Wa 06 GF

Grammar focus
Unit 1
Present tenses
PRESENTATION
1 The Internet isn’t working.
2 Are you still living in Miami?
3 We’ve been waiting for a long time.
4 What do you think about your new job so far?
5 The flight doesn’t depart until eleven o’clock tonight.
6 I’ve made three cakes this morning.
SIMPLE PRESENT
We often use words or phrases such as always, generally, often, whenever, nowadays, most of
the time, from time to time, etc. with the simple present. We use the simple present:
to talk about general truths, habits, or permanent states or situations.
We work for a renewable energy company.
to talk about fixed or scheduled events in the future.
Next month starts on a Monday.
to talk about the future after time phrases such as after, as soon as, before, by the time, if,
once, until, unless, when, while.
Once they process the insurance claim, I’m sure we’ll hear from them quickly.
to talk about the future after some relative pronouns (who/where) and in clauses that begin
with as, than, whether.
There will be a medal for the runner who finishes in first place.
Whether you like it or not, you’re going to school tomorrow!
in newspaper headlines, reviews or summaries of books and movies, live commentaries, and
to tell the main events of a joke or anecdote.
Man survives fall from ten-story building.
The story starts really slowly, but soon picks up pace.
PRESENT CONTINUOUS
We often use words or time phrases such as still, right now, at the moment, at present, this
week, today, etc. with the present continuous. We generally use the present continuous to
talk about:
temporary actions, events or situations, which are in progress now or around now.
I’m reading a great book at the moment.
future arrangements.
He’s working from home the whole of next week.
changing or developing situations.
People over the age of 40 are opting to work from home more and more these days.
with always, constantly, or continually for situations that the speaker finds annoying, strange,
or funny.
He’s always making jokes at his own expense. He’s hilarious!
She’s constantly criticizing other people. I can’t stand it!
the background to jokes and anecdotes
So I’m running down the street after the guy who’s stolen my bike, when I realize…
A giraffe walks into a bar and he’s wearing a tie.
Wide Angle 6 Unit 1 Grammar focus 1

VERBS OF STATE
We usually use the simple present when we talk about states with verbs such as believe, like,
know, seem, think.
Do you know anyone who lives in Edinburgh?
However, we can use some verbs of state in the present continuous to emphasize that the
state, feeling, or attitude is at a particular time and possibly temporary.
How are you liking your new job?
Some verbs can act as action verbs or verbs of state depending on the context.
I’m seeing him after lunch. (I’m seeing = I’m meeting)
I see what you mean. (I see = I understand)
PRESENT PERFECT AND PRESENT PERFECT CONTINUOUS

We use the present perfect to talk about:
actions that happened at an unspecified point in the past or where the result of the action is
more important than when the action happened.
How many times have you been arrested?
Oh wow! That’s amazing, they’ve both been selected for the Olympic team!
actions or states that began in the past and continue up to the present, often with words and
phrases such as for, since, (up) until now, so far, yet, just, recently.
I’ve had this photo of my aunt for over twenty years.
We’ve known each other since we were in secondary school.
an experience with ever, never, already, just, and yet.
We’ve just discovered who took the photo.
Have you ever been to Australia?
to talk about finished actions in the future after time phrases such as after, before, when,
once, while, by the time, until, unless, as soon as, if.
Once they’ve signed the contract, we’ll go straight to the bank.
Call me as soon as you’ve heard from them.
We use the present perfect continuous to talk about:
situations or actions that began in the past and are still in progress, often with words and
phrases such as for, since, all day, all week, just. The emphasis is on the duration of
the activity.
This painting has been hanging in my bedroom since I inherited it from my grandfather.
You haven’t been working from home all week, have you?
an action that has happened repeatedly in the past and is still happening now.
He’s been making Russian dolls to sell in his store.
an action or situation which has just stopped, but which has a result that can still be seen.
I’ve been standing in the rain ringing your doorbell for 10 minutes—I’m soaked!
Constructions with -ing or with to infinitive

PRESENTATION
1 I don’t mind missing the movie—I’ve seen it before.
2 My boss has let me take the afternoon off.
3 I’d like to be able to run 10k without getting completely exhausted.
4 Zoe’s bored; she doesn’t have anyone to talk to.
5 Do you remember getting lost in Vienna?
-ING FORM
We use the -ing form of the verb:
after certain verbs, e.g., adore, hate, love, like, can’t help, can’t imagine, can’t stand, enjoy,
fancy, feel like, involve, (don’t) mind, miss.
I don’t feel like going out tonight.

like a noun, as the subject or object of a sentence.
Playing tennis is a great way to get exercise.
after most prepositions and some adjective/noun + preposition constructions, e.g., tired of,
interested in, frightened of, good at, the thought of.
Are you interested in starting up a new business?
The thought of working for the next 40 years fills me with dread!
after time conjunctions such as before, after, since, and while. This is only when the subject is
the same in both clauses.
All course participants must sign out before leaving.
I fell asleep while watching TV last night.
after for, to describe the purpose of a thing.
The machine is for cutting the edges off the paper.
Do you sell anything for cleaning pen off walls?
TO INFINITIVE
We use the to infinitive:
after certain verbs, e.g., agree, aim, appear, arrange, expect, hope, learn (how), offer, plan,
refuse, tend, want, wish.
They offered to help organize the event.
after some verb + object combinations, e.g., advise, allow, ask, authorize, encourage, expect,
forbid, need, remind, teach (how), tell, want.
They encouraged him to apply for the job.
after certain adjectives or nouns (e.g., easy, difficult), too + adjective, something/nothing/
anything/anywhere/nowhere, time.
I always find it difficult to speak to strangers.
I’m finding it too cold to work in here.
Come on—it’s time to go.
Do you have anything to eat?
after some nouns + be.
My suggestion would be to paint it all blue.
The plan is to get going tomorrow.
We use the infinitive without to after make and let + object.
My boss never lets me leave work early. He always makes us stay until 5:30.
We use the infinitive with or without to after help + object.
Can you help me write / help me to write this report?
-ING FORM OR TO INFINITIVE?
We can use either the -ing form or the to infinitive after some verbs, with little change in
meaning, e.g., begin, can’t stand, continue, hate, like, love, prefer, and start.
Everyone began talking/began to talk at once.
Some verbs are followed by -ing or the infinitive with to with a change of meaning.
We use remember/forget + -ing to talk about memories.
I remember seeing that movie when I was about ten.
We use remember/forget + to infinitive to talk about things we should do.
Don’t forget to tell your staff about the bonus!
We use regret + -ing to express regret about something in the past.
Do you regret not going to college?
We use regret + to infinitive in formal contexts to express regret about something we are just
about to do.
We regret to inform you that the training course has been canceled.
We use stop + -ing when we stop an action.
I don’t think he’ll ever stop playing table tennis.
We use stop + to infinitive to give the reason why we stop another action.
I need to stop at the store to get some bread.

We use go on + -ing to express the continuation of an action.
He just went on telling the story even though no one was listening!
We use go on + to infinitive to talk about a change in action or activity.
They started the concert with the old favorites, then they went on to play their more
recent songs.
Past forms
PRESENTATION
1 She looked at him, waved her hand, and ran to the finish line.
2 The people in the restaurant were eating and talking quietly when the bus crashed into
the wall.
3 Had they been living there long before the house flooded?
4 Would you rather she emailed or called you first?
5 Did you use to go abroad much when you were children?
6 My father would always work at night and sleep in the day in the summer.
7 They hadn’t even looked at their notes before they started their presentation.
SIMPLE PAST AND CONTINUOUS

We use the simple past to talk about completed past actions, sequences of actions in the past,
past states, and habits.
How did you feel when you heard the news?
We woke early, washed, ate breakfast quickly, and left the house without making a noise.
Everyone went to school on Saturday mornings for extra lessons when we were kids.
We use the past continuous to talk about events in progress at a time in the past or to talk
about longer actions that happened at the same time as a shorter action. We also use the
past continuous for background descriptions in stories and anecdotes.
You were driving along James Street when I saw you the other day.
It was pouring with rain and the wind was howling through the trees.
We also use the past continuous form of was/were going to + infinitive to talk about plans,
intentions or predictions in the immediate future.
Oh hello! I was going to call you later this evening.
“Have you paid John back yet?” “Well, I wasn’t going to until the end of the month—he doesn’t
need it urgently.”
We can use the past continuous with adverbs of frequency like always or constantly to
express irritating or strange habits.
She was always wearing high heels in the most inappropriate situations.
He was constantly being teased about his clothes and shoes.
PAST PERFECT
We use the past perfect to talk about actions or events that happened before another action
or event in the past. We usually use the past perfect to talk about completed actions or events
that happened before another action or event in the past, often with time expressions such
as, by the time, when, before, after, and until.
The artist had died before I bought the sculpture.
By the time the police arrived at the scene of the crime, the robber had already left.
We use the past perfect continuous to talk about ongoing or repeated actions or situations
leading up to another past event, or to give background information about an event or story.
He hadn’t been paying attention at all when suddenly a reporter approached and asked him
to comment.
The painting had been fading for a long time, so we took it to an artist to have it restored.
How long had she been working on the portrait, when she died?

WOULD/USED TO
We can use would or used to to talk about past habits or repeated actions. They always
describe a habit or repeated action in the past that no longer happens now.
Did you use to go to the beach much when you lived in Australia?
We would have long discussions together way into the wee hours.
My grandfather would usually stay with us for three weeks every summer.
We can also use used to, but not would to talk about past states that are no longer the case.
He used to be such a kind man. (NOT He would be such a kind man.)
OTHER USES
We often use past tenses to make requests or to sound more tentative and less direct.
I’d rather you didn’t eat in here.
Wouldn’t you rather we had dinner outside? It’s such a lovely evening.
I was wondering if you wanted to share a pizza with me.
We use past tenses to talk about imaginary situations, not necessarily in the past, but also
in an imaginary general or future time. We often use expressions beginning with imagine,
supposing, I wish, etc.
Imagine you had more time, what would you do with it?
Supposing they were lost without a cell phone. Would they know what to do?
If only she had gotten that job!

