Electric Power Systems Research 113 (2014) 88–94

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Electric Power Systems Research

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/epsr

A study of human safety against lightning considering the grounding

system and the evaluation of the associated parameters
Daniel S. Gazzana a,∗ , Arturo S. Bretas a , Guilherme A.D. Dias a , Marcos Telló b ,
Dave W.P. Thomas c , Christos Christopoulos c
a
Department of Electrical Engineering, Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul, Av. Osvaldo Aranha, 103, 90035-190 Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil
b
Companhia Estadual de Energia Elétrica – CEEE-D, Av. Ipiranga 8500, E2A, 91530-000 Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil
c
George Green Institute for Electromagnetics Research, University of Nottingham, Nottingham NG7 2RD, UK

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: This paper presents a study about the influence of different types of soils and surge wave characteristics
Received 30 July 2013 in terms of human safety. The study is focused on the step, contact and transferred potentials generated
Received in revised form 28 February 2014 by a lightning striking a grounding system and the produced potential gradients that a person could be
Accepted 11 March 2014
exposed to. Initially, an introduction about the subject is made. After that, some important aspects about
Available online 1 April 2014
the grounding systems and human body representation are presented followed by a discussion regarding
to the survivability threshold and the model parameterization. A Transmission Line Modeling Method
Keywords:
and a circuit based model are used to represent the grounding system and the human body. Several
Grounding
Human safety
simulations were performed in order to analyze the behavior of the current passing through the heart.
Lightning It was found that soils with different properties do not affect the possible harmful currents considering
Transmission line modeling method the step potential mechanism. On the other hand, in the case of contact and transferred potentials, the
soil characteristics have significant influence in the survivability threshold.
© 2014 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction
Since the dawn of humanity, thousands of injuries caused by
lightning have been observed, causing fatalities and damage to
humans with short and long term effects [1]. It is known that the
effects of a given electrical current passing through the human body
are primarily related to its duration, frequency and magnitude [2].
There are several efforts, over the past decades, dedicated to
the establishment of reference limits and development of studies
related to the effects of electric current on human beings and ani-
mals. However, most of these studies consider only low frequencies
and are focused primarily on the analysis of sinusoidal current with
frequency in the order of 15–100 Hz, which culminated in the elab-
oration of international norms currently in use [3]. It is not usual
to evaluate the electric current tolerable by human being from
a lightning, as well as for frequencies higher than the industrial
(60 Hz), since today there are not defined criteria for such pur-
pose. Nowadays, the main standard that provides procedures for
∗ Corresponding author. Tel.: +55 51 3308 4291; fax: +55 51 3308 3293.
E-mail addresses: dgazzana@ece.ufrgs.br, dsgazzana@gmail.com
(D.S. Gazzana), abretas@ece.ufrgs.br (A.S. Bretas), gaddias@terra.com.br
(G.A.D. Dias), marcost@ceee.com.br (M. Telló), dave.thomas@nottingham.ac.uk
(D.W.P. Thomas), christos.christopoulos@nottingham.ac.uk (C. Christopoulos).
the determination of step and touch potentials and current tol-
erable by humans is the IEEE Std 80 [4], but it is important to
note that this standard is based on the industrial frequency and
steady state analysis, which is not appropriate for transient stud-
ies. Moreover, a more reliable approach must be centered in energy
evaluation, which is not the main goal of the referred standard.
Also, in the existing literature there is little information about the
current pathway through the human body, in the case of sub-
mission to a touch potential, step potential and other lightning
mechanisms.
Unlike the studies related to the effect of alternating current for
low frequencies and low magnitudes, research with focus on the
lightning and its iteration with humans are very difficult to be car-
ried out due to the tests that have to be performed. It is a tricky task
to verify the effects caused by atmospheric discharges in humans.
It is obviously unacceptable to submit people to contact with elec-
tric shocks. This may be the reason for the rare studies found in
the state-of-art literature. Also, there is little consideration of the
grounding systems and the influence of the soil and variation of
lightning parameters. Thus, the use of computational models that
represent the human body is a viable alternative to learn about the
behavior of the lightning passing through it, contributing to the
development of new research and serving as a basis to the iden-
tification and understanding of the effects and potential damages
caused by a lightning [5].

