TABLE OF CONTENTS

 Measurements
o Imperial vs Metric
o Geometry
o Scale
 Representation
o Architectural Concepts
o Abbreviations
o Graphics
o CAD
o Codes / Specs / Contracts
 Materials / Systems
o Concrete
o Masonry
o Metals
o Wood / Plastic / Composites
o Thermal & Moisture Protection
o Doors / Windows / Openings
o Finishes
o Specialties
o Equipment
o Vertical Circulation
o Fire Suppression
o Plumbing
o HVAC
o Electrical
o Site & Landscape
 DRAWING GUIDE 1 square yard = 9 square feet = 1 296 square inches

1 acre = 4 840 square yards = 43 560 square feet = 6 272 640 square
Measurements inches

The categories listed below cover many of the geometry, unit, and
measurement calculations that architects use daily. Volume
 Imperial vs. Metric 1 cubic foot = 1 728 cubic inches
 Geometry
 Scale 1 cubic yard = 27 cubic feet = 46 656 cubic inches

Liquid Volume
Imperial Equivalents 1 pint = 16 ounces

1 quart = 2 pints = 32 ounces

Linear
1 gallon = 4 quarts = 8 pints = 128 ounces
1 foot = 12 inches

1 yard = 3 feet = 36 inches Weight / Mass

1 pound = 16 ounces
1 chain = 22 yards = 66 feet = 2 376 inches

1 ton = 2 000 pounds = 32 000 ounces

1 furlong = 10 chains = 220 yards = 660 feet = 23 760 inches

1 (statute) mile = 8 furlongs = 80 chains = 1 760 yards = 5 280 feet = 63 360 Metric Equivalents
inches

1 nautical mile = 2 025 yards = 6 075 feet = 72 900 inches Linear

1 centimeter = 10 milimeters
Area
1 decimeter = 10 centimeters = 100 millimeters
1 square foot = 144 square inches
1 meter = 10 decimeters = 100 centimeters = 1 000 millimeters
1 kilometer = 1 000 meters = 10 000 decimeters = 100 000 centimeters = 1
000 000 millimeters

Area
Metric / Imperial Conversions
1 square centimeter = 100 square millimeters

1 square decimeter = 100 square centimeters = 10 000 square millimeters
1 square meter = 100 square decimeters = 10 000 square centimeters = 1
000 000 square millimeters
The United States has yet to change to the metric system due, in part, to the
challenge in converting to another system because the grids of materials will
not simply and rationally convert. There are two methods for converting: soft
conversions and hard conversions.

1 are = 100 square meters = 10 000 square decimeters = 1 000 000 square
centimeters
1 hectare = 10 ares = 10 000 square meters
1 square kilometer = 100 hectares = 10 000 ares = 1 000 000 square meters
Soft Conversions
Soft conversions from imperial to metric represent an exact conversion
where the material dimension has not changed. For instance, 12 inches
would have a soft conversion of 304.8 millimeters. Occasionally, the soft
conversion will be rounded so that 12 inches has a soft conversion of 305
millimeters.

Volume Hard Conversions

1 cubic centimeter = 1 000 cubic millimeters
1 cubic decimeter = 1 000 cubic centimeters = 1 000 000 cubic millimeters
1 cubic meter = 1 000 cubic decimeters = 1 000 000 cubic centimeters = 1
000 000 000 cubic millimeters
Hard conversions from imperial to metric are used in the building industry to
make the metric units more rational. For instance, 12 inches would have a
hard conversion of 300 millimeters. In this case, the actual dimension of the
material changes so that building materials can easily conform to metric
grids.

Imperial to Metric Soft Conversions

Weight / Mass
Length Area Volume
1 gram = 1 000 milligrams 1 inch = 25.4 mm 1 sq. in. = 645.16 mm2 1 cu inch = 16.387 cm3
1 foot = 304.8 mm 1 sq ft = 0.093 m2 1 cu foot = 28316.847 cm3
1 kilogram = 1 000 grams = 1 000 000 milligrams 1 yard = 914.4 mm 1 sq yard = 0.836 m2 1 cu yard = .7646 m2
1 mile = 1.609 km 1 acre = 4046.86 m2 1 gallon = 3.785 L
1 tonne = 1 000 kilograms = 1 000 000 grams = 1 000 000 000 milligrams 1 sq mile = 2.59 km2
 Area of a
Ellipse
Metric to Imperial Soft Conversions An ellipse is
flattened circle so
Length Area Volume the area calculation
1 m3 = 35.3147 takes into account
1 mm = 0.0394 in 1 mm2 = 0.00155 sq in
cu ft
that there are two
1 L = 0.264172
1 m = 3.281 ft 1 m2 = 10.7639 sq ft different radii.
gallons
1 km = 0.621 mi. 1 hectare = 2.47105 acres
Area = pi (r1 x r2)
1 km2 = 0.368 sq miles

Calculating Area
Below are a series of diagrams that demonstrate how to calculate the area
Area of a
of two dimensional shapes. Triangle
The area of a
triangle is half of the
Area of a product of the base
Circle and height.
The area of a circle
is the product of pi Area = (h x B)/2
and the square of
the radius.

Area = pi (r x r)
 Area of a Area of a
Equilateral Parallelogram
Triangle A parallelogram is
An equilateral rectangle that is
triangle has 3 equal skewed
length sides. While slightly. The area is
the formula above a product of the
will also work, there base and the
is an alternative overall height.
method of
calculating the area of an equilateral triangle. Area = B x h

Area = ((sqrt 3) (A x A)) / 4

Area of a
Area of a Trapezoid
Rectangle Trapezoids are half
The area of a of a
rectangle is the parallelogram. The
product of the long diagram at left
side and the short shows how 2 equal
side. The area of a trapezoids make a
square is the length
of a side squared. parallelogram. Therefore, the area calculation is simply half of the area of a
parallelogram.

Area = A x B
Area = 1/2 (h (A + B))
 Area of a
Quadrilateral
The volume of a
A quadrilateral is block, prism, or
simply two triangles cylinder is easily
put together, so the calculated by
area can be multiplying the area
calculated by of the base by the
summing the areas height/altitude of
of the two triangles. the object.

When the bases are

not parallel, the
height or altitude of
the object is from
the center point of
one base to the
center point of the
other base.
Calculating Volume
Our article, Calculating Area, can help you determine how to calculate the
area of a shape.

Volume = (area of base x height)

 The volume of
cones and pyramids Calculating the Slope
is calculated by Percentage
multiplying the base Slope percentage is calculated in
by the height and much the same way as the
then dividing by 3. gradient. Convert the rise and run to
the same units and then divide the rise by the run. Multiply this number by
Our 100 and you have the percentage slope. For instance, 3" rise divided by 36"
article, Calculating run = .083 x 100 = an 8.3% slope.
Area, can help you
determine how to
calculate the area
of a shape.
Calculating a Slope in
Volume = (area of Degrees
base x height) / 3 The most complicated way to calculate
slope is in degrees and it requires a bit
of high-school math. The tangent of a
Calculating Slope given angle (in degrees) is equal to the rise divided by the run. Therefore,
the inverse-tangent of the rise divided by the run will give the angle.

There are three different ways to indicate the slope of a surface relative to
the horizontal plane: degrees, gradient, and percentage.

Table of Common Slopes

Calculating a Slope
Gradient The table below shows some common slopes. 1:20 slopes do not require
handrails. 1:12 slopes are the maximum slope allowed by ADA codes, but
Slope gradients are written as Y:X, they require handrails.
where Y is a single unit in rise and X is
the run. Both numbers must use the
Degrees Gradient Percent Degrees Gradient Percent
same units. For instance, if you travel
0.6 1 : 95.49 1.0% 30 1 : 1.73 57.7%
3 inches vertically and 3 feet (36 inches) horizontally, the slope would be
1 1 : 57.29 1.7% 45 1:1 100%
3:36 or 1:12. This is read as a "one in twelve slope."
2.86 1 : 20 5% 56.31 1: 0.67 150%
4.76 1 : 12 8.3% 60 1 : 0.6 173.2%
 7.13 1:8 12.5% 63.43 1 : 0.5 200%
10 1 : 5.67 17.6% 78.69 1: 0.2 500%
CAD Scale Factors
14.04 1:4 25% 89.43 1 : 0.1 1000%
15 1 : 3.73 26.8% 90 1:0 inf. For simplicity and clarity, CAD users draw buildings at full scale. For
26.57 1:2 50% instance, when drawing a door in CAD, the door would be 3 feet wide and 7
feet tall. However, since these drawings get placed on sheets of paper that
are much smaller, a scale factor is required so that the final drawing has a
Converting Between Drawing Scales usable conversion factor.

Changing from one scale to another seems like a complex task, especially if
you need to convert from an architectural scale to an engineering scale. The Calculating Scale Factor
trick is to use the Scale Factor, which appears in our CAD Scale To convert an architectural drawing scale to a scale factor:
Factor article. The scale factor is used to compare the scales to each other.
1. Select the desired scale. 1/8" = 1'-0"
For instance, if you have a drawing at 3/16" = 1'-0" and you want to change 2. Invert the fraction and multiply by 12. 8/1 x 12 = Scale Factor 96
it to 1" = 40'-0", you simply compare the two scale factors and adjust as
required: To convert an engineering drawing scale to a scale factor:
3/16" = 1'-0" has a Scale Factor of 64
1" = 40'-0" has a Scale Factor of 480 1. Select the desired scale. 1" = 20'
The drawing must get smaller, so 64 divided by 480 = .1333x or 13.33% 2. Multiply the feet by 12. 20 x 12 = Scale Factor 240

Likewise, if you have a drawing at 1" = 30'-0" and you want to change it to
Architectural Scales
1/2" = 1'-0":
1" = 30'-0" has a Scale Factor of 360 Drawing Scale Scale Factor Viewport Scale Decimal Scale
1/2" = 1'-0" has a scale factor of 24
1/16" = 1'-0" 192 1/192xp .0625" = 1'-0"
The drawing must get (way) larger, so 360 divided by 24 = 15x or 1500%
3/32" = 1'-0" 128 1/128xp .09375" = 1'-0"

Scale Conversion Calculator 1/8" = 1'-0" 96 1/96xp .125" = 1'-0"

Below, you will find a simple calculator to help with this calculation. Simply 3/16" = 1'-0" 64 1/64xp .1875" = 1'-0"
select the scale of your original drawing and select the scale you would like
the drawing to be. The calculator will return two values. The first value 1/4" = 1'-0" 48 1/48xp .25" = 1'-0"
provides the decimal change. The second value provides the percentage
that can be entered into a copier - a value larger than 100 will make the 3/8" = 1'-0" 32 1/32xp .375" = 1'-0"
drawing larger and a value less than 100 will make the drawing smaller.
1/2" = 1'-0" 24 1/24xp .50" = 1'-0"
 3/4" = 1'-0" 16 1/16xp .75" = 1'-0"  Graphics
 CAD
1" = 1'-0" 12 1/12xp 1" = 1'-0"  Codes, Specifications, Contracts
1 1/2" = 1'-0" 8 1/8xp 1.5" = 1'-0" Architectural Concepts
3" = 1'-0" 4 1/4xp 3" = 1'-0"
 Properties of Light

Engineering Scales
 Architectural Acoustics
Drawing Scale Scale Factor Viewport Scale

1" = 10'-0" 120 1/120xp  Shielding in Buildings

1" = 20'-0" 240 1/240xp

1" = 30'-0" 360 1/360xp

Properties of Light
1" = 40'-0" 480 1/480xp Light has a major affect on how a person perceives or experiences a space.
Control of light is one of the skills that every architect must master. The
1" = 50'-0" 600 1/600xp science of light and lighting is an incredibly complex field; however, we will
try to simplify lighting down to its core architectural concepts.
1"= 60'-0" 720 1/720xp

1" = 70'-0" 840 1/840xp

What is Light?
1" = 80'-0" 960 1/960xp
Light is defined as the portion of the electromagnetic spectrum that a human
1" = 90'-0" 1080 1/1080xp is able to perceive. This visible radiation generally comes from the sun and
is actually quite a small portion of the electromagnetic spectrum. The human
1" = 100'-0" 1200 1/1200xp visible spectrum falls in the wavelength range of 370 nanometers to 800
nanometers.
Representation
The categories listed below cover the different kinds of symbols,
abbreviations, and graphics that architects use in the documentation of
buildings.