Unit 2
Narratives tenses
PRESENTATION
1 He was falling asleep at the wheel when something jumped in front of the car.
2 He braked hard and the car skidded, hitting the object as it shuddered to a halt on the side of
the road.
3 He was breathing heavily and felt too shaky to move, but he knew he had to get out of the car
and find out what he had hit.
4 He knew that he would have to go to the police.
USE
A narrative is a description of an event, usually in the past. Narratives are used in stories, news
reports, and anecdotes. We can use a variety of verb tenses.
SIMPLE PAST AND PAST CONTINUOUS

We generally use the simple past to talk about the main event or a sequence of actions or
events. We also use it to talk about habits.
She looked at him, raised her gun, and fired three times.
My father went to work at the same time every day, he ate the same thing for lunch, and he
watched the news at the same time every evening.
We generally use the past continuous to talk about background descriptions or actions in
progress at the time of the main event(s). We often use it to talk about longer actions that
happened at the same time as a shorter action, or longer actions interrupted by a
shorter action.
It was a lovely day. The sun was shining, the birds were singing, and all seemed right with the
world.
The people in the café were eating and talking quietly when the gun went off.
PAST PERFECT AND CONTINUOUS

We use the past perfect to talk about actions or events that happened before another past
action or event in the narrative.
By the time the police arrived at the scene of the crime, the gunman had already left.
We use the past perfect continuous to talk about ongoing activities leading up to a more
recent past event, and to give background information about an event.
He had been waiting for this moment all his life.
FUTURE IN THE PAST

Sometimes in a narrative about the past, we want to refer to things which were in the future
at that time. We can do this by using a number of forms to express the future from a
past perspective:
I promised myself that I was going to find him, however long it took.
Nobody knew that this young child would become the richest man in America.
He was about to leave the bar when he turned and saw her.
Was/were to can be used to talk about events in the future that did take place or also about
ones that were expected to happen but didn’t.
For the next five years she was to search for him relentlessly. (She searched for him relentlessly.)
He was to go and work in Australia for a year but then he became ill and was unable to travel. (His
intention was to go to Australia but…)
DRAMATIC PRESENT
We can also use the simple present or present continuous to tell stories, anecdotes, and jokes.
We use these present tenses to make our stories sound more dramatic and more immediate.

We often use the simple present to talk about the main events in a story or anecdote and to
explain the plot of a movie or book.
It’s about midnight when the phone rings, so he goes downstairs.
Television presenters also use the simple present to give a commentary on sport and news
programs. This makes the commentary faster and more immediate.
And he passes to number 7, shoots, and scores the winning goal!
We often use the present continuous to describe the background of a story.
In the movie the children are living at boarding school during the school year and only staying at
home during vacations.
We sometimes use the present continuous to give dramatic immediacy to an anecdote. This is
only used in very informal spoken English.
So, my friends and I are planning to have this fantastic picnic, and we’re all getting along fine
and cooking loads and making a complete mess when my mom walks in!
Perfect infinitives and perfect -ing forms

PRESENTATION
1 It was a great relief to have completed the race.
2 We hope to have set off by lunchtime tomorrow.
3 We meant to have packed all our bags by now.
4 He regretted having cheated on the exam.
FORM
We form the perfect infinitive with to have + past participle.
to have met; to have finished
We form the perfect -ing form with having + past participle.
having met; having cheated
USE
We use the infinitive after certain verbs, adjectives, and nouns. We use the perfect infinitive
instead of a simple infinitive when we talk about actions or events that happened earlier or
that will be completed at some point in the future.
It’s really nice to have met you.
There was no need to have said anything to her.
They plan to have finished the project by the end of the year.
We use the -ing form after certain verbs (or verbs + prepositions) and in clauses of time,
reason, and result. We use the perfect -ing form (e.g., having done) to express or to
emphasize that something is in the past.
James admitted having broken the window.
He apologized for having eaten all the food.
Having waited for over an hour, they decided to leave.
Tip
Note that not is positioned before the perfect infinitive and perfect -ing.
He called him, but he seemed not to have heard.
Not having eaten for hours, he was very hungry.
We can use was/were, meant, intended, and would like/love + perfect infinitive to show the
opposite of what actually happened.
The president was to have visited New York, but due to the storm this was canceled.
I would like to have seen her, but it wasn’t possible.
Some people also use would have liked + perfect infinitive or infinitive.
I would have liked to have seen her, but it wasn’t possible.
I would have liked to see her, but it wasn’t possible.

Tip
Note that when the time of the action is clear, we can also generally use the simple infinitive
or -ing form with the same meaning as the perfect infinitive or perfect -ing form.
It’s really nice to meet you.
It’s really nice to have met you.
He apologized for eating all the food.
He apologized for having eaten all the food.
Verb patterns after verbs of the senses

PRESENTATION
1 She saw them talking in the next room.
2 I could feel the warm breeze blowing on my skin.
3 It’s believed that polar bears can smell a seal approaching through three feet of ice.
4 I’ve heard him give a talk before.
5 This morning I stayed in bed and listened to the rain hammering on the windows.
6 We watched the children open their presents by the Christmas tree.
FORM
Verbs of senses such as see/hear/smell/feel/listen to/watch/look at can be followed by
various structures.
USE
We often use verbs of senses + object + infinitive without to to talk about a whole action or
completed event.
We saw him leave the office at lunchtime with his coat and bag.
The teachers watched the children run out of the classroom to meet their parents.
We often use verb + object + -ing form to show a snapshot of a moment that we saw or
heard, or to express that we have seen part of an incomplete or repeated activity.
We heard him talking on the phone as he was leaving the office.
We saw the birds flying to and fro, collecting twigs and leaves all day.
Some animals are understood to feel a thunderstorm approaching long before humans detect
any signs.
Tip
Verbs of senses are verbs of state because they describe a sensory experience not an action.
We do not usually use these verbs in the continuous form.
Some of these verbs can also be used as action verbs. Then they have a different meaning
from the verbs of state and are often used in the continuous form.
We often use can/could with verbs of senses when we are speaking at the time of
the experience.
Can you see me? (Experience) (NOT Are you seeing me/Do you see me?)
I’m seeing the doctor tomorrow. (Action: I’m visiting the doctor.)
Ssh! I’m sure they can hear us. (NOT I’m sure they’re hearing/they hear us.)
Mmm, I can smell flowers. (Experience)
She’s smelling the flowers. (Action: She wants to know what the flowers smell like.)
We use see + object + (being) + past participle as a form of reduced passive when we watch
something happening to someone or something else.
I wish I’d seen her (being) interviewed on TV.
She saw her husband (being) presented with the gold medal.
We can use look, feel, smell, sound, taste + like to talk about similarities.
It looks like cheese, it smells like cheese, but it doesn’t taste like cheese! What is it?
I feel like I’ve been here before.

We can use look, feel, smell, sound, taste + adjective to give opinions.
The theme park rides look very frightening to me!
Mm, that smells delicious, I’m starving!
Tip
We often use hear with the sound, etc. of + noun.
I heard the screech of brakes and the shattering of glass.
You could hear the rustling of candy wrappers and the munching of popcorn throughout the
whole movie!

Unit 3
Quantifiers
PRESENTATION
1 All three test flights were 100% successful.
2 You can take either bus. They both go to the station.
3 Neither Mercury nor Venus has any moons.
4 Do you have much money on you?
ALL
We use all before numbers and plural nouns. We also use all of the or all the + plural and
uncountable nouns.
All children should learn to swim.
All (of) the rooms were full.
All (of) the money was spent.
We use subject pronoun + all or all of + object pronoun.
They all/All of them have something in common.
EITHER/NEITHER
We use either/neither + singular noun + singular verb.
Neither idea was very good.
We use either of the and neither of the + plural noun + singular verb. We also use either of and
neither of + object pronoun.
Neither of the ideas was very good.
You can take either of the buses. They both go to the station.
You can take either of them.
After either of the and neither of the we can also use a plural verb. This is more common in
informal English.
Neither of the ideas were very good.
Either of the buses go to the station.
We use neither…nor and either…or to talk about two possibilities.
Neither the teacher nor the student knew the answer.
Either we eat now or later.
We can take either the number 5 or the number 5A bus.
It’s true that neither the green nor the pink matches the curtains.
EVERY AND EACH

We use every and each + singular noun + singular verb. Every and each are
often interchangeable.
Every/Each competitor gets a medal for taking part.
However, we tend to use each to distinguish individual differences. Also, we do not use every
to talk about just two items.
Each planet has its own unique atmospheric composition.
During your appointment the optician will examine each eye for signs of damage.
We can say each/every one of and also each of.
Probes visited every one of/each one of/each of the planets. (NOT Probes visited every of
the planets.)
MUCH, MANY, A LOT OF/LOTS OF/PLENTY OF, A LITTLE, AND A FEW

We use many and a few with countable nouns and much and a little with uncountable nouns.
We can use a lot of/lots of/loads of/plenty of with both countable and uncountable nouns.
How many moons does Mars have?
I only have a little time.

We generally use much and many in negative sentences and questions and we generally use a
lot of/lots of/loads of/plenty of in affirmative sentences.
“I don’t have much data left on my phone.” “Use mine. I’ve got plenty of data on mine.”
Much and many are common in affirmative sentences in a formal style.
There are many examples of this in the published literature.
Comparative sayings
PRESENTATION
1 The United States is almost as big as Canada.
2 The SR4 model is slightly less expensive than the SF4.
3 Our new house has much more space than the old one.
4 I don’t have nearly as many friends as I used to have.
5 The more you practice, the easier it gets.
6 The sooner the better!
7 More and more households have access to broadband.
USE
We can use various words and structures to express the degree of difference between things
we are comparing. Some of the most common and useful words and structures include:
nowhere near/nothing like/(not) nearly/not/not quite/almost/just/every bit/twice/three times
+ as (adjective/adverb) as
Life is nowhere near as simple as it used to be.
He’s every bit as argumentative as he always was.
much/far/a lot/a great deal/considerably/significantly/10%/five hours/a little/a (little) bit/
slightly/no + comparative adjective or comparative adverb
The Internet is a great deal faster than it was a few years ago.
This engine runs 30% more efficiently.
much/many/far/a great deal/a lot/a little/a bit + more/fewer/less + noun
You have far more Facebook friends than me.
I have a lot less free time than I used to.
as much/many + noun as
There isn’t as much pollution as there used to be in city centers.
the more…, the more…
We can use this structure when one situation automatically results in another situation. We
use the…, the… with the comparative forms of adjectives/adverbs, verb clauses and nouns.
With most computers, the bigger the memory, the more expensive it is.
The more you work, the more money you earn.
Tip
In some fixed expressions or when the meaning is clear, we can use only the…the…. Note
that no comma is used in these shorter constructions.
The more the merrier!
The sooner the better!
USE
We can use more and more, fewer and fewer, less and less + noun and bigger and bigger,
longer and longer, etc. to give emphasis and to show the difference is increasing.
More and more people are working for less and less money these days.
Computer memories are getting bigger and bigger all the time.

