in neyveli (TN). Used for generation of electricity.
Bituminous: -Widely use as commercial and in metallurgical purpose.
Anthracite: -High grade coal

Important Coal Sites in India: -Damodar valley (West Bengal-Jharkhand). Jharia, Raniganj, Bokaro are important
coalfields. The Godavari, Mahanadi, Son and Wardha valleys and Meghalaya, Assam, Arunachal Pradesh and
Nagaland
Petroleum: -Most of the petroleum occurrences in India are associated with anticlines and fault traps in the rock
formations of the tertiary age. In regions of folding, anticlines or domes, it occurs where oil is trapped in the crest of
the upfold. The oil bearing layer is a porous limestone or sandstone through which oil may flow. The oil is prevented
from rising or sinking by intervening non-porous layers. About 63 per cent of India’s petroleum production is from
Mumbai High, 18 per cent from Gujarat and 16 per cent from Assam.

Natural Gas: -Natural gas is an important clean energy resource found in association with or without petroleum. It is
used as a source of energy as well as an industrial raw material in the petrochemical industry. Large reserves of natural
gas have been discovered in the Krishna- Godavari basin. Along the west coast the reserves of the Mumbai High and
allied fields are supplemented by finds in the Gulf of Cambay. Andaman and Nicobar islands are also important areas
having large reserves of natural gas.
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Electricity: -Electricity is generated mainly in two ways: by running water which drives hydro turbines to generate
hydro electricity; and by burning other fuels such as coal, petroleum and natural gas to drive turbines to produce
thermal power.

Hydro electricityis generated by fastflowing water, which is a renewable resource.India has a number of multi-
purpose projectslike the Bhakra Nangal, Damodar Valleycorporation, the Kopili Hydel Project etc.producing
hydroelectric power.

Non-Conventional Source of energy: -Nuclear Energy, Solar Energy, Wind Energy, Biogas, Tidal and Geothermal
Energy.

Nuclear Energy or Atomic Energy: -It is obtained by altering the structure of atoms. When such an alteration is
made, much energy is released in the form of heat and this is used to generate electric power. Uranium and
Thorium, which are available in Jharkhand and the Aravalli ranges of Rajasthan are used for generating atomic or
nuclear power. The Monazite sands of Kerala is also rich in Thorium.

Wind power
India has huge potential for wind power. The largest wind farm cluster is located in Tamil Nadu from Nagarcoil to
Madurai. Apart from these, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Gujarat, Kerala, Maharashtra andLakshadweep have
important wind farms. Nagarcoil and Jaisalmer are well known for effective use of wind energy in the country.

Tidal Energy
Oceanic tides can be used to generate electricity. Floodgate dams are built across inlets. During high tide water flows
into the inlet and gets trapped when the gate is closed. After the tide falls outside the flood gate, thewater retained by
the floodgate flows back to the sea via a pipe that carries it through a power-generating turbine.
In India, the Gulf of Kuchchh, provides ideal conditions for utilising tidal energy.

Geo Thermal Energy

Geothermal energy refers to the heat and electricity produced by using the heat from the interior of the Earth.
Geothermal energy exists because, the Earth grows progressively hotter with increasing depth. Where the geothermal
gradient is high, high temperatures are found at shallow depths. Groundwater in such areas absorbs heat from the
rocks and becomes hot. It is so hot that when it rises to the earth’s surface, it turns into steam. This steam is used to
drive turbines and generate electricity. Lot of hot springs can be used to generate electricity.

Q. What is the need for conservation of energy?

Ans. Limited stock, takes long time for replenishment, fast consumption will affect the potential of future generation.
India is energy deficient country so, energy saved is energy produced.

Q. What is the importance of manufacturing sector for a country?

Ans. -1. Modernise agriculture, reduce burden on agriculture sector.
2.Help in eradication of unemployment and poverty, brings down regional disparities.
3. increase export and import and bring foreign exchange.
4.Country prosperity lies in increasing and diversifying its manufacturing sector.