 Architectural Concepts
 Abbreviations

Electromagnetic waves that have a shorter wavelength than light are
ultraviolet while those that have a longer wavelength are infrared. While our
eyes are not able to see these kinds of waves, we are able to see or feel
their effects. Ultraviolet radiation will tan our skin while infrared light can be
felt as heat.
Light Color
White light is effectively an even distribution of the different wavelengths of
visible light. In architecture, the standard is considered daylight at noon
during the month of June. Northern light, while generally the most consistent,
has more light at blue end of the spectrum. Late afternoon light has more
radiation in the red wavelength.
A colored surface reflects light in the wavelength that matches its color and
absorbs the other wavelengths of color. For instance, a red surface reflects
mostly red light and absorbs most of the other color light. This is also true of
transparent or translucent materials - red glass transmits red light and
absorbs the other colors of light.
Measuring Light
Luminous Flux is the rate at which a light source emits light. Measured
in lumens, luminous flux is a measurement of the amount of light coming
from a source.
Luminous Intensity is a measure of the light intensity and takes into
account the luminous flux (amount of light) and the angle of distribution
(amount of coverage). For instance, a spot light and a flood light may both
emit 1000 lumens, but the spot light has a much higher intensity because the
light is focused into a smaller cone. Luminous intensity is measured
in candelas or candlepower.
Iluminance is a measure of the amount of light that falls on a specific
surface area and is measured in lux. A 1000 lumen spot light will illuminate
a small area much more than a 1000 lumen flood light because more of the
spot light's lumens are hitting the small surface.
Luminance is the measure of an object's brightness or the amount of light
that is coming off an illuminated surface. The unit of measurement is
the foot-lambert. The brightness of an object has to do with the amount of
light that hits it and the amount of light that is reflected back.
Bouncing Light

Incidence is the light hitting a surface. The angle, from normal, of the light is
referred to as the Angle of Incidence.
Reflection is the return of light after hitting a surface. The angle, from
normal, of the light on its return path is the Angle of Reflection. The Law of
Reflection dictates that when light hits a smooth surface the angle of
incidence is equal to the angle of reflection.
Diffusion occurs when a surface is irregular, which creates a scattered
reflection of light. It also occurs when a translucent object scatters light as it
passed through. When this happens, the reflected or dispersed light is
considered diffuse.
Absorption happens when a material only reflects or returns a portion of the
light that hits it. Even a mirror is not perfectly reflective, so some of the light
radiation is absorbed by the material. The measure is the absorptance.
Architectural Acoustics
Within the building trades, acoustics is the science of controlling sound
within a building. This can take many forms including: directing sound to the
back rows of a theater, stopping sound from passing from one residential
unit to another, preventing sound from escaping a loud musical practice
room, and isolating vibrations from mechanical equipment. The ABCs of
acoustics cover the three main types of addressing sound, which are
described below.
Acoustics: Absorb, Block, or Cover
There are three methods of dealing with sound, commonly referred to as the
ABCs. Sound can be absorbed, it can be blocked or redirected, and it can be
covered. The method chosen depends on the final goal of the project.
Sound should be absorbed when the goal is to keep sounds within the room
from reverberating or echoing. If a room has hard surfaces that reflect
sound, it will take a long time for the sound level to diminish to a point that it
is inaudible. This is most noticeable in an empty room with hard walls, floors,
and ceilings: you can hear the sounds bouncing around the room. Installing
sound absorbing materials, such as carpet, acoustic ceiling tiles, or fabric
covered panels, will reduce the reverberation by absorbing the sound. Noise
Reduction Coefficient, which is defined below, is used for rating a material's
ability to absorb sound.
If the goal is to keep sound within a space, for privacy or other reasons, the
sound should be blocked. This can be combined with absorption so the
reverberation in the space is reduced. Blocking sound is generally
accomplished by reducing short circuits between two spaces. Some
common short circuits include HVAC ducts or grilles, back-to-back outlets,
pipes that pass through a space, partitions that stop above the ceiling but do
not extend to the structural deck above, and windows or other openings.
After eliminating the short circuits, adding mass to the walls will help block
the sound. For instance, a concrete wall blocks sound better than a stud
wall. Additional layers of gypsum wall board and insulation in the wall cavity
will also help block sound. Sound Transmission Class, which is discussed
below, is the measurement of a material's ability to block sound.
Sound can also be covered to help maintain speech privacy. This is most
noticeable in an office environment when the forced air system is turned off -
you can immediately hear more conversations from a greater distance.
Sound is generally covered with white or pink noise, either from the HVAC
system or an electronic system. The idea is to provide just enough 25 Normal speech is clearly audible and understandable
background noise to make nearby conversations unintelligible; the
conversation is still there, but the quiet hum of the white noise masks it. 30 Normal speech is hard to understand, loud speech is clearly audible
35 Loud speech is audible, but not clear
Sound Transmission Class (STC) 40 Loud speech can be heard, but is not understandable
45 Loud speech is barely audible
50 Very loud sounds, like musical instruments, are audible
60 Very Loud music is barely audible, power tools are audible
70 Power tools are faintly heard
75+ Most sounds are completely inaudible

Outside-Inside Transmission Class (OITC)

Sound Transmission Class, abbreviated STC, is the measurement of a Outside-Inside Transmission Class, abbreviated OITC, is the measure of an
material's ability to block airborne sound within the frequency range of exterior wall's ability to block sound from transmitting into the building. It is
human speech. The STC number is the decibel (dB) reduction across a similar to STC; however while STC measures transmission in the frequency
material or assembly. For instance, if a sound in a room is 60dB and that range of human speech, OITC measures frequencies in the range of cars,
same sound in the next room is 20db, then the wall between the rooms has planes, mechanical equipment, and other low frequencies that may be
an STC rating of 40. experienced outside a building. Understanding the OITC of an exterior wall
is critical for buildings in loud environments, such as airports or rooms within
a loud factory.
Most building codes require walls between dwelling units to have an STC
rating of 50. However, very loud speech can still be heard through such a
partition, so an STC rating of 55 to 60 is generally used in higher-end
Noise Reduction Coefficient (NRC)
housing. It is important to note that STC ratings are given to partitions by
rating agencies after testing in a laboratory environment. Partitions installed
in the field can have an effective rating of 5dB lower and if significant short
circuits in the construction are present (cracks, air gaps, back-to-back
electrical boxes, ducts, etc.), the partitions can be ineffective at blocking
sound. The table below provides an understanding of STC levels; however,
sound levels are subjective and vary by individual.

STC Audible Through Partition

 Carpet with foam pad .30 - .50
Concrete (smooth) .00 - .20
Glass .05
Gypsum Wall Board .05
Plywood .10 - .15
Polyurethane Foam (1" thick) .30

Noise Reduction Coefficient, abbreviated NRC, is a measure of a material's Ceiling Attenuation Class (CAC)
ability to absorb sound within the frequency range of speech. A material with
an NRC of 0 will reflect all sound that hits it. A material with an NRC of 1.0
will theoretically absorb all sound that hits it. Some materials have a listed
NRC rating above 1.0 due to the complexity in testing a material within a
laboratory. Although a material is tested based on its face dimensions, the
material has an inherent thickness. Due to diffraction and since the edges
absorb sound, the average sound absorption of the material as a whole is
greater than that of its face.

It is important to reiterate that NRC is a measurement of noise reduction

within the human speech range, so a material that has a high NRC rating,
may actually be poor at absorbing music, mechanical equipment noise, or
Ceiling Attenuation Class, abbreviated CAC, is effectively the STC of a
other very low or very high frequency sounds. In addition, NRC ratings are
ceiling tile. CAC is generally used to measure sound transmission between
often provided based on a given assembly. For instance, a carpet
two spaces when the wall between them stops at or just above the ceiling.
manufacturer may indicate an NRC rating of .50, but this rating may be for
Since the wall does not extend to the underside of the structural deck above,
the carpet, pad, and sub-floor -- it is not necessarily just for the carpet.
the ceiling is the only barrier preventing sound transmission between the
spaces.
The table below gives some NRC ratings for common building materials.

Material NRC Rating

Brick .00 - .05
Shielding in Buildings
Carpet over concrete .20 - .30 Shielding is used in buildings to protect people and equipment from the
effects of other nearby items. Shielding is most often used in medical/dental
buildings and research laboratories due to the specialty equipment and
compounds used in those types of facilities. Architects working in the
healthcare and institutional sectors will need to understand the various kinds
of shielding available.
Shielding can be used to protect the contents of a room or object (prevent
something from getting in) or it can be used to protect everything outside a
room (prevent something from getting out). For instance, passersby should
be protected from the radioactive materials in a laboratory storage room
(prevent something from getting out). Or, a sensitive piece of equipment may
want to be protected from radio waves entering the space and affecting test
results (prevent something from getting in).
There are two main types of shielding used in medical and research
buildings: electromagnetic shielding (including radio frequencies and
magnetic fields) and ionizing radiation shielding (including x-rays and
radioactive material). Each category requires the use of different materials to
prevent harmful exposure.
Electromagnetic Shielding
Electromagnetic shielding in buildings generally protects sensitive devices
from external interference. In some cases, it can also be used to keep an
object's field contained so that it doesn't interfere with other objects or
equipment. Electromagnetic interference (EMI) comes in many forms such
as radio frequencies, magnetic fields, and electrical fields. An expert in EMI
shielding should design the shielding systems due to the complexity
involved.
Shielding from electromagnetic interference is usually accomplished
passively by using metal sheets such as copper, aluminum, steel, or metal
alloys. Copper is usually used to protect equipment from radio frequency
and electrical interference, but aluminum and steel also work. Steel plate or
silicon steel are usually used to keep magnetic fields from extending further
out into the environment.
There are also active shielding options where a compensation system
continuously measures the electromagnetic fields of a space and generates
balancing fields that counteract the harmful fields. Due to their cost and need
for regular maintenance, active systems are reserved for situations where
passive systems prove inadequate.
It is important that all six sides of a room are properly shielded because
electromagnetic fields extend in all directions and are not "line-of-sight" like
ionizing radiation. It is also critical that all penetrations in the shield are
properly protected using filters or waveguides. Filters prevent electrical
cables and wires from transmitting EMI into a space. Waveguides prevent air
ducts and water pipes from transmitting EMI into a space.
The most challenging EMI to shield against is quasi-static DC field
interference. This occurs when large, moving metal objects pass through the
earth's magnetic field and generate a ripple of DC fields, which can affect
sensitive equipment such as MRI machines or electron microscopes. Such
interference can be caused by trucks, cars, or buses passing too close to
sensitive equipment. Since vehicles tend to be far enough away to not be a
problem, the biggest culprit for quasi-static DC field interference are
elevators, which are generally dispersed throughout medical and research
facilities. The best way to avoid this problem is to keep elevators far enough
away from sensitive equipment. An engineer, physicist, or equipment
manufacturer can help determine the separation required.
Ionizing Radiation Shielding
Humans must be protected from ionizing radiation to prevent serious health
risks. Radiation in healthcare and research facilities often comes in the form
of x-rays or tracer elements used during diagnostic procedures. It is also
found during radiation therapies, such as treatments for cancer. Rooms that
are used for certain diagnostic imaging procedures or for radioactive
treatments are shielded to keep the radiation from escaping and
compromising nearby people.
There are three ways of protecting from ionizing radiation: (1) Time - allow
the radiation to decay; (2) Distance - keep the radiation away from humans;
(3) Absorption - shield humans with a material that absorbs the radiation.
Time and distance are fairly self-explanatory, so we will focus on absorption,
also known as shielding.
It is critically important that a physicist design ionizing radiation
shielding. Different types of radiation will interact with various shielding in
different ways. In fact, it is possible to make radiation more lethal if the
wrong type of shielding is used. However, the basic premise is to increase
the level of shielding, the mass and thickness of the shielding material
should be increased.
It is worth noting once again, that shielding for any form of radiation
(electromagnetic, ionizing, etc) is highly complex and must be
undertaken by an expert in the field. An architect must hire a physicist
or other engineer with the expertise to ensure safety. However, it is
possible to properly shield facilities to keep specialized machines running
smoothly while protecting the health of the people who will be nearby.
2004 CSI Masterspec Divisions
Integrated X-Ray Shielding Assemblies: 13 49 13
Modular X-Ray Shielding Rooms: 13 49 16

The most common way that ionizing radiation is stopped is by providing a Integrated RFI/EMI Shielding Assemblies: 13 49 23
lead shield. This is easily seen in a dentist office where a patient wears a
lead apron and the technician moves behind a lead-lined wall during an X-
Modular RFI/EMI Shielding Rooms: 13 49 26
Ray. Since X-Rays are fairly low-dose radiation, they can be stopped with a
thin lead shield. Higher doses of radiation may require a room to incorporate
lead-lined drywall, lead-lined plywood, or lead bricks. Abbreviations
Certain types of radiation require increased protection. In that case, thick
concrete walls can be used or the density of the concrete can be increased  Architectural Abbreviations
through the use of more aggregate or different additives. High-density
concrete blocks are also available to help absorb ionizing radiation. In some
situations, such as around linear accelerators, high-density concrete walls  Structural Abbreviations
may need to be four feet thick. When this isn't possible, there are other more
expensive options.
 HVAC Abbreviations
Where significant neutron shielding is required in thinner and lighter
construction, the physicist can design a shield using pure or borated  Electrical Abbreviations
polyethylene. The lightness of the material makes it ideal for shielding doors
or other moving objects.
 Plumbing and Fire Protection Abbreviations
Summary
Architectural Abbreviations
The list of abbreviations used in a set of architectural drawings varies from CONT Continuous
office to office. Be sure to check the front section of the drawing set for the
abbreviations used within. CPT Carpet

CT Ceramic Tile
# Pound OR Number
CTYD Courtyard
& And
DBL Double
@ At
DEMO Demolish or Demolition
ACT Acoustic Ceiling Tile
DIA Diameter
AD Area Drain
DIM Dimension
AFF Above Finished Floor
DIMS Dimensions
ALUM Aluminum
DN Down
ANOD Anodized
DR Door
BSMT Basement
DWG Drawing
BYND Beyond
EA Each
BOT Bottom
EJ Expansion Joint
CIP Cast In Place
EL Elevation
CHNL Channel
ELEC Electrical
CJ Control Joint
ELEV Elevator or Elevation
CLG Ceiling
EPDM Ethylene Propylene Diene M-Class (Roofing)
CLR Clear
EQ Equal
CMU Concrete Masonry Unit
EXIST Existing
COL Column
EXP JT Expansion Joint
COMPR Compressible
EXT Exterior
CONC Concrete
FD Floor Drain or Fire Department
FEC Fire Extinguisher Cabinet MEMBR Membrane