Tip
Remember that we use fewer and many with countable nouns and less and much with
uncountable nouns. We use more with both countable and uncountable nouns.
There are many fewer/more cars in the center on Sundays.
There is much less/more traffic on the roads these days.
Articles
PRESENTATION
1 I saw a great movie last night.
2 Would you recommend the hotel you stayed in?
3 Did Oscar go to college?
A/AN (THE INDEFINITE ARTICLE)

The basic use of a/an is when we are talking about something specific, but we don’t know or
don’t specify the exact thing. For example, when we first mention something.
Do you cheer for a football team?
We use a/an when we are talking in general about one example of a class (but not about the
whole class).
Most of my friends cheer for a football team.
We use a/an in phrases such as once a week, twice a year.
I generally go to the movies once or twice a month.
I go to around two lectures a day, or ten a week.
We use a/an when we introduce new information.
I just saw a man writing in a notebook.
We use a/an for a member of a group or profession.
Last night I met an Irishman who’s a teacher.
We use a/an to express one.
I have a smartphone, but I don’t have a tablet.
Tip
We use a before a consonant sound, and we use an before a vowel sound.
a game a university
an hour an umbrella
THE (THE DEFINITE ARTICLE)

The basic use of the is when both the speaker and the listener know the specific thing being
talked about. For example, because it has previously been mentioned or when it is the
only one.
I can’t remember the name of the team that Lucas cheers for.
What was the movie you saw last night?
The students I told you about are very intelligent.
We use the with a singular countable noun to talk in general about a whole class.
The dolphin is the most intelligent animal after humans.
We use the with a plural or uncountable noun + of + phrase to generalize.
The establishment of a new political party is very complex.
We use the with superlative adjectives.
Who do you think is the most intelligent student?
We use the with adjectives that describe groups.
The poor and the old are often neglected by society.
We use the with nationality adjectives and some countries.
The British have a close relationship with the United States.
We use the with adjectives to refer to general abstract ideas.
I’m afraid of the dark, but not the supernatural.

We use the with the physical environment.
the city the rain the coast
We use the with unique items and famous organizations.
the president the European Union the Ritz
We use the in prepositional phrases with an uncountable noun + of.
the history of the U.S. the science of speech
NO ARTICLE (OR THE ZERO ARTICLE)

The basic use of no article is with uncountable or plural nouns when we are talking about
people or things in general.
Do you like football?
I hardly ever watch movies.
We use no article in some common expressions with work, school, university, college, church,
prison, and bed when we talk about the activity that usually happens there.
We’re having a few problems at work at the moment.
I had to go to bed when I got home.
We use no article after phrases like amount of, number of, kind of, sort of.
A great number of sports stars earn millions every year.
We use no article with abstract nouns, languages, or nationalities.
His knowledge of Japanese is really good.
We use no article with proper nouns and most countries.
I’m seeing Anna later.
Google is widespread.
I went to Brazil last week.
We use no article with some common fixed expressions.
I usually go to school by bus.

Unit 4
Talking about the future
PRESENTATION
1 They’re going to move to a new office.
2 I think I’ll go to the library this afternoon.
3 I’ll be having a tutorial at 2:30.
4 The next boat leaves at 9:30.
5 I’m going to Spain next week.
6 We’ll have finished lunch by the time you get here.
7 I’ll have been working on it for days before he’s able to start.
8 They’re just about to begin.
There is no future tense in English. We can talk about the future using a number of different
tenses and forms.
BE GOING TO
We use be going to + infinitive to talk about intentions and plans, and to make predictions
based on direct evidence.
She’s going to set up a project to help refugees.
It looks like we’re going to be a bit late.
Somebody help that man with the walking stick. He’s going to fall over!
WILL
We use will and won’t + infinitive to talk about:
predictions or future facts that we are certain about…
They won’t finish the project this week with all that left to do.
My mother will be 80 next week.
or predictions we are less certain about (often with probably).
It’ll probably rain over the weekend.
predictions based on personal opinion:
I think you’ll enjoy living in Cambridge.
promises and hopes for the future:
The center will help young people find jobs.
I hope I’ll see you next week.
things we decide to do at the moment of speaking, including spontaneous decisions, offers,
requests, and promises:
I think I’ll leave work early today.
I’ll come with you if you like.
Will you help me fill in this form?
I won’t tell anyone. I promise.
Tip
Note that will is also used as a neutral way of talking about the future and is frequently used
in news reports and academic texts and other formal writing as a means of expressing a
neutral tone.
The new system will be implemented in June.
All shipments will arrive before the end of the business day.
PRESENT TENSES
We use the present continuous to talk about personal arrangements which are arranged,
agreed, or finalized for a future time or date.
I’m seeing the department head this afternoon.
Next weekend we’re going to the lake with a hiking group.

We use the simple present to talk about future events that are fixed because they are based
on a schedule, calendar, or timetable.
The coach leaves at five o’clock. Don’t be late!
Our class starts at ten o’clock, right?
FUTURE CONTINUOUS AND FUTURE PERFECT

We use the future continuous…
…with a future time expression to talk about actions that will be in progress at a definite time
in the future.
This time tomorrow we’ll be launching the project.
Sorry, I can’t Skype you at 6 this evening. I’Il be visiting my friend then.
…or to describe a future action that is fixed or decided. A time expression is not always
necessary. Note that the meaning here is not continuous.
I’ll be giving a speech at the launch meeting.
She’ll be visiting her friends while she’s in town.
We use the future perfect to talk about actions or events that will be completed before a
definite time in the future.
Do you think their housing situation will have improved much before the end of the year?
We expect that funding will have worsened before we are able to begin.
We use the future perfect continuous to talk about actions that will continue up to a definite
time in the future.
When he arrives in Los Angeles he’ll have been flying for over ten hours.
OTHER EXPRESSIONS FOR TALKING ABOUT THE FUTURE

We use be (just) about to + infinitive and be on the verge/point of + -ing form to describe
something that will or may happen very soon.
I’m just about to go home.
I’m on the verge of complaining about the service.
We use aim to/plan to/hope to/expect to + infinitive to express future plans, expectations,
and hopes.
We plan to set off at 6:30 and hope to be with you by about 9:30.
I aim to finish the project by early next week.
We can use be to/be set to/be due to + infinitive to talk about formal or officially arranged
events. This is common in news reports or other official documents.
The chairman is to make an announcement later today.
The new law is set to take effect next month.
Tip
In some cases more than one future form can be used with a similar meaning.
The mayor is going to attend the ceremony.
The mayor will be attending the ceremony.
Sometimes, however, we can use different forms to change the emphasis of what we
are saying.
The committee is going to have a debate soon. (= They have decided to have a debate.)
The committee is having a debate soon. (= They have arranged a debate for a future time.)
Noun phrases
PRESENTATION
1 This is my last day at work.
2 There are thousands of fossils along this coast.
3 Who’s that person talking to the managing director?

4 It was the company’s most successful product.
5 You can pay with a mixture of euros and dollars.
6 What was his reaction to hearing the news?
7 We’re going to have a meeting about what we can do.
8 There’s no need to stay any longer.
FORM
A noun phrase consists of a main noun (the head noun), the parts which come before
the main noun (pre-modification) and the parts which come after the main noun
(post-modification).
pre-modifier head noun post-modifer

This is my last day at work.
There’s no need to stay any longer.
USE
Pre-modification can consist of:
determiners (e.g., a, the, some, several, every, this/that, these/those).
numbers and ordinals (e.g., six, thousands of, first).
possessives (e.g., my, their, the organization’s).
adjectives and adverbs + adjectives (e.g., unusual, biggest, really incredible).
He told me a really interesting story about his childhood.
nouns (e.g., TV, government, family).
It’s a family business selling hand-made chocolate.
Post-modification can consist of:
prepositional phrases (e.g,. about his childhood, for students).
He told me a really interesting story about his childhood.
participle clauses (e.g., selling chocolate, made from glass).
It’s a family business selling hand-made chocolate.
relative clauses (e.g., which everyone knows, who I’m talking about).
It’s a brand which everyone knows.
We often use various types of pre- and post-modification in the same sentence.
There are several unusual species of butterfly which live only in this area.
Who’s the tall woman with short hair standing by the window?
We can also use adverb phrases (e.g., next door).
Have you met the person next door yet?
We commonly use phrases that begin with prepositions (e.g.,of, in, to) to post-modify a
noun. Common patterns of post-modification include a noun followed by:
preposition + noun phrase/pronoun
There’s going to be an investigation into the disappearance.
What’s the meaning of this word?
There’s been a lot of debate about it.
preposition + -ing form.
What experience of dealing with financial issues do you have?
preposition + question word/whether + clause.
We’re doing research into how much people spend on learning English.
We had a discussion about whether the proposed solution was the best one.
preposition + question word/whether + to infinitive.
We’re going to have a meeting about what to do.
They’re doing some research into how to reduce spending.
You need to make a decision about whether to go or not.