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.epsr.2014.03.015
0378-7796/© 2014 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
 D.S. Gazzana et al. / Electric Power Systems Research 113 (2014) 88–94
Fig. 1. Basic grounding in power system networks: left – wood poles; right – metallic
towers.
Usually, in the design of grounding systems both for trans-
mission and distribution systems as well as for the protection of
installations in a general manner, the main performance criterion
is related to obtaining low values of grounding static impedance.
This design requirement ensures only that high currents from a
given disturbance follow the path of low impedance. However, this
procedure does not provide personal safety.
In this context, the aim of the paper is to evaluate the influ-
ence of soil parameters and variation of surge characteristics (wave
shape and wave magnitude) in terms of potential generated in a
person submitted to a lightning mediated by a grounding system.
To reach these goals, a Transmission Line Modeling Method (TLM)
algorithm combined with a human body model representation was
implemented. The step, contact and transferred potentials mech-
anisms were considered in order to estimate the current and the
energy flowing to the chest of a person, contributing to the study
of human safety as well as to the development of more reliable
lightning protection systems (LPS).
2. Grounding system representation
The grounding system is one of the main resources responsi-
ble for dissipating the current proceeding from a lightning to the
earth, being an important component for the population’s safety
[6]. Although it is known that the performance of a LPS can be
improved considering the use of elaborated grounding meshes, the
implementation of simple structures composed of horizontal or
vertical electrodes is a common practice adopted by the power util-
ities both in distribution and transmission networks. Fig. 1 shows
some of the basic grounding schemes used in power utilities.
Usually, the practical implementation of these basic grounding
components is justified either by the physical constraints, espe-
cially in urban areas, or by means of financial resources, taking
into account only the minimum material necessary to obtain low
Fig. 2. Grounding electrode representation: top – horizontal conductor; bottom – equivalent circuit using TLM-1D.
89
values of grounding impedance. However, as mentioned above,
this approach does not guarantee personal safety and low poten-
tials generated in the soil surface. This problem has a significant
relevance particularly in populated sites, where the people are
more susceptible to be injured by contact, transferred and step
potential or other lightning mechanisms [7].
In order to evaluate the current scattered along a horizontal
or vertical electrode and consequently the potentials generated, a
numerical technique can be considered. This will ensure knowledge
of the grounding behavior before its physical implementation along
with the estimation of the possible harmful electrical quantities
that a person can be exposed to [8].
Thus, the Transmission Line Modeling Method in one dimension
(TLM-1D) can be a powerful tool to analyze the transients generated
by a lightning surge reaching a LPS [9]. In this technique, the impul-
sive response and the behavior in the time domain at any point
(node) along the electrode can be explicitly determined and there
are no problems with convergence, stability or spurious solutions.
Additionally, nonlinearities such as the soil ionization phenomenon
can be incorporated to the model [10,11]. Fig. 2 shows a horizontal
electrode represented in TLM-1D.
Based on the TLM-1D algorithm, the calculated electrical quan-
tities can be used as input sources to the human body model. The
step and touch potentials can be determined, allowing the evalua-
tion of the current flowing through the body. The variations of the
soil parameters, lightning wave shape and electrode characteristics
can be simulated with this technique. Therefore, the influence of the
related parameters in terms of possible harmful energy, currents
and potentials can be evaluated.
3. Human body representation
According to [3], the resistance of the human body depends on
the moisture, temperature and other physical properties. It is fur-
ther considered that the human body has two impedances (external
and internal). The body inside has lower impedance compared
to the impedance of the skin. This quantity may be represented
by a combination of resistive and capacitive components. The
impedance of the body is dependent on the voltage, frequency and
contact area, considering the current pathway through it.
More simplified models where the body is represented by equiv-
alent impedances [12,13,14] can be found in the literature. To
summarize, in the referred works the human body is molded by
a single resistance ranging from 500  to 1 k. Another approach
is the representation of the human body by an association of elec-
trical components, where a group of elements is associated with a
90 D.S. Gazzana et al. / Electric Power Systems Research 113 (2014) 88–94
Fig. 3. Human body representation based on Ref. [5].
particular body part (torso, legs, arms, skin) [1,5]. In the proposed
study, the model presented in [5] was adopted. Fig. 3 shows a draft
of this model.
4. Survivability threshold
In order to evaluate the influence of the soil and lightning
parameters in the electrical quantities that a person can be exposed
to, step and touch voltages are utilized as input to the human body
model. Then, the current passing through the heart can be esti-
mated. The specific energy for the ventricular fibrillation Fe can be
used as a reference parameter in the supportability studies. Eq. (1)
gives an estimate of this energy, where i (A) is the current passing
through the heart during the time t (s).
 t
J
Fe = i2 dt
0
˝ the hand and arm in relation to the earth. Considering the con-
As commented previously, there is a limited number of studies in
the literature estimating the thresholds of survivable energy and
currents, especially in the case of fast surges with high magni-
tudes. Some of the reference parameters related to the ventricular
fibrillation were obtained for exposure times around milliseconds,
considering alternating current, low frequencies and a probability
of fibrillation risk [15]. However, some extrapolations were made
based on the Dalziel’s criterion [16]. As for instance, according to
[5], a current of 199 A in 340 ns is considered lethal.
Additionally, the energy produced by ventricular defibrillators is
on the order of 50–360 J, but there are not sufficient investigations
to establish this energy as a threshold reference [17].
Fig. 4. Equivalent circuit of the human body model: left – step potential; middle – touch potential; right – transferred potential.
5. Model parameterization
Taking as reference the representative model of the human body
proposed in [5], some adjustments should be made in order to
evaluate the behavior of the electric current passing through the
heart.
In accordance with [18], (2) could be used to estimate the contact
resistance Rcontact between the feet of a person on the soil surface,
where s is the soil resistivity (m).
Rcontact ∼
= 3 · s (2)
Some human body models found in the literature as the presented
in Ref. [1] assume that to carry out simulations of atmospheric surge
mechanisms it is necessary to connect with the ends of the equiv-
alent circuit a high resistive component, e.g. 1 G, followed by the
remote ground. This assumption is justified by the need for a path
to electric current passing through the chest, especially in the case
of submission to the step potential. Otherwise, the electrical cur-
rent would flow only between the legs moving toward the earth.
However, this component defined empirically is subject to further
investigation.
In order to better represent the step potential mechanism, the
inclusion of a capacitor in such extremities instead of a resistive
component, being a physically acceptable solution, is proposed in
the approach presented here. The use of this capacitor represents
the presence of a very small leakage current between the plates
of the capacitor toward the earth that can be understood as a real
phenomenon. Thus, the value of the capacitance Cc (F) can be deter-
mined by (3) [19].
ε0 · A
Cc = (3)
d
In (3), ε0 is the vacuum permittivity (F/m), A is the area of one of
the capacitor plates (m2 ) representing the contact surface of the
body with the air and d is the distance between the plates (m),
(1) which may be understood as the height between the surface of
tact surface area A = 0.1 m2 (area of a person arm) at a distance
between plates = 0.85 m (person standing with open arms), Cc = 1pF
(approximately) is obtained.
Fig. 4 (left) illustrates the equivalent circuit model to analyze
the behavior of the current passing through the heart Iheart consid-
ering the step potential mechanism. This current is generated from
the difference of potential in the soil between two points on its
surface, as shown in Fig. 5 (left). In the case of the touch potential
mechanism, the current in the heart can be estimated based on the
equivalent circuit shown in Fig. 4 (middle). It is noted that in this
case Iheart results from the difference of potential between the elec-
trode and the soil surface, as illustrated in Fig. 5 (middle). Finally,
Fig. 4 (right) shows the representative model for the determination
 D.S. Gazzana et al. / Electric Power Systems Research 113 (2014) 88–94 91