FIXT Fixture MIN Minimum

FLR Floor MRGWB Moisture-Resistant Gypsum Wall Board

FM Filled Metal MTL Metal

FO Face Of NIC Not In Contract

FND Foundation NO Number

GA Gauge NOM Nominal

GALV Galvanized OC On Center

GWB Gypsum Wall Board OH Opposite Hand

HC Hollow Core OZ Ounce

HI High PCC Pre-Cast Concrete

HM Hollow Metal PLUMB Plumbing

HP High Point PLYD Plywood

HR Hour PT Pressure Treated

HVAC Heating, Ventilating, And Air Conditioning PNT Paint or Painted

IRGWB Impact Resistant Gypsum Wall Board PVC Polyvinyl Chloride

ILO In Lieu Of RBR Rubber

INSUL Insulated or Insulation RCP Reflected Ceiling Plan

INT Interior RD Roof Drain

LO Low REQD Required

MAX Maximum RM Room

MO Masonry Opening SIM Similar

MECH Mechanical SPEC Specified OR Specification

SPK Sprinkler or Speaker The list of abbreviations used in a set of structural drawings varies from
office to office. Be sure to check the front section of the drawing set for the
SSTL Stainless Steel abbreviations used within.
STC Sound Transmission Coefficient
ASD Alternate Stress Design
STL Steel
ACI American Concrete Institute
STRUCT Structure or Structural
AISC American Institute of Steel Construction
T&G Tongue And Groove
AISI American Iron and Steel Institute
TELE Telephone
ASTM American Society for Testing and Materials
TLT Toilet
AWS American Welding Society
TO Top Of
AB Anchor Bolt
TOC Top Of Concrete
BM Beam
TOS Top Of Steel
BRG Bearing
TPD Toilet Paper Dispenser
BLK Block
T/D Telephone/Data
BOT Bottom
TYP Typical
BRKT Bracket
UNO Unless Noted Otherwise
CIP Cast-In-Place
U/S Underside
CLR Clear
VIF Verify In Field
COL Column
VP Vision Panel
CONC Concrete
W/ With
CMU Concrete Masonry Unit
WD Wood
CRSI Concrete Reinforcing Steel Institute

Structural Abbreviations CONST JT Construction Joint

CONT Continuous
CJ Control Joint GR Grade

DEPR Depression GB Grade Beam

DET Detail GP Gusset Plate

DL Development Length HT Height

DIA Diameter HP High Point

DIM Dimension HS High Strength

DIR Direction HEF Horizontal Each Face

DWLS Dowels HIF Horizontal Inside Face

EA Each HOF Horizontal Outside Face

EE Each End HOR Horizontal

EF Each Face IN Inch

EJ Expansion Joint ID Inside Diameter

ES Each Side ICBO International Conference of Building Officials

EQ Equal INV Invert

EXP Bolt Expansion Bolt JT Joint

EXP JT Expansion Joint JST Joist

FT Foot or Feet K Kip (1000 Pounds)

FIN Finish LW Light Weight

FL Floor LWC Light Weight Concrete

FTG Footing LRFD Load and Resistance Factor Design

FND Foundation LLV Long Leg Vertical

GALV Galvanized LP Low Point

GA Gauge MAS Masonry

MTL Metal SOG Slab on Grade

NF Near Face SL Splice Length

NWC Normal Weight Concrete SQ Square

NIC Not in Contract STD Standard

OC On Center STL Steel

OD Outside Diameter SDI Steel Deck Institute

OPNG Opening SF Step Footing or Square Foot

PC Pile Cap STIFF Stiffener

PL Plate STR Structural

PT Point SUP Support

PVC Polyvinyl Chloride SYM Symmetrical

PSF Pounds per Square Foot THK Thick or Thickness

PSI Pounds per Square Inch THRD Threaded

R Radius T&B Top and Bottom

REINF Reinforced TO Top of

RETG Retaining TOC Top of Concrete

RET Return TOS Top of Steel

RE Right End TOW Top of Wall

SECT Section TYP Typical

SC Shear Connector UNO Unless Noted Otherwise

SHT Sheet US Underside

SLV Short Leg Vertical VEF Vertical Each Face

SIM Similar VIF Vertical Inside Face or Verify in Field

 VOF Vertical Outside Face BI Backwards Inclined

WWF Welded Wire Fabric BOD Bottom of Duct

W/ With BTU British Thermal Unit

WP Working Point BTUH BTU per Hour

CENT Center or Centrifugal

HVAC Abbreviations CF Cubic Feet

CFM Cubic Feet per Minute

The list of abbreviations used in a set of engineering drawings varies from
office to office. Be sure to check the front section of the drawing set for the CH Chilled or Chiller
abbreviations used within.
CHW Chilled Water

A Air or Compressed Air CHWR Chilled Water Return

AC Air Conditioning CHWS Chilled Water Supply

ACD Automatic Control Damper CO Carbon Monoxide

AD Access Door CONN Connection

AF Air Foil CT Cooling Tower

AHU Air Handling Unit CTBD Cooling Tower Blow Down

AMP Ampere CUH Cabinet Unit Heater

AP Access Panel CWR Condenser Water Return

APD Air Pressure Drop CWS Condenser Water Supply

AS Air Stream D Drain

ATC Automatic Temperature Control DB Dry Bulb (Temperature)

ATM Atmosphere DEG Degree

BDD Back-Draft Damper DDC Direct Digital Control

BHP Brake Horsepower DIA Diameter

DIM Dimension FPM Feet per Minute

DP Differential Pressure FPS Feet per Second

EA Each or Exhaust Air FRP Fiberglass Reinforced Plastic

EAHU Exhaust Air Handling Unit FS Flow Switch

EAT Entering Air Temperature FT Feet

EF Exhaust Fan FTR Fin Tube Radiation

EMER Emergency G Gas

EMS Energy Management System GA Gauge

ESP External Static Pressure GAL Gallons

ET Expansion Tank GALV Galvanized

EUH Electrical Unit Heater GFU Glycol Feed Unit

EWT Entering Water Temperature GPH Gallons per Hour

EXH or EX Exhaust GPM Gallons per Minute

EXT External GR Grade

EXP Expansion HB Hose Bib (Connection)

F Fahrenheit HD Head

FA Free Area or Fire Alarm HP Horsepower or High Point

FC Flexible Connection HR Hour

FCU Fan Coil Unit HRU Heat Recovery Unit

FD Floor Drain, Fire Damper, or Fire Department HTG Heating

FLA Full Load Amps HZ Hertz (Cycles per Second)

FLEX Flexible ID Inside Diameter

FLRDR Floor Drain IN Inches

KW Kilowatt OC On Center

LAT Leaving Air Temperature OD Outside Diameter

LB Pound ODP Open Drip Proof

LF Linear Feet OV Outlet Velocity

LD Linear Diffuser PCF Pounds per Cubic Foot

LP Low Point PD Pressure Drop

LRA Locked Rotor Amps PH Phase

LUVR or LVR Louver PRV Pressure Reducing Valve

LVDR Louvered Door PSI Pounds per Square Inch

LVG Leaving PSIA Pounds per Square Inch - Absolute

LWT Leaving Water Temperature PSID Pounds per Square Inch - Differential

MAX Maximum PSIG Pounds per Square Inch - Gauge

MBH 1000 BTUH PVC Polyvinyl Chloride

MCA Minimum Circuit Amps R Radius

MECH Mechanical RA Return Air

MIN Minimum RET Return

MU Make-Up Water RH Relative Humidity

MUA Make-Up Air RLA Running Load Amps

NC Noise Criteria or Normally Closed RLF Relief

NO Normally Open RPM Revolutions per Minute

NOM Nominal RTU Roof-Top Unit

OA Outside Air SA Supply Air

OAI Outside Air Intake SCR Screen

SCT Saturated Condensing Temperature WB Wet Bulb Temperature

SD Smoke Detector or Smoke Damper WC Water Column

SE Smoke Exhaust WG Water Gauge

SEN Sensible WPD Water Pressure Drop

SFD Combination Smoke / Fire Damper WTD Water Temperature Difference

SHC Sensible Heat Capacity

SP Static Pressure Electrical Abbreviations

SF Square Feet
The list of abbreviations used in a set of engineering drawings varies from
SS Stainless Steel office to office. Be sure to check the front section of the drawing set for the
abbreviations used within.
SUP Supply

T Temperature or Thermostat # Number

TEFC Totally Enclosed Fan Cooled Ω Ohm

TEMP Temperature Φ Phase

TON 12,000 BTUH (Cooling Capacity) A Amperes

TSP Total Static Pressure AC Alternating Current

TSTAT Thermostat A/C Air Conditioning

TYP Typical AFCI Arc Fault Circuit Interrupter

UC Undercut (Door) AHU Air Handling Unit

V Volts AIC Ampere Interrupting Capacity

VAV Variable Air Volume AL Aluminum

VD Volume Damper ATS Automatic Transfer Switch

VEL Velocity ATC Automatic Temperature Control

VFD Variable Frequency Drive AWG American Wire Gauge

BTU British Thermal Units EMT Electrical Metallic Tubing

C Conduit EP Emergency Power

CATV Cable Television or Community Antennae Television EPO Emergency Power Off (Button or Switch)

CB Critical Branch EWC Electric Water Cooler

C/B Circuit Breaker F Fuse

CBM Certified Ballast Manufacturer FA Fire Alarm

CCT Circuit (also: CIR, CKT) FAA Fire Alarm Annunciator

CCTV Closed Circuit Television FLA Full Load Amperes

CD Candela FMC Flexible Metal Conduit

CIR Circuit (also: CCT, CKT) G Ground

CKT Circuit (also: CCT, CIR) GFCI, GFI Ground Fault Circuit Interrupter

CLF Current Limiting Fuse GND Ground

CPT Control Power Transformer GRMC Galvanized Rigid Metal Conduit

CT Current Transformer HOA Hand-Off-Automatic Switch

CU Copper HVAC Heating, Ventilation, Air Conditioning

dB Decibel HZ Hertz

DC Direct Current IEEE Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers

DIA Diameter IG Isolated Ground

EB Equipment Branch IMC Intermediate Metal Conduit

EC Electrical Code or Electrical Contractor INT Interlock

EF Exhaust Fan KCMIL Thousand Circular Mils

ELEV Elevator KVA Kilovolt-Amperes

EM Emergency KVAR Kilovolt-Amperes Reactive

LFMC Liquid Tight Flexible Metal Conduit RMC Rigid Metal Conduit

LTG Lighting RMS Root Mean Squared

LRA Lock Rotor Amps RNC Rigid Non-Metallic Conduit

MC Metal Clad Cable RTS Remote Test Station

MCB Main Circuit Breaker RTU Roof Top Unit

MCC Motor Control Center SP Spare

MCP Motor Circuit Protection ST Shunt Trip

MI Mineral Insulated SW Switch

MLO Main Lugs Only SYM Symmetrical

MW Megawatt TEL Telephone

NC Normally Closed TMCB Thermal Magnetic Circuit Breaker

NEC National Electrical Code UG Under Ground

NEMA National Electrical Manufacturers Association UL Underwriters Laboratory

NFPA National Fire Protection Association V Volt

NL Night Light VA Volt-Ampere

NO Normally Open or Number VT Voltage Transformer

P Pole W Watt or Wire

PB Push Button or Panic Button or Pull Box WH Water Heater

PNL Panel WP Weather Proof

PWR Power XFMR Transformer

PT Potential Transformer

QTY Quantity Plumbing and Fire Protection

REQ Required Abbreviations
The list of abbreviations used in a set of architectural drawings varies from FEC Fire Extinguisher Cabinet
office to office. Be sure to check the front section of the drawing set for the
abbreviations used within. FHV Fire Hose Valve

FLR Floor
AP Access Panel
FP Fire Protection
BT Bath Tub
FS Flow Switch
BWV Back Water Valve
FT Foot or Feet
CFH Cubic Feet per Hour
FV Flush Valve
CFM Cubic Feet per Minute
GALV Galvanized
CI Cast Iron
GI Grease Interceptor
CLDI Cement Lined Ductile Iron
GPF Gallons per Flush
CO Cleanout
GPM Gallons per Minute
CONC Concrete
HC Handicapped
CP Chrome Plated
HW Hot Water
CTE Connect to Existing
HWR Hot Water Return
CW Cold Water
HWS Hot Water Supply
CWR Cold Water Return
ID Inside Diameter
CWS Cold Water Supply
INV Invert
DCVA Double Check Valve Assembly
IW Indirect Waste
DF Drinking Fountain
MECH Mechanical
DIA Diameter
MSB Mop Service Basin
EL or ELEV Elevation
NC Normally Closed
EWC Electrical Water Cooler (Drinking Fountain)
NO Normally Open
FCO Floor Cleanout
OD Outside Diameter
OED Open End Drain Graphics
PIV Post Indicator Valve