to infinitive.
The best way to get here is to get the bus from the station.
It’s one of a number of websites to have been closed down.
Is there anything to eat?
for + object + to infinitive.
There’s no need for anyone to worry.
It’s time for us to be going.
Tip
A noun phrase can be the subject, object, or complement of a sentence.
The book you ordered the other day has arrived. (subject)
Have you seen the magazine I bought this morning? (object)
A lynx is a member of the cat family. (complement)

Unit 5
Relative clauses
PRESENTATION
1 Where’s the magazine I bought this morning?
2 Mrs. Simpson is the candidate to whom I offered the post.
3 There are many things which I’m grateful for.
4 Is this the hotel where we stayed last year?
5 I have three sisters, all of whom are doctors.
USE
We can describe relative clauses as defining and non-defining. We use defining relative
clauses to identify who or what we are talking about. We use non-defining relative clauses to
give additional information about a person or thing.
The tournament was won by a golfer whose career had begun only two years before. (defining)
The tournament was won by the world’s number one golfer, who has won five years in a row.
(non-defining)
We often use relative clauses to avoid repeating words or to combine two clauses.
A woman called you earlier. The woman is here. → The woman who called earlier is here.
Considerable research into the virus has been carried out. Much of the research into the virus
has been successful. → Considerable research into the virus has been carried out, much of
which has been successful.
We can use whom instead of who in very formal situations when we are referring to the
object of the clause. In correct formal and written language whom should always be used
after a preposition, but in everyday speech we usually do not follow this rule.
They will only appoint a candidate whom they consider fulfills all the criteria.
To whom should I address the letter? / Who should I address the letter to?
DEFINING RELATIVE CLAUSES

In defining relative clauses we can leave out the relative pronoun when it identifies the object
of the verb.
Is this the shirt (that) you bought yesterday? (object)
Is this the shirt that cost you $20? (subject)
When a relative pronoun is followed by the verb be we can leave out be and the relative
pronoun. Sometimes we call this a reduced relative clause.
They’ve found the money (which was) stolen in the robbery.
Can we just interview the candidates (who are) on the shortlist today, please?
We can use the relative adverbs when/that (for time), why (for reasons), and where (for
places). We usually leave out why after the reason, when after some time phrases, and where
after somewhere, everywhere, anywhere and nowhere.
We’ll never know the reason (why) he was promoted so quickly.
Do you know anywhere (where) we can get coffee?
The 6th is the day (when) we get back from our vacation.
In very formal language, we can separate a preposition from the verb/adjective/noun that it
combines with.
He’s the surgeon to whom I was referred. (formal)
He’s the surgeon (who) I was referred to.
Looking back, it was the deception of which she felt most ashamed. (formal)
Looking back, it was the deception (which) she felt most ashamed of.
Cheating was a habit for which he had a reputation. (formal)
Cheating was a habit (which) he had a reputation for.

NON-DEFINING RELATIVE CLAUSES
A non-defining relative clause can appear in the middle or at the end of a sentence.
She won the race in front of her family, who was very proud of her.
The new velodrome, which is the biggest in the country, will host future cycling competitions.
We cannot leave out the relative pronoun in non-defining relative clauses.
His bike, which he doesn’t use a lot, is covered in rust.
We often use quantifiers such as all, both, either, neither, much, many + of before whom or
which, but not other relative pronouns, in non-defining relative clauses.
They won a million dollars on the lottery, some of which they gave to their parents.
He’s got two team members, both of whom are very junior.
There were three different cakes at their wedding, all of which were eaten by the end
of the evening.
Whoever, whatever, whichever, whenever, wherever,

and however
PRESENTATION
1 I’m happy to eat Chinese, Indian, Thai, whatever.
2 Whoever gets to the restaurant first can get the table.
3 Let’s go however is fastest. Taxi or walking?
4 You can sit wherever you like.
5 We can meet whenever you want.
FORM
The suffix -ever can combine with question words to form whatever, whoever, whichever,
whenever, wherever, and however.
USE
We can use whatever, whichever, whoever to mean “it doesn’t matter what/which/who.”
(Whomever is also possible but is rarely used in contemporary English, and sounds
very formal.)
They can be used as the subject of the clause.
Don’t worry. Whatever happens, everything will be OK.
They can also be used as the object of the clause.
Whichever dish you choose, it’s guaranteed to be good.
Whoever you speak to, they’ll all say the same thing.
We use whenever, wherever, and however at the beginning of an adverbial clause with the
meaning “it doesn’t matter when/where/how.”
Can you give me a call whenever you have a moment?
Pick me up wherever is convenient for you.
You can do the work however makes most sense to you.
We also use however before an adjective or adverb.
You must try your best, however hard it is.
Whenever can also have a similar meaning to “every time.”
Whenever I go to New York, I call my friend who lives there.
We can use whichever, whoever, whenever, wherever and whatever to finish an open-ended
list. The meaning is similar to etc. or so on.
Call round in the morning or the afternoon or evening, whenever.
We can often use whatever or whichever instead of whoever, whenever, and wherever.
I’m happy to go to a restaurant, or the theater or the movies, wherever/whatever/whichever.
When the phrases are used as two words they show surprise or difficulty in understanding
something. We can also use why ever in this way.
Whoever came up with this idea is a genius!
Why ever would you do that? It’s dangerous!
Whatever can be used as a rather rude reply, meaning “I don’t care” or “I’m not interested in
what you’re saying.”
“Can you stop doing that, please?” “Whatever!”
Whatsoever is used after a negative phrase, for emphasis. It has a similar meaning to “at all.”
There were no other people whatsoever on the beach.
We can use whatever, whichever, wherever, whenever, whoever, and however as short answers
on their own to mean “anything,” “anywhere,” “at any time,” “anyone,” or “in any way.”
“What do you want for dinner tonight?” “Whatever. I don’t mind.”
“Do you want to go somewhere special?” “No, wherever.”
Tip
No matter which/who/what/where/when/how also means “it doesn’t matter which/who/
what/where/when/how.”
I’ll always love you no matter what happens.
No matter where you end up, call me.
Participle phrases and clauses

PRESENTATION
1 She did well on her exams, getting six As and three Bs.
2 Used correctly, it will last for several years.
3 Having gotten to work, he remembered he had the day off.
4 Since retiring, he’s taken up a number of hobbies.
5 Having been woken by a noise, we ran outside to see what had happened.
6 Not wanting to get involved, I decided to say nothing at all.
FORM
There are three main participles:
The present participle: asking, standing, speaking
The past participle: asked, stood, spoken
The perfect participle: having asked, having spoken
Note that we often use the past participle to express passive meaning. We can also use the
other participles in the passive voice: being asked, having been asked.
To form the negative, we put not before the participle: not speaking, not being asked.
A participle clause is when a participle is followed by:
an object (e.g., …holding a reusable bag)
a complement (e.g., Being allergic to eggs,…)
or an adverbial (e.g., Having lived in London,…)
USE
Participle clauses often, but not always, enable us to be more efficient with the language and
use fewer words. In particular, they can be used in place of subject clauses with conjunctions.
Participle clauses generally sound quite formal and are used more in writing than in speech.
We use them:
to express reason, result and condition.
Being a teacher, I get long vacations. (Because I’m a teacher…)
Assuming everyone agrees, let’s postpone the meeting. (If everyone agrees…)
to show the sequence of events.
Arriving at the airport, he realized he had left his passport at home. (When he arrived…)
Driving to work, he witnessed two separate accidents. (As he was driving to work,…)
after certain prepositions and conjunctions.
On hearing the news (When they heard the news), they looked at each other in disbelief.
When asked about the robbery, he refused to comment.

Tip
Note that the subject is the same in both the participle clause and the other clause.
She did well on her exams, getting (and she got) mostly As.
When shown the picture, they screamed.
We also use participle clauses in certain fixed phrases. Note that this is also common in more
informal and spoken language.
Generally speaking, business is fine.
Speaking of Marta, I hear she became a teacher.
All things considered, I think we should try again.

Unit 6
Expressing obligation, prohibition, and advice
PRESENTATION
1 We had to wear a uniform when I was at school.
2 You were supposed to be here an hour ago!
3 We don’t need to buy tickets in advance.
4 You can’t vote until you’re eighteen.
5 We must get together for lunch again soon.
USE
We can express different degrees of obligation, prohibition, necessity, and advice with modal
verbs (e.g., must, can’t), semi-modal verbs (e.g., have to) and other phrases (e.g., supposed
to, not necessary). Some common and useful uses include:
OBLIGATION
We use must and have to to express obligation. We use had to as the past tense of both must
and have to. We use can’t as the negative of must.
You must/have to be eighteen to vote in the United States.
You can’t be late for the meeting.
We can also use need to to express obligation and necessity.
You need to be eighteen to vote in the U.S.
In more formal contexts, we can also use phrases such as be compulsory and be obligatory.
The use of seatbelts is obligatory.
We also use be supposed to, but this can suggest that people sometimes may not comply.
We’re supposed to be in the office until 5:30, but I sometimes leave at 5:00.
LACK OF OBLIGATION
We use don’t have to to express a lack of obligation, in other words to say that someone is
not obliged to do something.
You don’t have to go to the meeting, but it may be useful for you.
We can also use don’t need to.
You don’t need to be here until 7:30.
We can also use the phrase be not necessary.
It isn’t necessary to go to the meeting.
PROHIBITION
We use can’t, couldn’t, and not be able to to express prohibition.
You can’t park there—it’s the director’s space.
In the U.S., women couldn’t vote until 1919.
We can also use be not allowed to.
You’re not allowed to smoke here.
We also use be not supposed to, but this can suggest that people sometimes may not comply.
We’re not supposed to park here.
ADVICE/SUGGESTION
We use should(n’t) and must to give advice and make strong suggestions.
You shouldn’t eat so much junk food.
We can also use had better (not) to express what we think is the correct or best thing to do.
We’d better leave now before it gets dark.