Agriculture and industry are dependent on each other. Over the last two decades, the share of
manufacturing sector has stagnated at 17 percent of GDP – out of a total of 27 per cent for the industry which includes
10 per cent for mining, quarrying, electricity and gas.

Q. what are the factors for location of industry?

Ans.- Availability of raw material, market, transport and communication, power, labour, Financial services and Govt.
policies. These factors decide the cost of obtaining raw material, cost of production, cost of distribution

Classification of Industries
On the basis of source of raw materials used:
• Agro based: cotton, woollen, jute, silk textile, rubber and sugar, tea, coffee, edible oil.
• Mineral based: iron and steel, cement, aluminium, machine tools, petrochemicals.
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According to their main role:

• Basic or key industries which supply their products or raw materials to manufacture other goods e.g. iron and steel
and copper smelting, aluminum smelting.
• Consumer industries that produce goods for direct use by consumers – sugar, toothpaste, paper, sewing machines,
fans etc.

On the basis of capital investment:

• A small scale industry is defined with reference to the maximum investment allowed on the assets of a unit. This
limit has changed over a period of time. At present the maximum investment allowed
is rupees one crore. If investment is more than one crore on any industry then it is known as a large scale industry.

On the basis of ownership:

• Public sector, owned and operated by government agencies – BHEL, SAIL etc.
• Private sector industries owned and operated by individuals or a group of individuals –TISCO, Bajaj Auto Ltd.,
Dabur Industries.
• Joint sector industries which are jointly run by the state and individuals or a group of individuals. Oil India Ltd.
(OIL) is jointly owned by public and private sector.
• Cooperative sector industries are owned and operated by the producers or suppliers of raw materials, workers or
both. They pool in the resources and share the profits or losses proportionately such as the sugar industry in
Maharashtra, the coir industry in Kerala.

Based on the bulk and weight of raw material and finished goods:
• Heavy industries such as iron and steel
• Light industries that use light raw materials and produce light goods such as electrical industries.

Agro Based Industries

Cotton, jute, silk, woollen textiles, sugar and edible oil, etc. industry are based on agricultural raw materials.

Q.Why did Mahatma Gandhi lay emphasis on spinning yarn and weaving khadi?
Ans: -because he wanted to increase self reliance and decrease dependence over foreign products. Secondly, this way
he was increasing employment base which matches his philosophy of production by masses as compared to mass
production. Thirdly, his aim was to develop the feeling of nationalism.

Q. Why jute industry is mainly located to Bengal region (Hugli Basin)?

Ans. –India is largest producer of jute. Factors responsible for their location in the Hugli basin are: proximity of the
jute producing areas, inexpensive water transport, supported by a good network of railways, roadways and waterways
to facilitate movement of raw material to the mills, abundant water for processing raw jute, cheap labour from West
Bengal and adjoining states of Bihar, Orissa and Uttar Pradesh. Kolkata as a large urban centre provides banking,
insurance and port facilities for export of jute goods.

Q. Why is it important for us to improve our weaving sector instead of exporting yarn in large quantities?
Ans. It will help to increase the industrial and manufacturing activities in India. Manufactured products can be
exported to generate foreign exchange.

Q. Why the sugar industry is largely shifting to Southern India?

Ans. -because the cane produced here has a higher sucrose content. The cooler climate also ensures a longer crushing
season. Moreover, the cooperatives are more successful in these states.

Q. Major challenges to sugar industry: -the seasonal nature of the industry, old and inefficient methods of
production, transport delay in reaching cane to factories and the need to maximise the use of baggase.

Q. What are the factor that help India to be major steel industry?
Ans. low cost of iron ore, high grade raw materials in proximity, cheap labour and vast growth potential in the home
market.

Q. Why India has not been able develop its full potential in steel industry?
Ans. (a) High costs and limited availability of coking coal (b) Lower productivity of labour (c) Irregular supply of
energy and (d) Poor infrastructure.
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Q. Why do we import fertilisers?