PLBG Plumbing  Architectural Floor Plan Symbols

PSI Pounds per Square Inch

RPBP Reduced Pressure Backflow Preventer  Electrical Plan Symbols - Power

SA Shock Absorber
 Electrical Plan Symbols - Lighting
SH or SHWR Shower

SK Sink
 Electrical Plan Symbols - Security
SS Soil Stack or Stainless Steel

TLT Toilet
 Electrical Plan Symbols - Communications
TS Tamper Switch

TW Tempered Water  Electrical Plan Symbols - Fire Alarm

TYP Typical

U Urinal  HVAC Plan Symbols

V Vent
 Construction Document Sheet Numbers and Sheet Order
VB Vacuum Breaker

VS Vent Stack
 Paper Sizes
VTR Vent Through Roof

W Waste
 Folding a Large Format Drawing
WC Water Closet (Toilet)

WS Waste Stack
Architectural Floor Plan Symbols

Building Section Wall Section

Top Line = Drawing Number Top Line = Drawing Number

Bottom Line = Sheet Number Bottom Line = Sheet Number

Detail Section Exterior or Building Elevation

Top Line = Drawing Number Top Line = Drawing Number

Bottom Line = Sheet Number Bottom Line = Sheet Number

Plan Detail Call Out

Top Line = Drawing Number Column Grid Call Out

Bottom Line = Sheet Number
Horizontal Lines = Letters
Vertical Lines = Numbers
 Revision Cloud Wall or Partition Tag

Number = Revision on this sheet Number = Partition type

Interior Elevations

Top Line = Drawing Number

North Arrow
Bottom Line = Sheet Number
Letters = Sub-drawing Number
SIM = Similar & OPH = Opposite Hand

Door Tag
The number is relative to the room
the door is a part of
Window or Glazing Tag
The number identifies the window
type or the glass type

Room ID

Top Lines = Room Name

Inside Box = Room Number
Electrical Plan Symbols - Power
Each engineering office uses their own set of symbols; however, the symbols below are fairly common across many
offices. Refer to the symbol sheet for special symbols used in a particular set.

Duplex Outlet Weatherproof Duplex Ground Fault Circuit Duplex Outlet - One
Outlet Interrupt Duplex Receptacle Controlled
Outlet by Switch

Duplex Outlet on Emergency Quad Outlet - 4 Gang Switch 3-Way Switch

Branch Box

Switch with Built-In Dimmer Power Panel Lighting Panel Through-Wall Sleeve

Junction Box Recessed Floor Box

Electrical Plan Symbols - Lighting

Each engineering office uses their own set of symbols; however, the symbols below are fairly common across many
offices. Refer to the symbol sheet for special symbols used in a particular set.

2x2 Recessed Light 2x2 Recessed Light on 2x4 Recessed Light

Emergency Branch
 2x4 Recessed Light on Emergency Recessed Linear Light Recessed Linear Light on Emergency
Branch Branch

Surface Mounted Fluorescent Light Track Lighting Recessed Can Light

Recessed Wall Wash

Wall Mounted Light
Light

Electrical Plan Symbols - Security

Each engineering office uses their own set of symbols; however, the symbols below are fairly common across many
offices. Refer to the symbol sheet for special symbols used in a particular set.

Panic Button or Distress Button Magnetic Door Lock Electric Door Latch

Card Reader Electric Door Strike Security Camera

Electrical Plan Symbols - Communications

Each engineering office uses their own set of symbols; however, the symbols below are fairly common across many
offices. Refer to the symbol sheet for special symbols used in a particular set.
 Telephone Jack Telephone Jack - Wall Data Jack
Mounted

Combination Telephone and Data Jack Speaker

Electrical Plan Symbols - Fire Alarm

Each engineering office uses their own set of symbols; however, the symbols below are fairly common across many
offices. Refer to the symbol sheet for special symbols used in a particular set.

Fire Alarm Pull Box Fire Alarm Strobe and Horn Smoke Detector Knox Box - Fire
Combination Department
Keys

Battery Powered Ceiling Mounted Exit Sign - Wall Mounted Exit Sign -
Emergency Light Arrow Indicates Direction Arrow Indicates Direction

HVAC Plan Symbols

Each engineering office uses their own set of symbols; however, the symbols below are fairly common across many
offices. Refer to the symbol sheet for special symbols used in a particular set.

Supply and Return Airflow

 Standard 4-Way 3-Way Blow 2-Way Blow 1-Way Blow Return Grille
Blow Diffuser Diffuser Diffuser Diffuser

Direction of Direction of Door Undercut Door Louver with

Supply Air Return Air Size Clear Area

Volume Damper Fire Damper Smoke Damper Combination Back-draft

Smoke and Fire Damper
Damper

HVAC Piping

Chilled Water Supply Chilled Water Return

Hot Water Supply Hot Water Return

Vent Pipe Drain Pipe

Make-Up Water Pipe

Sensors

Thermostat Humidity Sensor

Construction Document Sheet Numbers and Sheet Order

Many architecture offices have their own standards with regard to the order of sheets in a construction document set
and most architects are quite opinionated about whether the Structural drawings belong before or after the
Architectural drawings. However, American clients are starting to demand that architects follow the United States
National CAD Standard. The information below is adapted from and meets the US National CAD Standard.

Components of the Sheet Number

There are three components that make up sheet numbers in a set of construction documents. The first two letters,
the discipline designators, identify the construction discipline that the sheet covers - architectural sheets, plumbing
sheets, structural sheets, etc. The third digit, the sheet type, is a number that represents the type of drawings that
are on the sheet - plans, sections, details, schedules, etc. The final two digits, the sequence numbers, are numbers
that simply place the sheets in order.

Each component is explained in more detail below.

Discipline Designators
The discipline designator helps to identify the type of work that is included on the sheets. Since sheets are distributed
to the different sub-contractors in the field, it is helpful for the drawings to be organized by discipline. Therefore, the
plumbing contractor can easily take a set of "P" drawings, which has all of the plumbing drawings (plans, schedules,
details, etc), and they will not have to sift through the unrelated electrical or structural drawings.

The discipline designator can be a single letter or a double-letter. Very large or complex projects will want to make
use of the double-letter designations to help sub-divide each discipline further. For instance, on a complex hospital
job with hundreds of sheets, it may be helpful to separate the electrical lighting drawings from the electrical power
drawings. On a small residential project with a few dozen sheets, it is probably easy to have the lighting and power on
the same sheet or sequential sheets.

The following table indicates the primary (single) letter designations that may be used and the order that the
disciplines should take. In this case, a hyphen shall be inserted in place of the secondary discipline designator so that
the format remains. The second letter designators can be found in the US National CAD Standards.

Designator Name Additional Description

Cover Sheet

G General Sheet list, symbols, code summary, etc.

H Hazardous Materials Abatement, handling, etc.

V Survey / Mapping

B Geotechnical

C Civil

L Landscape

S Structural

A Architectural

I Interiors

Q Equipment

F Fire Protection

P Plumbing

D Process

M Mechanical

E Electrical

W Distributed Energy
 T Telecommunications

R Resource Existing conditions / buildings

X Other Disciplines

Z Contractor / Shop Drawings

O Operations

Sheet Types

The Sheet Types designator takes the drawings of a single discipline and organizes them. Drawings are always
organized from most general to most specific or specialized. Since plans are most helpful to see the overall design of
the project, they come first. Elevations and sections are a bit more specific and come next followed by details and
schedules, which are the most specific type of drawings.

Designator Name

0 General: Symbol legend, abbreviations, general notes

1 Plans

2 Elevations

3 Sections

4 Large Scale Drawings: plans, elevations, sections -- NOT details

5 Details

6 Schedules and Diagrams

7 User Defined

8 User Defined

9 3D drawings: isometric, perspective, photos

 Sequence Numbers

The final component of the sheet number is the two-digit sequence number, which is between 01 and 99. The
sequence numbers do not have to be sequential so that space may be left within the set for future additions.

Example Sheet Numbers

 AD107 - Architectural Demolition Floor Plan, seventh sheet
 A-204 - Architectural Elevations, fourth sheet
 I-316 - Interior Section, sixteenth sheet
 QH601 - Hospital Equipment Schedule, first sheet
 FA601 - Fire Alarm Diagrams, third sheet
 P-102 - Plumbing Floor Plan, second sheet
 MH402 - Large Scale HVAC Drawings, second sheet
 MP501 - HVAC Piping Details, first sheet
 EP110 - Electrical Power Plan, tenth sheet
 EL103 - Electrical Lighting Plan, third sheet
 T-505 - Telecommunications Details, fifth sheet
 RA102 - Architectural Existing Building Plan, second sheet

Paper Sizes
There are two main paper size standards in use around the world: the international (ISO) A series and the North
American ANSI sizes. North American architects typically use the ARCH sizes for their large format drawings.

North American Loose Paper Sizes

Size inches millimeters

Letter 8.5 × 11 216 × 279

Legal 8.5 × 14 216 × 356

Tabloid 11 × 17 279 × 432

Ledger 17 × 11 432 × 279

North American ANSI Series Paper Sizes

Size inches millimeters

ANSI A 8.5 × 11 216 × 279

 ANSI B 11 × 17 279 × 432

ANSI C 17 × 22 432 × 559

ANSI D 22 × 34 559 × 864

ANSI E 34 × 44 864 × 1118

North American ARCH Series Paper Size

Size inches millimeters

ARCH A 9 x 12 229 × 305

ARCH B 12 x 18 305 × 457

ARCH C 18 x 24 457 × 610

ARCH D 24 x 36 610 × 914

ARCH E 36 x 48 914 × 1219

ARCH E1 30 x 42 762 × 1067

International ISO 216 A-Series Paper Sizes

Size inches millimeters

A0 33.1 × 46.8 841 × 1189

A1 23.4 × 33.1 594 × 841

A2 16.5 × 23.4 420 × 594

A3 11.7 × 16.5 297 × 420

A4 8.3 × 11.7 210 × 297

A5 5.8 × 8.3 148 × 210

A6 4.1 × 5.8 105 × 148

A7 2.9 × 4.1 74 × 105

A8 2.0 × 2.9 52 × 74

A9 1.5 × 2.0 37 × 52

A10 1.0 × 1.5 26 × 37

Folding a Large Format Drawing
The intent of folding large architectural or engineering drawings is to allow the lower portion of the title block to be
visible without having to open the entire sheet. This allows a stack of drawings to be filed and then easily identified by
the sheet number and drawing title.

Step 1: Fold the drawing in half so that the content is

concealed inside the fold.

Step 2: Fold the top leaf back over itself, which will be 1/4
of the original width.

Step 3: Fold the bottom leaf back under the top leaves. You
now have an accordion folded sheet that is 1/4 the width of
the full sheet and full height.
Step 4: Fold the top half of the sheet under the bottom half.

Step 5: For extra-large drawings, the drawing can be folded

in half again.
 1/4" = 1'-0" 48 1/48xp .25" = 1'-0"
CAD 3/8" = 1'-0" 32 1/32xp .375" = 1'-0"
1/2" = 1'-0" 24 1/24xp .50" = 1'-0"
3/4" = 1'-0" 16 1/16xp .75" = 1'-0"
 CAD Scale Factors
1" = 1'-0" 12 1/12xp 1" = 1'-0"
1 1/2" = 1'-0" 8 1/8xp 1.5" = 1'-0"
 Helpful AutoCAD Commands 3" = 1'-0" 4 1/4xp 3" = 1'-0"

CAD Scale Factors Engineering Scales

Drawing Scale Scale Factor Viewport Scale
For simplicity and clarity, CAD users draw buildings at full scale. For 1" = 10'-0" 120 1/120xp
instance, when drawing a door in CAD, the door would be 3 feet wide and 7 1" = 20'-0" 240 1/240xp
feet tall. However, since these drawings get placed on sheets of paper that 1" = 30'-0" 360 1/360xp
are much smaller, a scale factor is required so that the final drawing has a 1" = 40'-0" 480 1/480xp
usable conversion factor. 1" = 50'-0" 600 1/600xp
1"= 60'-0" 720 1/720xp
1" = 70'-0" 840 1/840xp
Calculating Scale Factor 1" = 80'-0" 960 1/960xp
To convert an architectural drawing scale to a scale factor: 1" = 90'-0" 1080 1/1080xp
1" = 100'-0" 1200 1/1200xp
1. Select the desired scale. 1/8" = 1'-0"
2. Invert the fraction and multiply by 12. 8/1 x 12 = Scale Factor 96

To convert an engineering drawing scale to a scale factor: Helpful AutoCAD Commands

1. Select the desired scale. 1" = 20' Below is a list of helpful CAD commands that are not universally known or
2. Multiply the feet by 12. 20 x 12 = Scale Factor 240 easy to find.

Architectural Scales AutoCAD Commands

Drawing Scale Scale Factor Viewport Scale Decimal Scale
NCOPY - Allows you to copy a single object from within a block or Xref to
1/16" = 1'-0" 192 1/192xp .0625" = 1'-0"
your current drawing. Prior to AutoCAD 2012, this was an express tool.
3/32" = 1'-0" 128 1/128xp .09375" = 1'-0"
1/8" = 1'-0" 96 1/96xp .125" = 1'-0"
OVERKILL - Also known as "Delete Duplicates", this command deletes
3/16" = 1'-0" 64 1/64xp .1875" = 1'-0"
objects that are on top of each other. This command is great for when you
 have to work with drawings from other CAD programs. Prior to AutoCAD  AIA Contract Document Numbering System
2012, this was an express tool.