Retrospection
PRESENTATION
1 They ought to have told you they were coming.
2 She ought to have left an hour ago.
ADVICE/SUGGESTION
We use ought (not) to to give advice and make strong suggestions. We generally do not use
ought to in direct questions and negatives.
You ought to talk to your boss.
We ought to go to bed—we’ve got an early start tomorrow.
You ought not to change the presentation without checking with the other authors.
RETROSPECTION
We use ought to have to criticize things we or other people did or didn’t do in the past and
to suggest a better alternative.
She ought to have signed in at Reception.
We ought to have thought of that before we did it.
She ought to have written it down so she wouldn’t forget.
Modals of speculation
PRESENTATION
1 This can’t be right. There must be a mistake.
2 The government may make an announcement later today.
3 I might have thrown the leaflet away.
4 The flight could have been delayed.
USE
We can express probability, likelihood, supposition, and speculation by using modal verbs
(e.g., might, could). We use them to say how certain we are about something based on
evidence or our experience.
When speculating about the present or future, modal verbs are followed by an infinitive
without to.
You must be tired after walking all that way.
When speculating about the past, they are followed by a perfect infinitive without to. The
verb form can be simple (must have done), continuous (must have been doing) or passive
(must have been done).
You can’t have seen me because I wasn’t there.
I didn’t hear the phone. I might have been taking a shower.
The robbery must have been committed by professionals.
SPECULATION ABOUT THE PRESENT AND FUTURE

We use must and have to to say we are certain that something is true at the moment
of speaking.
That sculpture must/has to be worth a lot of money, as it was made by Joan Miró.
We use can’t to say we are certain that something is not true at the moment of speaking.
That painting can’t be by Rembrandt, as it was painted after the artist’s death.
We use can to say that something is often, but not always, true.
Experts can take a long time to establish the authenticity of an artwork.
We use will/won’t to predict what we think is or is not true.
They’ll soon discover that the painting isn’t by Monet.
We use may (not)/might (not) or could (but not could not) to say that it is possible something
is or is not true, but we do not know for sure. Might and could are weaker than may.

This latest piece of street art may/might/could turn out to be a Banksy, but the artist has yet to
confirm it.
We use should (not) to say we expect that something is or will be true. Ought to has the same
meaning, but it is less commonly used.
They should/ought to establish if the painting is authentic by the end of the week.
SPECULATION ABOUT THE PAST

We use must to say we are certain that something happened. We use can’t/couldn’t (but not
mustn’t) to say we are certain that something did not happen.
The forger must have studied Picasso’s work carefully to be able to copy his style so well.
That picture can’t/couldn’t have been painted by Picasso, because he never went to India.
We use may (not)/might (not) or could (but not could not) to say that it is possible something
did or did not happen, but we do not know for sure.
That summer Picasso may/might/could have been starting work on his masterpiece, Guernica.
We use will/won’t to say it is likely that something did or did not happen.
The forger won’t have known that Picasso never went to India.
Tip
We can use other phrases to speculate (e.g., likely to, doubtful that).
The board is likely to agree to your request.
We’re certain the new product will be a success.
Flowering plants probably evolved from green algae.

Unit 7
Conditionals
PRESENTATION
1 If you mix red and yellow paint, it makes orange.
2 If I see her later, I’ll tell her.
3 If I won the lottery, I’d buy a bigger house.
4 If I were to lose my job, I’ve no idea what I’d do.
5 If I had known about the meeting, I would’ve told you.
6 If you’d been listening, you’d know what to do, wouldn’t you?
7 I’d definitely have gone to the game if I lived a bit closer.
8 If you’ve finished the data analysis, you can begin work on the presentation.
FORM
Conditionals have an if clause and a main (result) clause.
ZERO CONDITIONAL
We use the zero conditional when one situation automatically results from another. This is
normally used with present tenses, but can also be used with real situations in the past.
If the sun shines, plants grow faster.
If you exercise every day, your stamina increases.
In the 1930s, a woman had to leave her job if she got married.
FIRST CONDITIONAL
We use the first conditional to talk about a present or future situation that is possible
or probable.
If I miss the bus I’ll get a taxi.
SECOND CONDITIONAL
We use the second conditional to talk about a present or future situation that is unreal
because it is imaginary or hypothetical.
I could give all my movies happy endings if I was a movie director.
If an election was called tomorrow, how would you vote?
Tip
Remember that were can be used instead of was in second conditionals. Were sounds
more formal.
If I were rich, I’d travel the world.
THIRD CONDITIONAL
We use the third conditional to talk about a hypothetical situation in the past with a past
consequence/outcome. It is formed with a past perfect tense in the if clause and would (or
other modal verbs, such as may, might, could, or should) in the result clause, followed by the
perfect infinitive.
What if we’d set off earlier, would we have gotten there in time?
If you’d been a bit quicker, you’d probably have gotten a ticket.
MIXED CONDITIONALS
We can mix conditionals when the time reference in the if clause is different from the time
reference in the main clause.
For a hypothetical situation in the past with a present consequence/outcome, we use past
perfect + would/might/could/should.
If we’d surveyed more people, the results would be a bit more reliable.

For a hypothetical situation in the present with a past consequence/outcome, we use simple
past/continuous + would/might/could/should have.
If I didn’t know him, I wouldn’t have said hello, would I?
Structures for unreal situations

PRESENTATION
1 I wish we could help.
2 He wishes he hadn’t started the argument.
3 I’d rather be working outside on a sunny day like this.
4 My grandparents would sooner go south than stay here throughout the long winter.
5 If only I’d accepted the job offer sooner.
6 If only the maintenance team were on duty, they’d fix the air conditioning.
USE
We use wish/if only and other structures to talk about things that we would like to change
now or in the future and to express regret about past actions or events.
We use wish/if only + simple past for regrets about a present situation or state.
They wish they had enough money to go on vacation abroad.
I bet you wish you were lying on a beach somewhere hot.
If only I was taller!
We use wish/if only + past perfect for regrets about the past.
He wishes he had gone to college straight from school.
Do you wish you had been born in another century?
Wish and if only have the same meaning, but if only is more emphatic. We often explain our
wishes and regrets by adding a clause before or after the wish/if only clause.
We could go to the beach if only it wasn’t so windy!
He wishes he’d studied in college and then he’d have a better job.
We use wish + subject + would + infinitive without to to complain about what someone does
or doesn’t do, or to show we are annoyed or frustrated by an action or habit. The subjects in
the the wish clause and would clause need to be different.
She wishes they would leave their desks clean. (NOT She wishes she would leave her desk tidy.)
Don’t you wish they would call you more often?
We use wish/if only + subject + could + infinitive without to to talk about ability or permission
in the present.
She wishes she could keep her desk clean. (Compare with the first example for the rule above.)
I wish we could stay out later.
If only I could find a better job.
Similarly, we use wish/if only + subject + could + have + past participle to talk about ability or
permission in the past.
He wishes he could have studied abroad when he was younger.
If only we could have had a look at the questions before the exam!
We can also use would rather/sooner to talk about wishes and preferences, but would rather
is more common. If the alternative to our preference is not clear from the context we use
than + infinitive to explain.
When the subject and object of the wish is the same we use would rather/sooner + infinitive
without to to talk about present wishes or preferences.
I’d rather go to the doctor right away than wait to see if the symptoms go.
She’d rather not have to spend money on a new car now.
We can also use would rather/sooner to talk about past wishes or preferences. When the subject
of would rather/sooner and of the wish clause are the same, we use have + past participle.
They’d rather have spoken to you in person than by phone.
When the subject of would rather/sooner and of the wish-clause are different, we use a past
tense to talk about present or future situations.
I’d rather he spoke to me in English.
He’d sooner we were going to Mexico on vacation than for work!
To talk about past situations when the subject of would rather/sooner and of the wish clause
are different, we use the past perfect, simple past, or past continuous.
I’d sooner you hadn’t told me so much about her before we’d met each other.
Would you rather they’d been helping in the kitchen than in the garden?
We use the phrase It’s (high/about) time + subject + simple past/continuous to talk about
things we want to happen now or in the immediate future.
It’s high time you started reviewing; your exams are next week!
It’s time I was leaving—it’s getting late.
We can use the subjunctive in the structures shown below. This is considered more formal or
old-fashioned by some people.
I wish I were a teacher so I’d have long summer vacations!
If only it weren’t so cold we could have lunch outside.
I’d rather he were honest with me.
I’d sooner the meeting were on Wednesday than Thursday next week.
Alternatives to if
PRESENTATION
1 Had I known about the meeting, I would’ve told you.
2 Suppose you were a virtuoso on any musical instrument, what would it have been?
3 I’ll help you with your report as long as you prepare the presentation.
FORM
We can create conditional sentences without using if either by using inversion or by using
other words and phrases.
USE
In sentences with auxiliary verbs should or were (second conditionals) or had (third
conditionals) we can reverse the auxiliaries and their subjects and leave out if. This is more
common in formal English.
Should you read the original story, you’d discover a different ending. (= If you should read…)
Were the plot more believable, it could’ve been a better movie. (= If the plot were…)
Had I not known about the tragic ending, I would have seen the movie. (= If I had not known…)
Some words and expressions can be used in all conditionals with a similar meaning to if, for
example: provided that, as long as, and on condition that.
A movie will probably be successful provided that it reflects some aspect of real life.
No matter how/who/what/where is used to say that the outcome will be the same regardless
of the circumstances.
No matter how tragic the story is, there will always be an element of hope.
Whether or not also means that the outcome will be the same regardless of the circumstances.
I’m going to see the movie whether or not you come with me.
Unless is used with a positive verb and has the same meaning as if with a negative verb.
Unless cannot be used in third conditional sentences.
I’ll come to the movies with you unless you’re going to see a romance. (= I’ll come to the movies
with you if you’re not going to see a romance.)
We can use imagine, suppose, supposing, and assuming as alternatives to if.
Imagine how your life would be different if you’d been born a century earlier.
Suppose you won the lottery, what’s the very first thing you’d do?
Assuming you could do anything, what job would you most like to have?