Ans. Because of the low production of potassium and phosphorus based fertilizers and also because of low production
of nitrogen based fertilizers.

Q. How service sector helped to emancipate the women?

Ans. Because of increase in employment opportunities, flexibility in working, good amount of remuneration.
Strengthening at the economic dimensions help to empower them at social dimension also.

Q. What are the effects of LPG policies on manufacturing sector?

Ans. Increase in production both as quantity as well as quality, Increase in employment opportunities, increase share
of manufacturing sector in GDP of country.

Q. Industrial pollution
Ans. Air, Water, Noise, Land Pollution

Q. How can the environmental degradation can be minimized?

Ans. (1) Minimising use of water for processing by reusing and recycling it in two or more successive stages
(2) Harvesting of rainwater to meet water requirements
(3) Treating hot water and effluents before releasing them in rivers and ponds. Treatment of industrial effluents can be
done in three phases: -(a) Primary treatment by mechanical means. This involves screening, grinding, flocculation and
sedimentation.
(b) Secondary treatment by biological process
(c) Tertiary treatment by biological, chemical and physical processes. This involves recycling of wastewater
(4) Drawing of ground water needs to be regulated legally.
(5) Particulate matter in the air can be reduced by fitting smoke stacks to factories with electrostatic precipitators,
fabric filters, scrubbers and inertial separators.
(6) Smoke can be reduced by using oil or gas instead of coal in factories.
(7) Machinery and equipment can be used and generators should be fitted with silencers.
(8) Almost all machinery can be redesigned to increase energy efficiency and reduce noise.
(9) Noise absorbing material may be used apart from personal use of earplugs and earphones.
The challenge of sustainable development requires integration of economic development with environmental
concerns.

Q. What are the lifelines of economy?

Ans. Transport and communication is the lifeline of the economy. Because it helps to move the goods and people from
one place to another along with information. Transport can through three ways: - a). Land – Roadways, Railways and
Pipelines b).Water – Inland and overseas c). Air – Domestic Airlines (Public and Private Airlines) and International
Airlines

Q. What is the importance of road transport?

Ans. (a) Construction cost of roads is much lower than that of railway lines,
(b) Roads can traverse comparatively more dissected and undulating topography,
(c) Roads can negotiate higher gradients of slopes and as such can traverse mountains such as the Himalayas,
(d) Road transport is economical in transportation of few persons and relatively smaller amount of goods over short
distances,
(e) It also provides door-to-door service, thus the cost of loading and unloading is much lower,
(f) Road transport is also used as a feeder to other modes of transport such as they provide a link between railway
stations, air and sea ports.

Q. Why Inland Waterways not develop in India?

Ans. Lack of infrastructure, dreging problem, more dependence on road and railway transport.

Q. What are different types of ports and what are the problem of port development in India?
Ans Mainly there are two types of port 1. Major Port 2. Minor Port
Problem with Port development: Multiple authorities, archaic laws, lack of connectivity, lack of infrastructure.

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Q. What are various components of international trade and role of tourism in it?
Ans. International trade is simply the exchange of services and goods across various geographical borders. The types
of international trade include inter-firm trade, intra-industry trade, intra-firm trade, inter-industry trade.
The components of international trade are transport cost, transaction cost, tariff and non-tariff barriers, time cost.
Role of tourism: increase in employment, increase of economic activities like trade, export, import, exchange of ideas,
cultural exchange etc.

Important pipelines of India:

1. Naharkatia-Nunmati-Barauni Pipeline
2. Mumbai High-Mumbai-Ankleshwar-Kayoli Pipeline
3. Salaya-Koyali-Mathura Pipeline
4. Hajira-Bijapur-Jagdishpur (HBJ) Gas Pipeline
5. Jamnagar-Loni LPG Pipeline
6. Kandla-Bhatinda Pipeline

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