SNAPANG - Rotates the crosshairs relative to the current UCS.  Project Planning and Scheduling

Other Helpful AutoCAD Tips

Disable the F1 key so that it functions as Esc instead of bringing up the help
menu.

For slow or problem AutoCAD files, try the following:

1. "PURGE" and "AUDIT" the drawing.

2. Purge the reg apps: "–PURGE" > "R" > "*" > "No".
3. Delete layer filters: "FILTERS".

Codes, Specifications, Contracts

 Free Online Building Codes

 ADA Standards for Accessible Design

 Types of Construction Specifications

 MasterFormat Specification Divisions (CURRENT)

 MasterFormat 1995 Specification Divisions (OLD)

 UniFormat
 Project Planning and Scheduling
Planning and scheduling are crucial for any project, from simple jobs like roof replacement to complex endeavors
such as building a skyscraper. No matter what the project, it is important to know what needs to be done (planning)
and when it needs to happen (scheduling). Equally important to know is how to accomplish this process. The sections
below provide some insight and examples of planning and scheduling a construction project.

Project Planning
In its most basic form, project planning consists of determining the milestones of the project and outlining the
individual tasks that need to occur in order for the milestones to be completed. For example, one milestone during
construction of a residence is completion of the building foundation. The construction of the foundation can be broken
down into individual subtasks such as:

 Clearing the building site

 Excavating the soil to foundation depth
 Placing reinforcing bar and creating forms for the upcoming concrete pour
 Pouring and finishing the concrete
 Providing a concrete curing period
 Removal of the concrete forms

All of the above tasks need to occur in the specific order listed in order for the foundation to be built. A length of time,
or duration, will be established for each sub task so that the overall time frame required to complete the foundation
can be determined. The duration for completing specific tasks is usually established based on past experience or by
using references such as construction estimating manuals. Once the order of tasks is established and the duration
selected for each, a construction schedule can be created. Some of the more common techniques for construction
scheduling will be covered below.

Critical Path Method

The critical path method, abbreviated as CPM, is the most commonly used type of scheduling technique in the
construction industry. The critical path method is built around the use of predecessors and successors for each
construction task needed to accomplish the job. Most tasks (except the initial task) will have one or more
predecessors that need to be accomplished before that task can start. If we select a certain task, such a framing a
house, we need to determine what must occur before the framing can be constructed. In this case the ground floor
slab will need to be finished before the framing can be placed on top of it. Therefore, creation of a ground floor slab is
the predecessor of the house framing task. Conversely, framing the house is a successor of the ground floor slab
construction.

Following the placement of tasks in the schedule, along with the creation of linkages between the predecessor and
successor tasks, a critical path will become apparent. The critical path is formed by the longest chain, time wise, of
interrelated tasks from the project start to the project finish. Basically, if any of the tasks in the longest chain were to
take longer than their planned duration, the length of the project would be extended. The extension happens because
the schedule slippage in one component in the critical path will push back the start dates of that component’s
successor tasks. Therefore, the project manager places a high priority on these critical tasks, in order to keep the
project on schedule.
 Tasks that are located off of the critical path will often contain what is known as float. Float is an important concept,
and is basically spare time contained within tasks that are located outside of the critical path. For example, the
installation of a building roof may be scheduled for four weeks but in reality it is only expected to take three weeks.
The extra week is float contained within that task, and the actual duration of work may “float” within that time period,
sliding backwards or forward as needed to accomplish the project goals. If a project task that contains float happens
to run over schedule, it can use the float time to finish and not affect the completion of the overall project.

Resource Oriented Scheduling

A scheduling technique known as resource oriented scheduling may be used in projects where there is competition
between tasks or components for project resources. Resources may be comprised of:

 Materials such as water or cement

 Specific labor types such as welders or machine operators
 Transportation resources such as access to construction elevators or cranes

Attempting to implement a CPM approach to scheduling when resources are limited is not always effective. A better
approach may entail breaking the project in time periods or phases and calculating the resource demand during each
phase. This would be followed with planning the application of the available resources to fill in the demand. Often, the
layout of the initial schedule will expose resource gaps in the project. This provides the project manager with
knowledge regarding the tasks that will require supplementation of existing resources or the transfer of excess
resources to another portion of the project.

Visual Depiction of Schedule: Gantt Chart

Project schedules are most commonly depicted through the use of Gantt charts. Gantt charts break down the project
into individual tasks, each of which is represented by a horizontal bar. The timescale of the project travels from left to
right, with the left edge of the bar representing the start date of the task and the right edge of the bar representing the
completion date. The bar length between the start and the end makes up the duration of that specific task. Arrows are
typically drawn from the end of one task to the start of another task that is dependent on the task that proceeded it
(predecessor to successor). Similar to the CPM method above, a critical path will become apparent based on the
duration of the various linked project paths. Creation of a Gantt chart is relatively simple using commonly-available
software, and the chart is easily modified during construction if needed due to unforeseen events or owner-driven
changes. If the chart is set up correctly electronically, with the predecessors and successor links intact, the entire
project schedule will adjust accordingly when the duration of one or more tasks is modified.

Materials / Systems
The categories listed below are loosely organized similar to the Construction Specifications Institute (CSI)
Format. We cover many of the commonly used materials and systems of buildings.
 Specialties
 Equipment
 Vertical Circulation
 Fire Suppression
 Plumbing
 Heating, Ventilation, Air Conditioning
 Electrical
 Site & Landscape
 Concrete
 Masonry
 Metals
 Wood / Plastic / Composites
 Thermal & Moisture Protection
 Doors / Windows / Openings
 Finishes
Specialties

 Fire Extinguisher Types

 Fire Department Key Box

Fire Extinguisher Types

There are many different types of fire extinguishers available, but they are classified based on the four categories of
fires being extinguished. It is very important to select the correct extinguisher for the type of fire to prevent personal
injury and to prevent making the fire worse. The classifications of fires listed below are for the United States.

Class A Fires
Ordinary combustibles such as wood, paper, cardboard, cloth, and most plastics. These are the most common types
of fires. In Europe and Australia, this is a Class A Fire.

Class B Fires
Combustible liquids, greases, or gasses. In Europe and Australia, liquids fall in Class B while gasses fall in Class C.

Class C Fires
Electrical equipment or other energized items. In Europe and Australia, electrical fires fall into Class E.

Class D Fires
Combustible metals, such as sodium, magnesium, and titanium (among others). In Europe and Australia these are
also Class D fires.

Class K Fires
Cooking greases or oils. These kinds of fires are technically part of Class C fires, but due to the special nature in
which they occur they have been put into their own classification. In Europe and Australia, these are Class F fires.

While fire extinguishers can address a single type of fire (i.e. a Class A extinguisher), it is more common that they
handle a range of fire types. The standard combinations are listed below and refer to United States classifications.
Regardless of the combination listed, it is important that the extinguisher be UL tested and approved.

Class A Fire Extinguishers

Class A Fire Extinguishers are used on class A fires only. Typically, the fire fighting agent is water. Class A
extinguishers cannot be used on other fire types because water poses a risk when used on electrical, liquid, gas, or
metal fires. It is especially important that these extinguishers are not used on electrical fires because they can
transfer electricity back to the user.

Class A/B Fire Extinguishers

Handling ordinary combustibles and liquids, Class A/B extinguishers use foam as the extinguishing agent. The Foam
will leave a residue, which must be cleaned away after the fire is put out.

Class A/B/C Fire Extinguishers

The most common extinguishers, Class A/B/C extinguishers are usually used in offices, schools, and homes. The
agent used to put the fire out is a multi-purpose dry chemical called mono ammonium phosphate. The chemical will
leave a residue and can cause corrosion of materials when used in a wet environment. Also available are A/B/C
extinguishers that use Halotron as the extinguishing agent. Halotron will not leave any residue and can be used
around sensitive equipment.

Class B/C Fire Extinguishers

Used on liquid, gas, or electrical fires, Class B/C extinguishers use one of a few different extinguishing agents. Class
B/C extinguishers that use Carbon Dioxide as the extinguishing agent fight the fire by removing oxygen from the
immediate fire area. This can be dangerous to humans if used in an enclosed area, but it will leave no residue so it is
generally used around sensitive equipment. Regular Dry Chemical extinguishers (sodium bicarbonate) are non-toxic
and will leave a residue that is easy to clean up.

Class D Fire Extinguishers

Class D extinguishers use a dry power as the extinguishing agent. The type of powder is selected based on the type
of metal fire that must be put out.

Class K Fire Extinguishers

Used in commercial kitchens, Class K extinguishers use a potassium acetate based agent that is safe to use on deep
fat fryers or other food grease fires.

2004 CSI Masterspec Divisions

Fire Extinguishers: 10 44 16
Fire Extinguisher Cabinets: 10 44 13

Fire Department Key Box

Fire department key boxes, or emergency key boxes, are small safes that house keys, key cards and, occasionally,
floor plans for buildings that may be locked when the fire department arrives. The box, which is secured with a master
key that only the fire department owns, allows responding firefighters to gain access to a building without waiting for
the owner to arrive and without damaging a door or window to gain entry.

Fire department key boxes are most often used on commercial and institutional buildings that do not have 24-hour
maintenance or security staff to respond to alarms. Although it is uncommon, key boxes may also be installed at large
multi-family residential complexes. Architects should consult with the building owner to determine if a fire department
key box is required.

Prior to specifying a fire department key box, the architect should contact the local fire department to determine the
local keying requirements of the box. Many fire departments prefer specific manufacturers or box types. Installing the
correct box can save the owner the costs of re-keying.
 Knox Box
Emergency key boxes are commonly called a Knox Box, however this is a proprietary eponym referring to the key
boxes sold by the Knox Company.

2004 CSI Masterspec Division

Emergency Key Cabinets: 10 41 16

Equipment

 Window Washing -- Suspension Support

 Window Washing -- Work Platforms

Window Washing -- Suspension Support

Discussion of window washing support and equipment is covered in two separate articles. This article covers the
primary suspension support systems including davits, outrigger beams, and direct anchorage to safety anchors. The
second article covers different kinds of window washing suspension platforms and seats.

Local jurisdictions dictate the safety regulations surrounding window washing methods - always confirm the
requirements of your local authorities. Generally, windows in buildings 3 stories tall or lower can be washed using
ground-based lifts. However, for buildings over 3 stories in height, it might make more sense to wash the windows
from a roof-based suspension system where the window washing crew is lowered from the roof. This article covers
the basic suspension support systems for use with flat roofs; however, there are more complex systems based on
these that can provide support from sloped roofs or other complex situations make the solutions below problematic.
For these types of complex window washing problems, we suggest working directly with a window washing
equipment manufacturer or consultant.

Direct to Anchor System

The most basic equipment for window washing and safety anchoring is the safety anchor or tieback. In this case,
permanent anchors are secured to the building structure. The graphic below shows both roof mounted anchors and
wall mounted anchors. The window washers then tie their safety lines to the permanent anchors and pass them over
the parapet wall. A structural engineer must design the anchoring system and the parapet to carry the loads created
by the lines and the window washer.
Portable Outrigger System
To remove the load from the parapet wall, a transportable outrigger is used. The transportable outrigger is a beam
with wheels that secures to a safety anchor. The beam is adjustable and extends over the top of the parapet and the
primary suspension line secures to the beam. In addition to securing the outrigger to the permanent safety anchors,
metal plates are used to counterweight the outrigger. The image below shows the primary suspension line attached
to the outrigger and the secondary fall arrest (emergency) line tied to a safety anchor. While this may be acceptable,
using two outriggers is preferred to prevent any accidental load from damaging the parapet.
Davit System
Another system for suspension of window washing equipment is the davit system. Davit bases are permanently
attached to the building structure at a predetermined spacing. Davit arms customized for the building's specific
conditions are secured to the davit base. Lines are suspended from the davit arm. The davit arms are generally
swiveling, which allows washers to set up all equipment on the rooftop and then swing out over the parapet wall. Fall
arrest lines are also used with this system, but have been removed from the graphic below for clarity.
Roofcar System
For buildings with high parapet walls, varying setbacks, or other complex forms, a roofcar system provides to greatest
flexibility. The roofcar arm allows for a greater extension that other systems and can adjust without much setup time.
The roofcar runs on rails or concrete pads and remains on the roof permanently. The single roofcar arm suspends
both ends of the window washing staging.
2004 CSI Masterspec Division
Window Washing Systems: 11 24 23

Window Washing -- Work Platforms

Discussion of window washing support and equipment is covered in two separate articles. This article covers the two
main platform systems including cages and bosun's (boatswain's) chairs. The first article covers different kinds
of primary window washing anchors and suspension systems.
Bosun's / Boatswain's Chair
Bosun's chairs are the most common form of platform used by window washers and facade maintenance crews.
However, some companies and jurisdictions do not use them because of safety concerns. The chairs, shown at left,
carry a single person in the seated position. The diagram at left shows the chair suspended from a portable outrigger
system, but it can be used with any suspension system. There is always a secondary fall arrest line that is attached to
the worker and tied to a different anchor than the platform. Bosun's chairs are decent controlled and cannot be used
for ascending.