Unit 8
Ellipsis
PRESENTATION
1 I’ve seen many of his movies, but this has to be the best.
2 She had many portraits painted of her but this is the most famous.
3 You can pay by card but you don’t need to.
4 If I get home before three o’clock, I’ll call him, but if not, I’ll just email.
USE
We use ellipsis when we want to leave out words in a sentence to avoid repeating the same
words or ideas. We often leave out several words in a sentence because we want to be more
efficient with our language and the person we are speaking to already understands the
context or the ideas we are talking about. However, we can only leave out words to avoid
repetition if the meaning is clear without them.
The following words can be left out to avoid repetition if the meaning is clear without them:
words after the auxiliaries be, do, have.
He’s been to Spain before but I don’t think she has. (has been to Spain)
words after modal verbs.
I know it’s difficult for you to finish work early, but I’m sure you can if you try. (can finish work
early)
infinitives in a to infinitive clause.
We’d like her to give a speech, but she doesn’t have to. (have to give a speech)
words in if clauses.
I’m sure she’ll call you, but if not, then let me know. (if she does not)
nouns after a number, a quantifier (such as any, some, loads), a superlative adjective, or this/
that/these/those.
There aren’t enough books for all students, so they share one between two. (one book between
two students)
I don’t believe there are fewer foreign students in Boston this summer. I’ve seen loads.
I’ve seen many of his movies, but this has to be the best.
She had many portraits painted of her but this is the most famous.
Ellipsis in clauses
PRESENTATION
1 I’m sure I’ve seen him before but I can’t remember when.
2 Not everyone is here yet, but most people are.
3 I don’t believe there are fewer foreign students in Boston this summer. I’ve seen loads.
USE
We use ellipsis when we want to leave out words in a sentence to avoid repeating the same
words or ideas. We often leave out several words in a sentence because we want to be more
efficient with our language and the person we are speaking to already understands the
context or the ideas we are talking about. However, we can only leave out words to avoid
repetition if the meaning is clear without them.
The following words can be left out to avoid repetition if the meaning is clear without them:
clauses after question words (such as how, where, who).
I saw my keys earlier, but I don’t remember where. (where I saw my keys)
main verbs when there are two clauses with the same structure and the same verb. If there is
an auxiliary verb this is also left out.
We’ll work here and the others there. (others will work there)

Unit 9
Passive voice
PRESENTATION
1 The rooms are cleaned every day.
2 A report has been commissioned.
3 The movie is estimated to have cost over $200 million.
4 We should be told the verdict later today.
5 A new health center is going to be opened next month.
FORM
We form the passive with be + past participle. We can use the passive in all tenses, with modal
verbs, and in the infinitive.
The case is being discussed at the moment.
I can be reached at (978) 555-9490.
A decision is going to be made as soon as possible.
The problem seems to have been resolved.
The house will need to be redecorated.
PASSIVE WITH VERBS WITH TWO OBJECTS

Some verbs can have a direct object and an indirect object.
They offered people in the camp temporary shelter.
In passive sentences, either of these objects can be the subject. When the indirect object
comes after the passive verb, we put either to or for.
People in the camp were offered temporary shelter.
Temporary shelter was offered to people in the camp.
USE
We use the passive for various reasons:
to allow the main focus (usually the existing topic) to come at the beginning of the sentence
or clause. If we say who or what does the action (the agent), we use by.
And here is the new sports center, which was opened in 2015.
It was officially opened by the mayor.
to keep the focus on the action by not mentioning the agent, usually because the agent is
not known, is not important, or is obvious.
Jim has been offered a new job.
Billions of photos are being uploaded on social media every day.
to create a more impersonal or objective style, for example in official, business, or academic
contexts.
All persons will be searched on entering the building.
All research proposals must be submitted before the deadline.
to report information in an impersonal way, using verbs like believe, claim, estimate, expect,
hope, report, say, think, reckon, rumor, and understand.
It is expected that the building work will take up to six weeks.
Tip
We can form the passive with get instead of be in informal contexts, especially in speaking.
We most commonly use get for things that happen by accident or unexpectedly.
We got stopped by the police on the way here.
A few things got broken during the party.

Tag questions
PRESENTATION
1 They were right, weren’t they?
2 You know the answer, don’t you?
3 He didn’t pass his driving test, did he?
4 Pass me the phone, would you?
5 Let’s go home now, shall we?
6 We’ve been studying hard, haven’t we?
FORM
We usually put a tag question at the end of a statement. If the main verb in the statement is
positive, the tag question is usually negative; if the main verb in the statement is negative,
the tag question is usually positive. This is true for all verb tenses.
USE
We use tag questions to check information or to find out if someone agrees with us. We
use falling intonation if we are fairly sure about the information and are asking someone to
confirm it or agree. We use rising intonation if we are not sure about the information.
You’re going on vacation next week, aren’t you? (we’re fairly sure and we’re asking the person to
confirm it)
You’re going on vacation next week, aren’t you? (checking because we’re not sure)
It’s a beautiful island, isn’t it? (we expect you to agree)
It’s a beautiful island, isn’t it? (we’ve heard it’s beautiful but we’ve never been there)
We use tag questions to show that we are paying attention to what someone is saying and to
encourage further conversation.
“That was a great day out.” “Yes it was, wasn’t it?”
We can soften imperatives with tag questions using will/would/could. The tag question is
always positive, even when the main part of the sentence is negative.
Open the window, would you? It’s boiling in here!
Tip
Note that the tag question with I am is aren’t I, but the tag question with I’m not is am I?
I’m not in your way, am I?
(BUT) I’m in your way, aren’t I? (NOT am not I?)
With verb forms that use an auxiliary or a modal verb, we use the modal or auxiliary verb, not
the main verb, in the tag question.
You didn’t speak to them like that, did you?
He’s been here before, hasn’t he?
They’ll be playing here again in the fall, won’t they?
She couldn’t find her key, could she?
We’re still having our birthday party, aren’t we?
When we use negative words such as no, no one, hardly, nothing, never, nobody, the main
verb and the tag question are both positive.
Nobody will ever know the answer, will they?
She never said a word, did she?
When the subject is everyone, no one, someone, etc. we use a plural verb in the tag question.
Everyone likes chocolate, don’t they?
Somebody is knocking at the door, aren’t they?
We can use positive statement + positive tag question when we make a guess and then ask to
see if our guess is correct, often to show surprise or to challenge an idea.
“So, you’re getting married, are you?” “Yes, how did you guess?”
So, you think you’re going to have that last piece of cake, do you?

Use of the passive in impersonal reporting
PRESENTATION
1 It was claimed that the defendant knew of the planned robbery and failed to inform the police.
2 The minister is known to be opposed to the latest policies from the government.
3 Several companies are believed to have been in breach of copyright.
FORM
We can use reporting verbs in the passive after it or other subjects.
It + be + past participle of reporting verb + (that)…
It is reported that around half a million people joined the protests.
Subject + be + past participle of reporting verb + to infinitive…
The medicine is claimed to have cured most occurrences of the disease.
USE
We use reporting verbs such as believe, claim, consider, know, report, say, and think in the
passive to talk about general beliefs and ideas. We often use passive structures in news reports
and formal written English to make a text or report more impersonal.
It was reported that several people were arrested during the presentation.
It was thought that the Earth was flat.
The family is believed to be telling its story to a newspaper.
We use passive reporting verbs when we don’t know or don’t want to say who the
information came from.
It is now known that nobody was injured in the storms.
In some cultures, coins are considered to bring you good luck.
The fossil wasn’t believed to date to the Paleolithic era.
Tip
Note how we use a to infinitive in the structure with an ordinary subject but a that clause in
the structure starting with it.

Unit 10
It as introductory subject
PRESENTATION
1 It’s bad to make the same mistake twice.
2 It’s very annoying that nobody told me about the change of plan.
3 It’s time to stop arguing and come to a decision.
4 It’s unbelievable how often people forget to switch their phones off in the theater.
5 It’s no good complaining about something you can’t change.
USE
We often start a sentence with it as an introductory or “empty” subject, followed by the verb
be. Using it in this way makes a statement more objective. The most common structures are:
It + adjective/noun + infinitive
It will be possible to use nanotechnology in the treatment of cancer in the near future.
It wasn’t a big surprise to discover that doctors use robots to assist with surgery.
It + adjective + for/of + object + infinitive
It had been difficult for doctors to perform surgery before anaesthetics were developed.
It + adjective + that clause
It is necessary that we develop new antibiotics.
It’s time + infinitive. We use this structure to indicate that an action is needed. We can add for
+ object to say who should do it.
It’s time (for us) to realize that humans are changing the Earth’s climate.
It’s high time/about time + pronoun/noun + simple past. We use this structure to express a
present wish that something is done very soon.
It’s high time we took action on global warming.
It’s the first/second/third time + present perfect
It’s the first time the government has passed laws to limit carbon dioxide emissions.
Sometimes it is not followed by an infinitive or that clause:
It’s + adjective + question word
It’s amazing how many of Asimov’s predictions about the future have turned out to be true.
It’s + no good/(not) worth/not much use + -ing form
We use this structure to say that something is or is not desirable.
It’s no good regretting what we did in the past. It’s worth considering the future instead.
Adverbs
PRESENTATION
1 People are rarely happy with what they have.
2 I have really enjoyed myself.
3 You’ll easily pass the test.
4 I saw Pedro at the gym.
5 I hardly know him at all.
6 The show was absolutely fantastic!
7 It was bitterly cold all weekend.
POSITION OF ADVERBIALS
There are often a number of possibilities for the position of adverbs. As a general rule, single-
word adverbs generally go in the middle of a clause and longer adverbial phrases generally
go at the beginning or at the end. Some more specific rules are:

Adverbs of frequency (e.g., often, usually, occasionally) generally go before a simple verb,
after the (first) auxiliary verb, or after the verb be.
We’ll often watch TV for the whole evening. We’ve sometimes watched it all night.
Note that we can also put some adverbs of frequency at the beginning or at the end.
Sometimes, it’ll rain for days.
It’ll rain for days sometimes.
Adverbs of relative time (e.g., already, just) generally go before the verb, after the (first)
auxiliary verb, or after the verb be.
You’ve just missed Erica and Carmen. They just left.
Get a move on! We’re already late.
Adverbs of degree (e.g., very, really, so, extremely, quite, really) generally go directly before
the word they modify. They generally go before the main verb when there is an auxiliary.
She’s really tall.
Adverbs of manner (e.g., slowly, rapidly, suddenly) generally go after the verb and its object.
They left suddenly.
He drove very slowly.
Some adverbs of manner can however also go before the verb, especially if the object is long.
They suddenly left.
He slowly opened the door at the end of the corridor. (NOT He opened slowly the door.)
Adverbs and adverbials of place (e.g., in London, on the coast) and time (e.g., yesterday, on
the weekend) generally go after the verb and its object.
We’re leaving on Monday.
They can also go at the beginning of a sentence or clause.
At 12:30 we have lunch and then we have classes until 2:30.
They drive on the right in the USA, but in Australia they drive on the left.
Adverbs that comment on or express attitude towards a whole clause or sentence generally
go before or possibly after the clause or sentence.
To put it bluntly, it’s a terrible idea.
I don’t agree with you for one second, to be honest.
With some adverbs (e.g., actually, just, only, really, particularly) the meaning of the sentence
depends on the position of the adverb or the words which are stressed.
I really don’t like it.
I don’t like it really.
ADVERB COLLOCATIONS
Certain adverbs often go together with certain verbs or adjectives. Common verb + adverb
combinations are: deeply regret, clearly remember, desperately need, eagerly await, apologize
profusely, laugh hysterically.
I clearly remember meeting you for the first time.
They apologized profusely before leaving.
Some common adverb + adjective combinations are: perfectly clear, blatantly obvious,
bitterly cold, bitterly disappointed, fatally injured, highly motivated.
He made it perfectly clear that no one was to challenge his conclusions.
Three people have been fatally injured in a car crash this weekend.
Gradable adverbs, such as fairly, really, very, always go with gradable adjectives (e.g., dirty,
large, beautiful). Ungradable adverbs, such as absolutely, completely, totally, utterly, go with
ungradable adjectives (e.g., filthy, enormous, gorgeous).
ADVERBS WITH TWO FORMS

Some adverbs have two spelling forms, with and without the -ly ending. These adverbs have
different meanings and can be easily confused. Some common adverbs with two forms are:
easy/easily, free/freely, hard/hardly, high/highly, late/lately, most/mostly, right/rightly, sure/
surely, wide/widely, wrong/wrongly.

We worked hard all week.
We hardly worked all week.
Even with the windows wide open it was still hot.
It is widely believed that the next government will reverse this economic policy.
Tip
Don’t confuse some adjectives that end in -ly, e.g., silly, friendly, likely, with adverbs.
Discourse markers
PRESENTATION
1 Despite gloomy economic forecasts, leading companies have still made considerable profits.
2 Most people are, broadly speaking, in favor of the labor reforms.
3 I don’t think she ever told him the truth. Besides, he would never have believed her!
4 They obviously haven’t spoken to each other since the argument.
5 I’m afraid that a full refund won’t be possible.
6 The use of cars in cities is linked to high pollution levels. Furthermore, it is an expensive way to
get around.
USE
Discourse markers help us organize and connect what we say so that it is easier for our
listeners and readers to follow and participate. We use discourse markers help us link ideas
together, show our attitude to what we are saying, or indicate what we’re going to say next.
We can use discourse markers in speaking and writing; they can be formal or informal; they
can be a single word such as an adverb or a whole phrase; and some discourse markers can
come at the beginning, middle, or end of a sentence depending on our message.
We use discourse markers to:
1. Show how ideas link together.
Type Example discourse markers

Contrast although, but, despite, however, in spite of, nevertheless, on the one/other hand, on the contrary
Order first, firstly, first of all, next, afterwards, secondly, finally, last of all, lastly
Purpose to, in order to, so as to, in case
Reason because, as, since, due to, hence, owing to, thus
Result as a result, consequently, otherwise, so, therefore
Similarity similarly, likewise, equally
Due to construction on Main Street, traffic is being diverted from downtown today.
We went to the beach in spite of the poor weather forecast. Although it rained, we had fun.
Tip
Nevertheless, in order to, so as to, since, due to, owing to, thus, hence, as a result, therefore,
consequently are more formal. First/Last of all are generally only used in speaking.
2. Add to previous ideas.

Less formal written and spoken language also, additionally, alternatively
Formal writing and speaking moreover, furthermore, in addition, indeed, further
Speaking only besides, too, what’s more
We really love the new comedy series. What’s more, it’s on at a time when we’re at home.

3. Give examples, to generalize or restate ideas.

Give examples for example, for instance, that’s to say
Generalize broadly speaking, on the whole, generally, in general, to a certain extent
Clarify after all, in other words, in a sense, I mean
Most newspapers sympathize with a political party to a certain extent.

Many countries export zinc. Peru, for instance, still has large zinc deposits.
4. Show our attitude to what we are saying and to introduce an unwelcome idea or
statement that may cause disagreement or a negative response.

Show our attitude fortunately, frankly, obviously, of course, naturally, sadly, to be honest
Introduce unwelcome idea I’m afraid, I regret, I’m sorry but, unfortunately
Sadly, the children never knew their grandfather.

I’m afraid to say that tonight’s show has been canceled.
Tip
I regret is more formal than I’m afraid or I’m sorry, but…
5. Draw attention to what we are about to say or to change direction in a conversation.

Draw attention actually, basically, right, so, well, you know
Change direction anyway, as I was saying, by the way, in any case, incidentally, regarding, speaking of
Speaking of winners and losers, what do you think about the latest exam results?
Actually, I don’t think that young people should have to stay in school if they have a guaranteed
job to go to.
6. Show we are finishing what we have to say.

In a formal context, writing or speaking in summary, to conclude, to sum up
In informal speaking anyway, OK
OK, any more questions?

Ladies and Gentlemen: to sum up, we believe the conclusions are convincing and deserve
further investigation.
Tip
Most discourse markers can go in different positions in a sentence without a change in
meaning. The neutral position is to put discourse markers before the subject they introduce.
Fortunately, the flight was not delayed.
The filght was not delayed, fortunately.
Obviously you’ve been here before.
You’ve been here before, obviously.
Anyway, you can’t call him now.
You can’t call him now anyway.
Compare the example below, where it’s not possible to separate in spite of from “his
low qualifications.”
They took him on because he showed so much initiative in spite of his low qualifications. (It is not
possible to separate)

Unit 11
Verb patterns in reported speech
PRESENTATION
1 Alex acknowledged that he had been wrong in his previous statement.
2 She convinced me to stay a little longer.
3 I apologized for being late.
4 He congratulated me on my exam results.
5 The receptionist inquired whether they had a reservation.
FORM
There are a number of different verb patterns for reporting people’s speech, depending on
the reporting verb used.
USE
We use:
verb + (that) clause with acknowledge, admit, agree, assert, claim, complain, confirm, deny,
emphasize, explain, insist, promise, recommend, repeat, reveal, say, suggest, think, and warn.
The president agreed that mistakes had been made.
The government has promised that new measures will be taken to combat deforestation.
verb + object + (that) clause with assure, convince, inform, promise, reassure, remind, tell,
and warn.
Marta reassured us that everything would be OK.
She reminded me that I should separate plastics and paper when putting out my recycling.
verb + to infinitive with agree, ask, claim, demand, offer, promise, and refuse.
The government has offered to extend the deadline by a month.
They refuse to accept the data on climate change.
He promised not to forget again.
verb + object + to infinitive with advise, ask, beg, encourage, invite, order, persuade, remind,
tell, urge, and warn.
Experts advise us to play more chess and do crosswords.
We will invite companies to submit their plans.
To report a negative statement we use verb + object + not + to infinitive.
She begged him not to leave so soon.
verb + to + perfect infinitive with claim.
Smith claims to have discovered a new species.
verb + -ing form with admit, deny, recommend, and suggest.
The report recommends walking at least one mile a day.
They have admitted dumping trash into the sea.
verb + preposition + -ing form/object with apologize for, complain about, insist on, object to,
and reflect on.
She insisted on paying for the meal.
He insisted on seeing the President urgently.
They objected to the plans for new houses.
verb + object + preposition + -ing form/object with accuse…of, compliment…on,
congratulate…on, praise…for, remind…about, talk…into, thank…for and warn…
against/about.
Greta eventually talked me into going with her.
She congratulated the team on coming first.
She complimented me on my new hairstyle.

verb + (object) + if/whether with ask (someone), inquire, want to know, and wonder.
She asked me if I was attending the meeting.
He wondered whether research had been done into the causes of coral reef decline.
verb + (object) + question word with ask (someone), describe, inquire, explain, suggest, want
to know, and wonder.
She explained how pollution could be reduced.
They wondered when the package would arrive.
Tip
Note that some verbs have more than one pattern.
She promised she wouldn’t be late.
She promised me she wouldn’t be late.
She promised not to be late.
Subjunctive and should

PRESENTATION
1 Dentists recommend (that) we should brush our teeth at least twice a day.
2 My mother insisted (that) I call her when I got home.
FORM
There are a number of different verb patterns for reporting people’s speech, depending on
the reporting verb used.
SUBJUNCTIVE AND SHOULD

The present subjunctive is used in reported speech to talk about a demand or proposal in the
present or past.
The subjunctive uses the base form of the verb (she go, we be, etc.) and is quite formal.
verb+ (that) + object + subjunctive with: ask, demand, insist, recommend, request, suggest
The Environment Agency insisted (that) businesses take action on reducing carbon emissions.
Note that do is not used in the negative.
We ask (that) the minister not ignore the protests.
should + infinitive is less formal than a subjunctive and more commonly used. There is little or
no difference in meaning.
They suggest (that) households should try to reduce the amount of water they use.
Tip
Note that some verbs have more than one pattern.
She promised she wouldn’t be late.
She promised me she wouldn’t be late.
She promised not to be late.
Causatives with have and get

PRESENTATION
1 We’re having the office renovated at the moment.
2 We got the test results verified last week.
3 Sara got her boss to approve her vacation request.
4 My tutor had us resubmit our assignments.
5 They had a window broken in the storm.
6 They had several people complain about the event.