Fig. 5. Lightning mechanisms considered in the simulations: left – step potential; middle – touch potential; right – transferred potential.

of the current Iheart taking into account the transferred potential. In
such case, the difference of potential occurs between the contact
point and the remote ground, as can be seen in Fig. 5 (right).
It is noted that for the three mechanisms associated to the
atmospheric surge mediated by a grounding system, the models
presented above are dependent on the: contact resistance Rcontact
estimated by (2); voltage on the electrode Velectrode that could be
determined using a TLM algorithm [9] and potential generated on
the soil surface Vsoil . This potential can be calculated using (4)
I · e−jω·t
V (x, y, z) = · ej·r ·
2 ·  · l · (s + jω · ε0 · εr )
   e.g. ω = 2 ·  · 500, 000, as recommended in [22]. It was not observed
x 2 + y2 + z 2 + x
ln  (4)
2
(x − l) + y2 + z 2 + x − l
where: V(x , y , z ) is the potential in a point on the soil surface
(V); t is the instant of time (s); ω is the angular frequency (rad/s);
Ie−jωt is the complex current determined by the TLM algorithm [9];
l is the electrode length (m); εr is the soil relative permittivity; ε0
is the permittivity of free space (F/m);  s is the soil conductivity
([m]−1 );  is the propagation constant defined in [20]; r is the
distance between the midpoint in the electrode and the analyzed
point on the soil surface (m); x, y and z are the distances between the
analyzed point on the soil surface and the origin of the electrode
(m). It is known that a lightning surge has a relatively constant
frequency spectrum for frequencies on the order of kHz ranging
from 10 kHz to 3 MHz [21]. Then, in the simulations presented here
500 kHz is the frequency calculation assumed for the estimation of
potential generated on the soil surface. In (4), ω can be understood
as the most representative frequency present in the lightning surge,
expressive variation in the potential produced on the soil surface
to different representative frequencies ranging from the interval
presented in [21].
Based on the presented models it is possible to perform a sen-
sitivity study in order to evaluate the currents passing through the
heart and the associated energy.