Cage Systems
Cage systems provide more flexibility than Bosun's chairs. Since the cages are powered by on-board motors, the
cages can descend and ascend a building. In addition, cages come in various widths (generally up to 10 feet wide)
allowing workers to access a wider area of the facade. The diagram at left below shows a single-person cage
suspended from a davit arm. The diagram at right shows a cage that is 10 feet wide, which can accommodate two
workers, suspended by a roof car. There is always a fall-protection line provided for each worker and each of them
must be tied to a different anchor.
 2004 CSI Masterspec Division
Window Washing Systems: 11 24 23

Vertical Circulation

 Elevator Types

 Elevator Controls and Indicators

 Escalator Design and Dimensions

 Ladders

 Ship Ladders
Elevator Types
There are three main types of elevators commonly used: traction with a machine room, machine-room-less traction,
and hydraulic; however, there are variations on each type.

Hydraulic Elevators
Hydraulic elevators are supported by a piston at the bottom of the elevator
that pushes the elevator up. They are used for low-rise applications of 2-8
stories and travel at a maximum speed of 200 feet per minute. The
machine room for hydraulic elevators is located at the lowest level
adjacent to the elevator shaft.

Conventional Hydraulic Elevators have a sheave that extends below the

floor of the elevator pit, which accepts the retracting piston as the elevator
descends. Some configurations have a telescoping piston that collapses
and requires a shallower hole below the pit. Max travel distance is
approximately 60 feet.

Hole-less Hydraulic Elevators have a piston on either side of the cab. In

this configuration, the telescoping pistons are fixed at the base of the pit
and do not require a sheave or hole below the pit. Telescoping pistons
allow up to 50 feet of travel distance. Non-telescoping pistons only allow
about 20 feet of travel distance.

Roped Hydraulic Elevators use a combination of ropes and a piston to

move the elevator. Maximum travel distance is about 60 feet.

Hydraulic elevators have a low initial cost and their ongoing maintenance
costs are lower compared to the other elevator types. However, hydraulic
elevators use more energy than other types of elevators.
 Geared and Gearless Traction Elevators with
Machine Room
Traction elevators are lifted by ropes, which pass over a wheel attached
to an electric motor above the elevator shaft. They are used for mid and
high-rise applications and have much higher travel speeds than hydraulic
elevators. A counter weight makes the elevators more efficient.

Geared Traction Elevators have a gearbox that is attached to the motor,

which drives the wheel that moves the ropes. Geared traction elevators
are capable of travel speeds up to 500 feet per minute. The maximum
travel distance for a geared traction elevator is around 250 feet.

Gear-less Traction Elevators have the wheel attached directly to the

motor. Gear-less traction elevators are capable of speeds up to 2,000 feet
per minute and they have a maximum travel distance of around 2,000 feet
so they are the only choice for high-rise applications.

Geared traction elevators are middle of the road in terms of initial cost,
ongoing maintenance costs, and energy consumption. Gear-less traction
elevators have a high initial cost, medium ongoing maintenance costs, and
use energy a bit more efficiently than geared traction elevators.

Machine-Room-Less
(MRL) Elevators
Machine-Room-Less
Elevators are traction elevators that do not have a dedicated machine
room above the elevator shaft. The machine sits in the override
space and is accessed from the top of the elevator cab when maintenance
or repairs are required. The control boxes are located in a control room
that is adjacent to the elevator shaft on the highest landing and within
around 150 feet of the machine.

Machine-room-less elevators have a maximum travel distance of up

to 250 feet and can travel at speeds up to 500 feet-per-minute. MRL
elevators are comparable to geared traction elevators in terms of
initial and maintenance costs, but they have relatively low energy
consumption compared to geared elevators.

Machine-room-less elevators are becoming the most popular

choice for mid-rise buildings where the travel distance is up to 250 feet.
They are energy efficient, require less space, and their operation and
reliability are on par with gear-less traction elevators.

2004 Masterspec Divisions

Elevators: 14 20 00 Electric Traction Elevators: 14
21 00
Hydraulic Elevators: 14 24 00
Elevator Equipment and Controls: 14 28 00

Elevator Controls and Indicators

Requirements for elevator controls and indicators are governed by local accessibility codes. The information in this
article is taken from the US Department of Justice's ADA Standards for Accessible Design. Refer to the accessibility
codes in your local jurisdiction.

Elevator Lobby Controls and Indicators

The illustration below shows the three items required in an elevator lobby: the floor designators, the call buttons, and
the hall lanterns. The heights shown are from the ADA Standards for Accessible Design.

Floor Designators appear on both jambs of all elevator doors. Typically a white number on a black background, the
floor designators always have raised numbers and braille characters for tactile reading. The numbers shall be a
minimum of 2" tall. The floor designators are mounted 60" above the finished floor.

Call Buttons are used to request an elevator. They are mounted 42" above the finished floor and consist of an up
button and a down button that illuminate to indicate the request has been received and an elevator is on the way.

Hall Lanterns are used to indicate the arriving elevator and the direction it will travel. In addition to the illuminated
directional indicators, the hall lanterns have an audible tone to indicate direction. Audible signals sound once for
elevators going up and sound twice for elevators going down. Alternatively, vocal indicators may say, "going up" or
"going down" in lieu of tones. Hall lanterns are mounted a minimum of 72" above the finished floor and must be
visible from the vicinity of the call buttons. The arrows on hall lanterns must be a minimum of 2 1/2" tall.

Elevator Car Controls

The controls inside the elevator cab vary widely based on the types of services the owner wants to place on the
control panel. However, there are some standard items. All items must have the equivalent braille description along
side the text or symbols.

Floor Selection Buttons are used to select floors that the elevator will stop at. The highest floor button shall be at
54" above finished floor or lower. Buttons are 3/4" diameter and illuminate on being pressed.

Operation and Emergency Buttons are offset below the floor selection buttons. These buttons include door open,
door close, emergency stop, emergency alarm, intercom or telephone, etc. The lowest of these buttons shall be at
35" above the finished floor or higher.

Key Switch Controls are sometimes located above the floor selection buttons and sometimes below the operation
and emergency buttons. These allow different functions to be turned on or off by building operations personnel.
Included may be buttons for Fire Department Control, Door Hold Open, Elevator On/Off, Maintenance Function
On/Off, etc.

The diagram below shows a general layout for an elevator control panel.

Elevator Car Indicators

In addition to the car control panel, the interior of the elevator car will have a floor location indicator. This indicator
may be positioned above the car control panel or centered above the elevator doors. In addition to visible numerals
that represent the floor a car stops at (or passes), there shall also be an audible signal. Newer elevators have a
verbal indication of the floor and direction of travel, such as, "floor six, going down."

Escalator Design and Dimensions

Escalators are "moving stairs" where the tread moves on a track at an incline or decline to transport people from one
floor to another. Escalators may not be used as a means of egress. The typical speed of an escalator is 100 feet per
minute.

Escalator Dimensions
The following diagram provides dimensions that can be used for space planning relative to escalators. However, for
specific applications please consult the manufacturer's documentation.

Escalator Width
24 inch wide escalators accommodate a single person without room for any extra items or people. These are
generally used in low traffic areas or where space is tight.

32 inch wide escalators accommodate a single person and a suitcase or package. These are used at moderate
traffic areas.

40 inch wide escalators accommodate two people side-by-side and allow a person to pass a stationary
person. These are recommended for high traffic applications.

2004 Masterspec Division

Escalators: 14 31 00

Ladders
 In the United States, OSHA provides design requirements for
ladders. However, it is important to confirm the building code
requirements for state and local jurisdictions.

OSHA Requirements for Fixed Ladders appear in 29 CFR

1910.27(Fixed Ladders). The information provided below covers
general design requirements. Refer to the OSHA link for full
documentation.

In addition, refer to ANSI A14.3-2002, American National Standard for

Ladders-Fixed-Safety Requirements.

OSHA Ladder Requirements

Minimum Design Live Load: 200 pounds.

Rung Size: Minimum diameter of 3/4" for metal and minimum diameter
of 1 1/8" for wood. The minimum clear width of rungs shall be 16".

Climbing Side Clearance: For 90 degree (vertical) ladders, there shall

be 30" of clear space on the climbing side.

Back Side Clearance: The distance from the center-line of rungs to a

permanent object behind the ladder (i.e. a wall) shall be 7" minimum.

Safety Cages: Required for ladders greater than 20'-0" in height.

Pitch: Fixed ladders shall have a pitch between 75 degrees and 90

degrees.

2004 CSI Masterspec Division

Metal Ladders: 05 51 33

Ship Ladders
Ship ladders are a hybrid. Part stair and part ladder, they make vertical circulation more comfortable in mechanical or
service spaces. Ship ladders are generally preferred to normal ladders since they are more like stairs.

The dimensions of ship ladders vary based on available space so they are always custom fabricated. The angle of
the ladder is usually 60°-75° and the designed should use the shallowest ship ladder possible within this
range. Vertical rise between treads is generally between 9"-12". The width of ship ladders is usually 24" and the
tread depth is 6". Handrails are always provided.

Ship ladders cannot be used as means of egress. They appear in mechanical spaces or on rooftops. They are also
sometimes used to access roof hatches.
 2004 Masterspec Divisions
Metal Ladders: 05 51 33
Inclined Metal Ladders: 05 51 33.16

Fire Suppression

 Sprinkler Head Types

 Sprinkler Head Spacing and Location

Sprinkler Head Types
There are a number of different types of sprinkler heads that meet different needs. This article covers the operation
types (fusible link vs. bulb), the distribution types (pendant, upright, sidewall), and response temperatures.

Fusible Link Sprinklers vs. Glass Bulb Sprinklers

All wet-pipe sprinklers are held closed by either a fusible link or a glass bulb that contains a heat-sensitive liquid.

A fusible link sprinkler head has a two-part metal element that is fused by a heat-sensitive alloy. The link holds the
pip cap, or plug, in place. Once the ambient temperature around the sprinkler head reaches a specified temperature,
the alloy releases and the metal elements separate, which causes the pip cap to fall away. Water is then released.
Note that water is only released by sprinkler heads where the ambient temperature reaches a specified level -
therefore, water is only released in the area of a fire, which helps limit water damage.

Glass bulb sprinkler heads have a small glass reservoir that holds a heat-sensitive liquid. This glass bulb holds the
pip cap in place. When the ambient temperature of the liquid reaches a certain level, the liquid expands causing the
glass bulb to break, which allows the pip cap to fall away releasing water. As with the fusible link heads, water is only
released where the ambient temperature reaches a certain level, which helps limit water damage.

Response Temperatures
Since ambient air temperatures can vary widely depending on the use of a space or surrounding environment,
sprinklers come rated for different activation temperatures. The table below is based on NFPA 13 table 3-2.5.1 (US
National Fire Code); however, manufacturers may have sprinklers with different temperature ratings.

Maximum Ceiling Sprinkler Activation

Classification Glass Bulb Color Fusible Link Color
Temperature Temperature

Orange (135°F)
Ordinary 100°F 135°F - 170°F black; no color
Red (155°F)

Yellow (175°F)
Intermediate 150°F 175°F - 225°F White
Green (200°F)

High 225°F 250°F-300°F Blue Blue

Extra High 300°F 325°F - 375°F Purple Red

Very Extra High 375°F 400°F - 475°F Black Green

Ultra High 475°F 500°F - 575°F Black Orange

Ultra High 625°F 650°F Black Orange

Sprinkler Head Distribution Types

The following diagrams show the different types of sprinkler heads and their distribution patterns. Refer to
manufacturer information for coverage radii.
Pendant sprinkler heads hang down from the
ceiling and spray water in a circle pattern.

Concealed pendant sprinkler heads are recessed

in a ceiling and are covered with a decorative cap.
The cap will fall away about 20°F prior to activation
of the sprinkler. Once the sprinkler reaches its rated
activation temperature, the head will drop below the
ceiling. The water pattern of concealed sprinkler
heads is a circle.
 Upright sprinkler heads project up into a space.
They are generally used in mechanical rooms or
other inaccessible areas to provide better coverage
between obstructions. They also provide a circle
spray pattern

Side wall sprinkler heads stand out from a wall.

They provide a half-circle spray pattern. A second
deflector also sprays water back toward the wall so
that the wall is protected. These are used when
sprinklers cannot be located in the ceiling.

Sprinkler Head Spacing and Location

***WARNING: Fire suppression systems, including sprinklers, MUST be designed by a Professional Engineer.
The information contained in this article is general in nature and is to be used as a GUIDELINE for architects.
You must have a Professional Engineer design a sprinkler system to address your specific situation and to
meet the codes applicable in your jurisdiction. The information in the article is based on NFPA 13.

Sprinkler Head Location

There are two main criteria for the location of sprinkler heads. First, sprinklers must be located so they are within the
hot-gas layer that develops near the ceiling during a fire because activation occurs when the sprinkler head reaches a
certain temperature. Second, they must be located so that the water that is discharged from the sprinkler is not
disrupted or affected by construction elements such as beams, trusses, or soffits.
The diagram at left shows the water distribution for standard pendant and upright sprinkler fixtures. It is useful to
understand how objects within this distribution area can alter the throw and disrupt the ability of the sprinkler to
extinguish a fire.