CAUSATIVE SENTENCES
We use the following structures in causative sentences:
Subject + have/get + something/somebody + past participle
We had/got the house painted last week.
Subject + get + somebody/something + to infinitive.
We got him to bake a cake for the party.
Subject + have + somebody + infinitive without to + (something).
She had us write the answers out in full.
Subject + have + somebody/something + -ing form (something).
They had us standing outside for an hour.
SIMILAR STRUCTURES
We use the following structures in sentences where something is experienced:
Subject + have/get + something/somebody + past participle.
We had a brick thrown through our window.
Subject + have/get + somebody/something + infinitive without to/-ing form.
They had hundreds of people criticize/criticizing the program for political bias.
Subject + not have + somebody/something + -ing form + (something).
I won’t have you bossing me around like that!
CAUSATIVE SENTENCES
We use have and get in various structures to talk about arranging something or causing
something to happen. These include:
have/get + something/someone + past participle: for various arrangements, often when we
use a service. Get is generally used in more informal contexts.
The school had our son assessed for dyslexia the other day.
Where do you get your hair cut?
have + someone + infinitive without to: when we arrange for someone to do something for
us, or make them do it.
I’ll have my co-worker resend it as soon as possible.
have + someone + -ing form: to show or emphasize activity or duration.
My boss had us working through our lunch break today.
The movie’s so funny. It’ll have you crying with laughter.
Tip
We can also use get + someone + to infinitive in a similar way. Get is usually used in more
informal contexts.
We got someone to house-sit for us while we were away last month.
SIMILAR STRUCTURES
We use a few structures with have or get to talk about things that happen to us. These
include:
have/get + something/someone + infinitive without to/-ing form to describe something we
experience or have.
We had thousands applying/apply for tickets within minutes of them going on sale.
have/get + something + past participle: when something unwelcome or unpleasant happens
to somebody/something.
I had my bike stolen the other day.
won’t have + someone + -ing/infinitive without to: to say we will not tolerate something or
we object to something.
I won’t have anyone telling/tell me how to raise my children!

Unit 12
Cleft sentences
PRESENTATION
1 It’s the cost of the work that I’m worried about.
2 It was the steep steps up to the front door that they didn’t like.
3 What I find most difficult is dealing with demanding customers.
4 The person you need to talk to about this is Kate.
5 All they could hear was the crashing of the waves on the rocks.
FORM
We can form cleft sentences with it, what, and all.
It + be + noun phrase + relative clause.
It be noun phrase relative clause

It is the noise of the traffic that keeps me awake.
It was my brother who left the keys in the front door.
What + clause + be + phrase.
What clause be phrase

What keeps me awake is the noise of the traffic.
What would really help is if you could clean up before people arrive.
USE
We use cleft sentences to create emphasis. “Cleft” means divided into two parts. The part
that we want to emphasize comes after be.
Look at this sentence:
They didn’t like the steep steps up to the front door.
We can use a cleft sentence structure to emphasize one part of the sentence:
It was the steep steps up to the front door that they didn’t like.
What they didn’t like was the steep steps up to the front door.
The verb be is usually singular after a What clause, but it can be singular or plural if it is
followed by a plural noun phrase.
What they didn’t like was/were the steep steps up to the front door.
We can emphasize an action, or even an adverbial, with a cleft sentence:
What Paula did last year was study for a Master’s.
It was last year that Paula studied for her Master’s.
We can also use phrases like The person who/that…, The thing which/that…, The place
where…, The day when…, and The reason why….
The person I’d miss most if I lived abroad would be my mother.
The reason why I left my job was my boss’s management style.
Tip
In sentences with what, the word order can be reversed:
The steep steps up to the front door were what he didn’t like.
Inversion
PRESENTATION
1 Under no circumstances would the company consider closing.
2 No sooner had I turned my back when the dog stole my steak off of the counter.

INVERSION
Some emphatic structures require the normal sentence word order to be changed by
inverting the order of the subject and the auxiliary. This inversion is most common in more
formal writing and speech, in literary and academic contexts, for example.
Words and expressions that are negative or restrictive are followed by inverted structures
when they begin a sentence or clause. These include time phrases, such as never (before), no
sooner…than, at no time, not since/until, only when, and hardly…when, as well as words and
phrases, such as by no means, little, not only, on no account, rarely, scarcely, seldom, and
under no circumstances.
After these words and phrases the auxiliary or modal verb comes before the subject.
Not since the early Viking seafarers had men traveled so far into unknown territory.
On no account should the house be left unlocked.
If there is no auxiliary or modal verb, do + subject + infinitive is used instead.
Seldom did they remember the bravery of the early explorers.
INVERSION WITH SO AND SUCH

We can use so + adjective/adverb…that:
So important is the history of navigation that there are museums devoted to the topic.
We can use such…+noun…that:
Such was the wealth created by the discovery of new lands that European cities grew rapidly.
Using auxiliaries to avoid repetition

PRESENTATION
1 I’m not sure I’m going to go to the show, but he is.
2 Amtrak has reduced their prices and so has CityLink.
3 I asked Michael to send me his report but he said he’d already done so.
4 I’m having a sandwich. Would you like one?
5 “Which shoes do you like?” “The red ones.”
AUXILIARIES
We often replace verbs and verb phrases with an auxiliary verb to avoid repeating a verb or
verb phrase that has already been mentioned.
I don’t drive, but a few of my colleagues do. (do = drive)
They arrived a few minutes before I did. (did = arrived)
I haven’t been there, but Anna has. (has = has been there)
“I don’t like opera.” “Oh, I do.” (do = like opera)
“Have you had lunch?” “Yes, we have.” (have = have had lunch)
“Are you going out for lunch?” “No, but Sam is.” (is = is going out for lunch)
We can also use a form of have or do + so. This is usually in more formal contexts and only
when referring to the same topic as previously mentioned. We do not usually use do + so in
short replies.
We should all try to do some physical activity each day. The benefits of doing so are obvious.
We will move to a bigger location, but we’re not going to do so for a year or two.
They said they’d arrange a meeting, but I don’t think they’ve done so yet.
We also use auxiliary verbs in short replies with so/neither/nor.
I don’t think it’s a good idea and neither does Mary Jones.
“I spoke to Karen this morning.” “So did I.”
“We’re not going.” “Nor are we.”
ONE/ONES
We can use one or ones to avoid repeating a noun or noun phrase that has already
been mentioned.

We use one to substitute singular nouns and ones to substitute plural nouns.
We do not use one(s) for uncountable nouns.
“Which is your car?” “The one next to the motorcycle.”
I prefer fresh vegetables to canned ones.
Tip
When we are offering or asking for more than one thing, we use some, not ones.
We’ve got some sandwiches left over from lunch. Would you like some?
We can leave out one(s) after a superlative adjective, this, that, these, and those, and some
determiners such as either and neither.
That ship is the biggest (one) that’s ever been built.
I don’t mind which seat I have—either (one) will do.

Wa 06 GF

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Grammar focus

Wide Angle 6 Unit 1 Grammar focus 1

PRESENT PERFECT AND PRESENT PERFECT CONTINUOUS

Constructions with -ing or with to infinitive

Wide Angle 6 Unit 1 Grammar focus 2

Wide Angle 6 Unit 1 Grammar focus 3

SIMPLE PAST AND CONTINUOUS

Wide Angle 6 Unit 1 Grammar focus 4

Wide Angle 6 Unit 1 Grammar focus 5

SIMPLE PAST AND PAST CONTINUOUS

PAST PERFECT AND CONTINUOUS

FUTURE IN THE PAST

Wide Angle 6 Unit 2 Grammar focus 6

Perfect infinitives and perfect -ing forms

Wide Angle 6 Unit 2 Grammar focus 7

Verb patterns after verbs of the senses

Wide Angle 6 Unit 2 Grammar focus 8

Wide Angle 6 Unit 2 Grammar focus 9

EVERY AND EACH

MUCH, MANY, A LOT OF/LOTS OF/PLENTY OF, A LITTLE, AND A FEW

Wide Angle 6 Unit 3 Grammar focus 10

Wide Angle 6 Unit 3 Grammar focus 11

A/AN (THE INDEFINITE ARTICLE)

THE (THE DEFINITE ARTICLE)

Wide Angle 6 Unit 3 Grammar focus 12

NO ARTICLE (OR THE ZERO ARTICLE)

Wide Angle 6 Unit 3 Grammar focus 13

Wide Angle 6 Unit 4 Grammar focus 14

FUTURE CONTINUOUS AND FUTURE PERFECT

OTHER EXPRESSIONS FOR TALKING ABOUT THE FUTURE

Wide Angle 6 Unit 4 Grammar focus 15

pre-modifier head noun post-modifer

Wide Angle 6 Unit 4 Grammar focus 16

Wide Angle 6 Unit 4 Grammar focus 17

DEFINING RELATIVE CLAUSES

Wide Angle 6 Unit 5 Grammar focus 18

Whoever, whatever, whichever, whenever, wherever,

Participle phrases and clauses

Wide Angle 6 Unit 5 Grammar focus 20

Wide Angle 6 Unit 5 Grammar focus 21

Wide Angle 6 Unit 6 Grammar focus 22

SPECULATION ABOUT THE PRESENT AND FUTURE

Wide Angle 6 Unit 6 Grammar focus 23

SPECULATION ABOUT THE PAST

Wide Angle 6 Unit 6 Grammar focus 24

Wide Angle 6 Unit 7 Grammar focus 25

Structures for unreal situations

Wide Angle 6 Unit 7 Grammar focus 27

Wide Angle 6 Unit 8 Grammar focus 28

PASSIVE WITH VERBS WITH TWO OBJECTS

Wide Angle 6 Unit 9 Grammar focus 29

Wide Angle 6 Unit 9 Grammar focus 30

Wide Angle 6 Unit 9 Grammar focus 31

Wide Angle 6 Unit 10 Grammar focus 32

ADVERBS WITH TWO FORMS

Wide Angle 6 Unit 10 Grammar focus 33

Type Example discourse markers

Type Example discourse markers

Wide Angle 6 Unit 10 Grammar focus 34

Type Example discourse markers

Most newspapers sympathize with a political party to a certain extent.

Type Example discourse markers

Sadly, the children never knew their grandfather.