Fig. 6. Left – step potential submitted in the body model considering soils with different properties; right – current passing through the heart.
92 D.S. Gazzana et al. / Electric Power Systems Research 113 (2014) 88–94

Fig. 7. Left – contact potential submitted in the body model considering soils with different properties; right – current passing through the heart.

6. Simulation results
Aiming to estimate the currents and energy that a person can
be exposed to in the case of a lightning reaching a grounding sys-
tem, several simulations were performed. Fig. 5 illustrates the three
mechanisms considered in the developed study.
Taking into account the stochastic characteristics of a lightning
surge, current peak values ranging from 4 to 250 kA were consid-
ered, as recommended in Ref. [2]. Fast and slow wave shapes were
also simulated considering the different soil properties. The soil
resistivity and relative permittivity used in the simulations ranged
from 30 to 1000 m and 20 to 6 respectively.
In the simulations presented here a typical horizontal electrode
with 7.5 mm of radius, 9 m length, buried at 0.5 m depth in homo-
geneous soil is adopted. A slow wave shape, double exponential
with 5 kA (8 × 20) ␮s, was utilized.
According to Fig. 5 (left), Fig. 6 (left) shows the behavior of the
step potential that a person located above and in the center of
the electrode can be exposed to, considering different soil types.
Fig. 6 (right) presents the current that reaches the heart due to the
step potential generated. Table 1 quantifies the maximum current
passing through the heart and the ventricular fibrillation energy.
Based on the presented results, it can be stated that in the case of
step potential mechanism mediated by a horizontal electrode, the
type of soil with different properties does not produce significant
alteration in the energy generated in the heart. Although a rise in
the maximum current passing in the chest with the increase of soil
resistivity can be observed, the magnitudes are not expressive and
the exposure time is low to generate enough energy to cause a fatal
injury. It can be concluded in such scenario that soils with different
properties do not produce significant alterations in the possible
harmful currents to the heart.
Fig. 7 (left) illustrates the voltages that a person is subjected to in
the contact potential mechanism. The solid lines represent the volt-
age on the contact point and the dashed lines the voltages on the
soil surface. Fig. 7 (right) illustrates the behavior of currents pass-
ing through the heart for this mechanism. The generated current in
the body is proceeding from the difference of potential between
the contact point and the soil surface, considering that the feet
are together, 1 m apart from the touch point, as shown in Fig. 5
(middle). Table 2 summarizes some important quantities.
Unlike the step potential mechanism mediated by a ground-
ing system, in the case of contact potential, different types of soils
produce alterations in the current passing through the heart and
consequently in the ventricular fibrillation energy. The current
magnitudes and generated energy are higher than the one pro-
duced by step potentials. In the case of rocky and low-rise city
suburbs soils, these reference parameters assume expressive val-
ues, especially in terms of energy.
The third simulation evaluates the produced currents consider-
ing a touch voltage in the case of the transferred potential. In this
scenario the feet of a person are in a remote ground (0 V) and the
exposed potential is the voltage on the energized point, as can be
seen in Fig. 5 (right). Fig. 8 shows the currents passing through the
chest mediated by a grounding system in the considered soils. The
curve of voltages has a similar behavior to that of the contact poten-
tial mechanism. Table 3 presents again the maximum currents and
the generated energy.
As in the contact potential, in the transferred potential mecha-
nism different types of soils produce a clear alteration in the current
passing through the heart and consequently an increase in the
ventricular fibrillation energy. The generated current in the most
resistive soils is noticeably close to the 199 A in 340 ns, estimated
as current threshold. Taking into account that the heart impedance
ranges from 25 to 150 , the generated energy for the ventricular
fibrillation Fe has a significant value [17]. Then, it can be concluded
in these cases that the transferred potential will be fatal.
Table 2
Electrical quantities generated due to contact potential mechanism.
Soil type  (m) εr Imax (A) Fe (J/)
Agricultural plains 30 20 8.30 0.20
Rocky soil 500 10 51.42 5.89
Low-rise city suburbs 1000 6 66.26 7.18

Table 1 Table 3
Electrical quantities generated due to step potential mechanism. Electrical quantities generated due to transferred potential mechanism.