This is a general depiction of sprinkler throw and should not be used to determine sprinkler spacing. Refer to the
manufacturer data for specific throw data. Please note, that the throw of a sprinkler should not be used for sprinkler
spacing - local codes determine spacing requirements.

Sprinkler Head Spacing

The table below shows sprinkler spacing requirements based on NFPA 13. This table shall be used only as a tool for
architects. Actual design of a sprinkler system MUST be done by a Professional Engineer for each project.

Square Foot per Maximum Spacing

Occupancy Hazard
Head Between Sprinklers

130-200 SF per head

Light Hazard
(based on
(Office, Educational, Religious, Institutional, Hospitals, 15 ft
obstructions and flow
Restaurants, Clubs, Theaters, etc.)
calcs)

Ordinary Hazard 130 SF per head 15 ft

(Mills, Manufacturing, Processing, Machine Shops, Repair
 Garages, Post Offices, Bakeries, Wood Machining and
Assembly, Auto Parking, etc.)

90-130 SF per head

Extra Hazard
(based on
(Plastic Processing, Chemical Spraying, Metal Extruding, 12 ft
obstructions and flow
Printing, Varnishing, Painting, etc.)
calcs)

Maximum Distance from Wall: half (1/2) of the maximum distance between sprinkler heads.

Minimum Distance Between Sprinklers: typically 6'-0".

Distance from Ceiling: minimum 1", maximum 12" for unobstructed construction. The minimum 1" is typical;
however, concealed, recessed, and flush sprinklers may be mounted less than 1" from the ceiling and shall be
installed based on their listing.

Extended Coverage Sprinkler Heads

In some circumstances, standard distribution sprinkler heads will not provide enough coverage. In these cases,
extended coverage sprinkler heads can be installed to increase the spacing between heads. Extended coverage
sprinklers have a water distribution radius of a little over 10 feet, so they can be spaced approximately 20 feet apart.

2004 CSI Masterspec Division

Fire-Suppression Sprinkler Systems: 21 13 00

Plumbing

 Plumbing Valve Types

 Wall Mounted Plumbing Fixtures

Plumbing Valve Types

There are a number of different plumbing valves used to control the flow of water in a building. The pros and cons of
each type are identified below.

Ball Valve
Ball valves are made with a rotating sphere that has a hole in it. In the open position, the hole in the sphere is in line
with the pipe. When closed, the hole in the sphere is perpendicular to the pipe. The lever handle operates the valve,
but also serves as an indicator for whether the valve is open or closed. When the lever is parallel to the pipe, the
valve is open.
Ball valves do not allow for precise flow control because they usually have positive stops (0, 45, 90 degrees), but they
do provide a very good seal in the closed position.

Gate Valve
Gate valves control water flow by raising or lowering the gate, which is generally a piece of metal. There is a wheel or
knob at the top of a gate valve that controls the height of the gate - this, in turn, affects the flow of water.
Unfortunately, the wheel doesn't provide any indication of whether the valve is open or closed, or to what extent.

Gate valves provide a reasonable seal, but they should not be used to adjust flow - they should be open or closed.
Gate valves may not be very durable and are susceptible to corrosion, which will cause the valve to get stuck in the
open or closed position.
Butterfly Valve
Butterfly valves have a disc that is equal in size to the inside diameter of the pipe. This disc is attached to a lever
handle that rotates the disc, which adjusts the flow of water. The main drawback to butterfly valves is that the control
disc is always present within the flow of water (even when fully open) so there will always be a pressure drop when
using them.

Butterfly valves allow for fairly precise control of flow. They typically rely on a gasket to provide a full seal, which can
become a maintenance issue.

Diaphragm Valve
A diaphragm valve is similar to a gate valve in that there is a wheel or knob that moves an element in the valve fitting,
which limits the flow of water. In a diaphragm valve, the element is a diaphragm that settles down over a saddle, thus
stopping water flow. The diagram below is a weir-type diaphragm valve, where water passes over a weir. There is
also a straight-type diaphragm valve, which doesn't force water over a weir.

Diaphragm valves are generally used as shutoff or stop valves.

Globe Valve
Globe valves are used to throttle or limit the flow of water. They have a stopper that is raised and lowered by a wheel
or knob on a shaft. The stopper seals into a baffle to stop flow. Globe valves are used in situations where the flow
needs to be adjusted regularly, but also where the flow doesn't have to be fully open since the baffle restricts flow.

Globe valves get their name from the globe-like or ball-like appearance that the body of the valve has.
Check Valve
Check valves are used to keep water flowing in only one direction. They are generally not operational. A back-flow
preventer is a type of check valve. A ball-check valve uses a ball to stop the flow of water in the wrong direction. A
diaphragm-check valve has a rotating disc or rubber flap that is pushed to seal the opening in the event of flow in the
wrong direction.

A stop-check valve is operational and allows a user to completely stop all flow - even flow in the correct direction. It
will not allow backward flow when open.

Pressure Balanced Valve

Pressure balanced valves are used to maintain a constant temperature of water in domestic showers or bathtubs. A
diaphragm within the valve allows the operator to set mixing of hot and cold water; however in the event of a pressure
drop of cold water (for instance, if a toilet nearby is flushed), the diaphragm will shift to limit an excessive flow of hot
water. Many jurisdictions require pressure balanced valves in domestic bathrooms and showers to prevent accidental
scalding.

Zone Valve
Zone valves are used in hydronic heating and cooling systems to control the flow of water or steam. For instance,
they may be provided in different rooms, different floors, or different dwelling units so that each space can have local
control over the heating or cooling. In most applications, zone valves are electrically controlled and are connected to
a thermostat so that automatic control is achieved.

Locking Valve
Almost any type of valve can be locked to avoid accidental or intentional opening or closing. However, valves with
lever-type handles allow for more secure locking control. Locking valves provide aligning holes that a lock can be
passed through to stop rotation of the handle. There are also locks designed to be attached to non-locking valves to
prevent adjustment.

2004 Masterspec Divisions

Plumbing Piping: 22 10 00
Facility Water Distribution: 22 11 00
Facility Sanitary Sewage: 22 13 00

Wall Mounted Plumbing Fixtures

Wall mounted plumbing fixtures require mounting brackets to be installed within the wall (concealed). The
dimensions vary based on the type of bracket, the accessories required, and the model of the carrier. The
dimensions below are based on minimum requirements and come from the Plumbing and Drainage Institute. The
PDI has a handy PDF chart of space requirements for plumbing fixture supports. Refer to manufacturer information
for specific requirements.

Water Closet Supports - Adjustable Carriers

Fixed carriers are less common, but require less clear space in the wall cavity.

Single Water Closet in a Stud Wall

Single Water Closet in a Block Wall

Double Water Closet in a Stud Wall

Double Water Closet in a Block Wall

Urinal Supports
 Lavatory / Sink Supports

2004 Masterspec Divisions

Residential Plumbing Fixtures: 22 41 00
Commercial Plumbing Fixtures: 22 42 00
Healthcare Plumbing Fixtures: 22 43 00

Heating, Ventilation, Air Conditioning

 Basics of Building Heating and Cooling

 Laminar Flow vs Turbulent Flow

 Duct Shaft Layout

 Chilled Beams and Chilled Ceilings

Basics of Building Heating and Cooling

No matter what type of climate you live in, controlling the temperature of the air inside of a building is vital to
maintaining the comfort of anyone living or working inside.

Whether we are attempting to heat a building or cool a building, heat energy must be moved from one location to
another. Heat energy will always follow the rules of thermodynamics: it will move to a cooler place than the location
that it is currently located. When hot air enters a room, the items inside the room (furniture, walls, carpet, etc.) will
increase in temperature as the hot air decreases in temperature until the point where the temperature of all items
inside the room is equal. When heat is pulled from a room (cooling), at some point heat energy will return into the
cooler space and will need to be removed again.

There are three ways that heat transfers from one location to another: conduction, convection and radiation.

Conduction
Conduction is the transfer of heat through items that are in direct contact with one another. Given two objects, the
particles within the hotter object move more rapidly than those in the cooler object. When the heated object is put in
contact with the cooler object, the molecules in the cooler object begin to vibrate faster, which means it is gaining
heat energy and becoming warmer. If you were to grasp a metal pole at room temperature with your hand, the pole
feels cold due to the fact that heat energy is being transferred from your hand to the pole. The vibration of the
molecules in your hand is causing an increase in the vibration speed of the molecules inside the metal, which causes
the temperature of the metal to rise and that of your hand to drop. For this reason, we would say that metal is a good
conductor.

Building insulation, on the other hand, is not a good conductor. If you were to grab insulation with your hand, it would
likely feel warm or neutral, due to the fact that the vibration of the molecules in your hand is not able to cause an
appreciable increase in the vibration of the molecules in the insulation. Heating or cooling through conduction
typically takes place at the building envelope (the outside walls, windows and doors) where warm or cold air outside
causes the molecules of the envelope to increase vibration or decrease vibration which in turn causes a heat loss or
gain inside of the building.

An example of conduction affecting building temperature is the transfer of heat energy through the components of a
window. Outside air comes in contact with the exterior mullion surface, which transfers energy through the metals and
the glass, which transfers the energy to interior finish materials in contact with the mullion. This is the reason that
window manufacturers use a thermal break material. The thermal break is a poor conductor so heat energy doesn't
move through it as easily. This same principal applies to all building construction - a thermal break is critical in
keeping heat energy from being lost to cold outdoor air.
Convection
Convection is the movement of warmer areas of a fluid (liquid or gas) to cooler areas of a fluid. The movement can
occur naturally or may be forced through mechanical means. Natural convection occurs in fluids due to the fact that
hot fluids will rise through cold fluids since they have a lower density. The cold fluids then sink through the hot fluids.
This physical principle is used to great effect in hot-air balloons, which remain aloft through maintaining an air
temperature greater than the surrounding atmosphere.

In buildings, convection heating is accomplished through several different means. Hot water and steam radiators, as
well as baseboard heaters, utilize convection to transfer heat throughout building spaces. Room air comes in contact
with the elements of the heater and receives heat energy. The hot air then rises within the space and creates a
circulation pattern within the room. Mechanical means may also be used to force convection to occur -- such as the
use of forced air heating in homes and buildings. In this case, heat is generated using a furnace, which employs a fan
to force the heated air throughout the building and into individual rooms via ducts. The vents inside the rooms are
typically located near floor level, which allows the hot air to rise towards the ceiling and displace the colder air.

Radiation
Thermal (heat) radiation is created by molecular motion within any physical object. As noted above in Conduction, the
molecules in an object increase in speed as the object generates more heat. The higher the temperature, the more
infrared radiation produced. Infrared radiation travels at the speed of light, is not visible to the human eye, and moves
in a straight line from one point to another. The heat energy coming from the sun is an example of radiant heat.
Though millions of miles away, we can feel the heat from the sun here on earth, although there is no direct contact.
Another example of radiant heat is that generated from warm charcoal, which may be generating a significant amount
of heat even if it doesn't give off light.

Under-floor heating systems are an example of radiant heat technology used within buildings. Thermal energy
transmitted via floor elements heats the people and surfaces within the room within the sight line of the floor. The
same process can also be used to cool rooms. If chilled water is circulated through tubes below a floor, heat within
objects in the room will be emitted to the floor if they are in the sight line. The internal air temperature will then be
lowered when the air comes in contact with the cooled objects.

Cooling
Cooling a building involves the same physics as heating. The only difference is that instead of introducing heat into a
building space, we are removing heat from the space. This requires the use of slightly different equipment, but the
principles are the same. Air-conditioning is the typical means of removing heat from interior spaces and is
accomplished using the principles of conduction and the use of a fluid compressor. When a fluid is compressed it
releases heat, and when it is at a low pressure it absorbs heat. A refrigerant fluid at low pressure is allowed to
circulate within coils that are on the interior side of the building. A fan is then used to pass building air across the
coils. Through convection the warm interior air transfers heat energy into the metal that forms the coil, and the metal
in the coil transfers its heat energy to the fluid. This fluid is then run through a compressor and passed into the coils
on the outside of the building where it releases the heat to the outside air. The cycle continues until the space
reaches the desired temperature and the building thermostat signals the air-conditioning unit to shut off.

Cooling systems introduce additional complexity due to the physical process of condensation. When warm air comes
in contact with a surface of lower temperature, the molecules of the air move closer together as it cools. If the
temperature drops to the point where the water vapor molecules in the air attract each other and connect, liquid water
will form. The point at which this happens is known as the dew point. Condensation is one reason why it is rare to run
cold water through a baseboard heating system to help cool the air; you will quickly end up with puddles of water
below the coils.

Radiant cooling requires humidity control systems since condensation can form on the cooling surfaces due to the
temperature difference between the cool panel and the warmer air. Air humidity sensors and temperature sensors are
employed to ensure that the temperature of the indoor air does not fall below its dew point. Dehumidification systems
are essential for radiant cooling to be successful.

Laminar Flow vs Turbulent Flow

Laminar flow is a phenomenon where air, gas, or a liquid flows in parallel layers and there is no mixing of layers. It is
the opposite of turbulent flow, where the molecules are constantly mixing and moving in varied ways across a space.
Relative to HVAC systems, laminar flow provides a way to maintain the clean nature of air within a space and also
prevents mixing of air, which can cause contamination. Laminar flow HVAC systems are often used in surgery suites,
laboratories, or other clean rooms.