Soil type  (m) εr Imax (A) Fe (J/) Soil type  (m) εr Imax (A) Fe (J/)

Agricultural plains 30 20 8.82e−6 2.66e−13 Agricultural plains 30 20 15.37 0.7012

Rocky soil 500 10 2.12e−4 1.09 e−10 Rocky soil 500 10 129.22 36.80
Low-rise city suburbs 1000 6 4.36e−4 3.59e−10 Low-rise city suburbs 1000 6 167.88 49.62
 D.S. Gazzana et al. / Electric Power Systems Research 113 (2014) 88–94 93

Fig. 8. Current passing through the heart considering a transferred potential mech- Fig. 9. Step potential obtained in the validation process.
anism.

In this study, the influence of fast waves and surges with high
peak values was also evaluated. Additionally, soils with other
properties were analyzed. Although fast waves produce high mag-
nitudes in the current passing through the heart, considering
contact and transferred potential mechanisms, no significant influ-
ence of the wave shape was observed in the study.
Considering the surge waves with high magnitudes, the injury
caused by contact and transferred potential will be more severe
in comparison with the damage caused by low magnitudes. An
important observation is that in the contact potential mechanism,
the current passing through the heart starts to have a significant
rise, for surge with high values. Consequently an increase in the
ventricular fibrillation energy can be observed.

7. Validation

The validation process of a representative model of the human

body can be considered a non-trivial task, mainly because of the
absence of real measurement data. This reason is reinforced by the
impossibility of humans to be submitted to electric shock with the
desired characteristics. Still, the existing models in the literature
consider only contact with the different mechanisms without con-
sideration of the grounding system as a mediating element between
lightning and human beings. However, some considerations can be
made based on previously reported studies.
With respect to the studied mechanisms, it is shown in the lit-
erature that in the case of the step potential, the associated effects
with such exposure are interpreted as being of short duration, long
duration and thermal, not leading to death by ventricular fibrilla-
tion of the heart [1,5,7]. Additionally, the standard IEC/TR 60479-4
establishes that a possible fatality might be caused by respiratory
failure rather than ventricular fibrillation [2].
A quantitative comparison can be made based on the findings of
Andrews concerning the step potential. According to [5], consider-
ing a person 10 m away from the site where the lightning reaches
the soil with the feet 1 m apart, the generated step potential would
have a magnitude of 1 kV, with an estimated current circulating in
the heart smaller than 300 mA. To compare the results, in the per-
formed simulation a lightning of 5 kA (8 × 20) ␮s was adopted and
injected into a soil with resistivity of s = 500 m. Figs. 9 and 10
show the step potential and current on the heart respectively,
derived from the model presented in Fig. 4 (left).
In Fig. 9 the potential step matches perfectly the potential pre-
sented in Ref. [5] in terms of magnitude. Further, as illustrated in
Fig. 10. Current on the heart obtained in the validation process.
Fig. 10, the current in the heart with a maximum value of 1.2 mA is
within the range estimated by Andrews, less than 300 mA.
8. Conclusions
This paper presented a contribution to the study of human safety
in terms of energy and current transferred to a person subjected to
step and touch potential mechanisms, mediated by a grounding
system. The influence of the different soils and surge characteris-
tics in the electrical quantities that a person can be exposed to were
evaluated. A TLM-1D based algorithm and a human body model
representation consisting of a set o lumped circuit components
were used for this objective.
Based on the simulations, it could be verified that soils with
different properties do not affect in a significant manner the pos-
sible harmful current that reaches the heart, considering the step
potential mechanism.
In the case of the contact and transferred potentials, the soils
properties produce a significant alteration in the current passing
through the heart, and consequently in the ventricular fibrillation
energy.
In the developed study, only the first stroke was considered
and the simulations lead to the evaluation of lightning with short
duration. It is important to notice that to surges with repetitive
94 D.S. Gazzana et al. / Electric Power Systems Research 113 (2014) 88–94
strokes including the CC component, the energy generated in the
step potential mechanism can become expressive.
The focus of this work is neither to establish a threshold to fatal
currents nor the degree of damage severity, but to establish refer-
ence values that can be used as a basis for future research, as well
as a better understanding of the behavior of a lightning reaching
the grounding system and its interaction with a person. Finally, the
developed study can contribute to the improvement of the LPS in
terms of human safety.
Acknowledgments
The authors would like to thank CAPES, Ministry of Education
of Brazil, CEEE-D and the University of Nottingham, especially The
George Green Institute for Electromagnetics Research for the facil-
ities offered during the development of this work.
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