Turbulent Flow
The diagram below shows a typical room with a supply diffuser and return grille, both of which are in the ceiling. In
this case, the air moves in an unpredictable manner as dictated by pressure and temperature differences. Air
molecules are constantly colliding and can create contamination of the air as particles are transported around the
room before eventually leaving via the return grille.

Laminar Flow
In a laminar flow situation, as seen in the diagram below, the air move predictably and in parallel layers from the
supply diffusers in the ceiling. Since the return grilles are located low, the air is forced down and toward the returns
without having to move back through clean air to ceiling returns. This prevents contamination since any unwanted
particles are transported in a straight line out of the room.

Laminar Flow Applications

While the examples above assume that the space is a room and the air is supplied by ducts, the space can also be a
desktop device used within a laboratory. No matter the application, the goal is the same: to prevent contamination of
the air by providing airflow in parallel layers that do not mix.

2004 CSI Masterspec Division

Diffusers, Registers, and Grilles: 23 37 13

Duct Shaft Layout

When sizing duct shafts, architects must account for steel supports, duct take-offs, dampers, and insulation. The
following diagrams provide general clearances, but consult with an HVAC engineer for the needs of a particular
system.
General Layout
Provide 9" from the sheet metal to the inside face of a shaft.

Provide 12" from the sheet metal to the inside face of a shaft on sides where there is a duct take-off. See the note
below for information about dampers, which can require up to 24" of clear space.

Provide 9" between ducts (sheet metal to sheet metal).

Relative to Structure
The above diagram addressed the distance from the face of the duct to the inside face of the shaft; however, the
designer must also consider structure or deck/slab edges.

While maintaining the above dimensions, also provide a minimum of 6" from the face of the duct/slab to the deck
edge. The section diagram below shows these clearances.
Dampers
Consult with the damper manufacturer for dimensional requirements. Fire dampers generally require 15" between
the duct face and the inside face of the shaft wall. Combination Fire and Smoke dampers can require up to 24" of
clear space between the duct face and the inside face of the shaft wall. In addition, the damper must be accessible
so that the unit can be reset after it has been closed.

2004 CSI Masterspec Divisions

HVAC Ducts and Casings: 23 31 00
Dampers: 23 33 13

Chilled Beams and Chilled Ceilings

A chilled beam system is an HVAC system used to heat and cool large buildings. Since large buildings require large
amounts of energy to keep cool, the idea of a chilled beam system is to use natural convection (warm air rises, cool
air falls) and the superior energy capacity of water to make cooling much more economical. Warm air rises to the
chilled beam, which is located in the ceiling, and passes through a heat exchange coil where it cools and then falls to
the floor.

Chilled Beam Energy Savings

Chilled beams provide building owners with significant savings in a number of ways. First, water is a much more
efficient energy transport medium because water has a higher density and higher specific heat than air. 1 cubic-foot
of water can carry the same amount of heat as 3,000 cubic-feet of air. Therefore, we can move energy in small pipes
rather than large ducts.

Chilled beams will cut down on the number and size of fans a building needs, which reduces electricity requirements.
Since more energy is moved in water, a water pump can transport more energy than a fan for the same electricity
cost. As you will see below, active chilled beams still require fans, but at a much smaller size.

Finally, since chilled beams allow for smaller air ducts, the space above a ceiling can be reduced, which will
theoretically reduce the building height. A reduced building height means there will be less of all the building
materials, which means the first costs for the building and the energy used to produce those materials may be
reduced significantly. Chilled beam technology is still more expensive than other HVAC systems, but since first costs
can be reduced an owner may see an immediate payback on the investment.

Passive Chilled Beams

There are two main types of chilled beams - active and passive. A passive chilled beam moves heat strictly through
convection. Ventilation air is provided through other means and the air is drawn to the heat exchanger through the
natural rise of warm air. Passive chilled beams are silent since there are no fans pushing air through them.

Since there is no air movement generated by the chilled beam, less energy is used. However, the system is less
effective at providing thermal comfort. In order to help maintain the effectiveness, the passive chilled beam should be
located closer to the occupants, which generally means ceiling heights should be no higher than 8 or 9 feet above the
floor. Passive chilled beams are poor at providing heat to a space.

Active Chilled Beams

Active chilled beams improve on the passive version by incorporating an air duct and nozzle blowers that provide
ventilation air, which helps draw the warm room air up through the heat exchange coils. This makes the unit more
effective at providing thermal comfort for building occupants and allows the unit to be used for heating. In addition, an
active chilled beam can be mounted in ceilings as high as 10 feet while still being effective.
Chilled Ceilings
Chilled ceilings differ from chilled beams in that they rely more on radiant as opposed to convective heating and
cooling. A chilled ceiling is a metal sheet with water pipes running above it. The pipes heat or cool the metal panel,
which then radiates that energy toward the building occupants. Since they rely on radiant properties, chilled ceilings
must be aimed at a building occupant to be most effective.

Advantages
The advantages of chilled beams are covered above, but to review here are the main benefits:

 Quieter than air based HVAC systems due to the lack of moving parts and slower air velocities.
 Maintenance is also reduced due to the lack of moving parts.
 Above ceiling and mechanical room space is reduced, which can reduce floor-to-floor heights. This can
decrease first costs to the point where chilled beams see an immediate payback on the initial investment.
 Energy use is reduced since water is more efficient at moving energy than air and there is a reduction in
building fan use.
 Drafts are reduced, which increases occupant comfort.

Drawbacks
This article has focused on the advantages of chilled beams; however there are some disadvantages that need to be
taken into account when designing an HVAC system that uses chilled beams:

 Most concerning is the opportunity for condensation forming on the cooling coils and then dripping into the
space. Therefore, humidity must be controlled and monitored or other systems should be put in place to turn
the chilled beams off when humidity rises.
  The chilled beam system may be more costly when compared directly to an air system.
 Maintenance crews and building management teams may not be as familiar with the system as an all air
system.
 Chilled beams are less effective at heating spaces so the building skin must be properly detailed to prevent
heat transfer.

2004 CSI Masterspec Division

Chilled Beams: 23 82 14

Electrical

 Electrical Power Systems in Buildings

 Emergency and Standby Power Systems for Buildings

 Light Fixture (Luminaire) Types

 Light Fixture (Luminaire) Components

 Light Distribution Curves

 Wire Size (Gauge)

 Ground Up or Ground Down?

 Electrical Faceplate Types and Dimensions

 NEMA Enclosure Types

Electrical Power Systems in Buildings

This article covers electrical distribution systems in buildings at a very basic level. We will discuss the general
principles for how electricity is moved from the utility lines to a convenience outlet in a room. The system components
vary depending on the size of the building so we will address systems for small and large buildings.

Electricity from the Power Company

Electric utilities transmit power from the power plant most efficiently at very high voltages. In the United States, power
companies provide electricity to medium or large buildings at 13,800 volts (13.8kV). For small commercial buildings or
residential customers, power companies lower the voltage with a transformer on a power pole or mounted on the
ground. From there, the electricity is fed through a meter and into the building.

Power Distribution in Small Buildings

Small commercial or residential buildings have a very simple power distribution system. The utility will own the
transformer, which will sit on a pad outside the building or will be attached to a utility pole. The transformer reduces
the voltage from 13.8kV down to 120/240 or 120/208 volts and then passes the electricity to a meter, which is owned
by the utility and keeps a record of power consumption.

After leaving the meter, the power is transmitted into the building at which point all wiring, panels, and devices are the
property of the building owner. Wires transfer the electricity from the meter to a panel board, which is generally
located in the basement or garage of a house. In small commercial buildings, the panel may be located in a utility
closet. The panel board will have a main service breaker and a series of circuit breakers, which control the flow of
power to various circuits in the building. Each branch circuit will serve a device (some appliances require heavy
loads) or a number of devices like convenience outlets or lights.

Power Distribution in Large Buildings

Large buildings have a much higher electrical load than small buildings; therefore, the electrical equipment must be
larger and more robust. Large building owners will also purchase electricity at high voltages (in the US, 13.8kV)
because it comes at a cheaper rate. In this case, the owner will provide and maintain their own step-down
transformer, which lowers the voltage to a more usable level (in the US, 480/277 volts). This transformer can be
mounted on a pad outside the building or in a transformer room inside the building.

The electricity is then transmitted to switchgear. The role of the switchgear is to distribute electricity safely and
efficiently to the various electrical closets throughout the building. The equipment has numerous safety features
including circuit breakers, which allow power to be disrupted downstream - this may occur due to a fault or problem,
but it can also be done intentionally to allow technicians to work on specific branches of the power system.
It should be noted that very large buildings or buildings with complex electrical systems may have multiple
transformers, which may feed multiple pieces of switchgear. We are keeping this article simple by sharing the basic
concepts.

The electricity will leave the switchgear and travel along a primary feeder or bus. The bus or feeder is a heavy gauge
conductor that is capable of carrying high amperage current throughout a building safely and efficiently. The bus or
feeder is tapped as needed and a conductor is run to an electric closet, which serves a zone or floor of a building.

Each electrical closet will have another step-down transformer - in the US, this will drop the power from 480/277 volts
to 120 volts for convenience outlets. That transformer will feed a branch panel, which controls a series of branch
circuits that cover a portion of the building. Each branch circuit covers a subset of the electrical needs of the area - for
instance: lighting, convenience outlets to a series of rooms, or electricity to a piece of equipment.

2004 Masterspec Division

Electrical: 26 00 00
Medium-Voltage Electrical Distribution: 26 10 00
Low-Voltage Electrical Transmission: 26 20 00

Emergency and Standby Power Systems for Buildings

Public and/or large buildings have emergency power systems installed to allow certain electrical components to
operate during a power outage. Homeowners are also installing smaller standby generators on their property,
especially if they are in rural areas where power restoration after a storm could take days or weeks. Emergency and
standby power systems can be fairly simple (for homes) or very complex (for large institutional buildings like
hospitals).

Emergency vs Standby Power

The difference between the 3 types of backup power is often confusing. We will describe the systems here, but it is
important to note that code officials and other authorities having jurisdiction can require that certain elements and
devices be on a system other than what we call for here. In the United States, backup power systems are governed
by NFPA 110, Standard for Emergency and Standby Power Systems.

Emergency Power Systems provide automatic backup power in the event of normal power loss. They are required
by code and shall provide power within 10 seconds to all life safety systems such as egress lighting, smoke
evacuation, fire alarm systems, elevators, etc. Simply put, anything that will protect the lives of the building occupants
should be on Emergency Power. Another important thing to remember is that emergency power systems must be
completely separate; this means that they shall have their own conduit runs, their own panels, their own transfer
stations, etc.

Legally Required Standby Power Systems also provide automatic backup power in the event of normal power loss,
but they have 60 seconds to engage. They are required by code, but they can share system components - they are
not required to be fully separate systems like Emergency Power Systems. These can be thought of as systems that
enhance the act of egress and improve firefighter operations, but are not critical to life safety. Systems such as
heating, ventilation, communications, building automation, and hospital equipment may be part of the Legally
Required Standby System.

Optional Standby Power Systems are not required by code, but will provide backup power to operations that the
building owner deems important to keep electrified during normal power outages. These systems can be manually or
automatically engaged and can share the same components and wiring as normal power or legally required standby
power. In general, Optional Standby Systems are used to prevent financial or data loss, but they can also extend to
enabling human comfort during normal power outages.

What Should be on Backup Power?

A backup power system should be designed to provide electricity to only the most important pieces of equipment in a
building. It is not cost effective to have backup power available for every electrical component in a building. Most
facilities, even the most critical, can be ramped down during an outage so that fuel or battery power can be
conserved.

As stated earlier, life safety systems are always required to be on an Emergency Power System. This includes
lighting of egress paths, power for sprinkler pumps, and power to fire alarm systems. Hospitals will put life-saving
equipment, like respirators, on standby power. Fire and Police Stations will make sure that their radio systems are on
standby power so they can manage operations during emergencies.

Homeowners are free to size their standby generators to meet their needs. Refrigerators, freezers, and sump pumps
are normally on circuits tied to the backup system, as are lights throughout the home. A few convenience outlets are
also put on the system to allow phones to be charged and to keep a television or radio operational during major
outages. Fuel storage capacity tends to be the limiting factor for the size of a home generator - you want to have
enough fuel to keep the system operational through the outage; therefore, many of life's conveniences are turned off
to conserve fuel.

Backup Generators
Backup power is supplied by a generator, which is essentially an engine that burns fuel to create electricity. The
generator can be a reciprocating or a turbine engine, but reciprocating are usually preferred because they start up
quicker and are more economical.

Generator testing and maintenance are critical to the success of backup power systems. Generators and all
components of the system should be tested regularly to ensure that they will be operational when needed. As with
any engine, routine maintenance will prolong the life and increase the efficiency of the generator.

There are a variety of fuels that can be used, including diesel, gasoline, natural gas and liquid petroleum. Diesel is
the most common due to its cost and the fact that it is safer to store than gasoline. The fuel is usually stored on site in
a series of tanks. A day-tank (not necessarily a full day of fuel) is located near the generator and provides an
immediate and constant amount of fuel. Large installations will also have a bulk storage tank that may be located
away from the generator. The bulk storage tank holds enough fuel for a long outage; this fuel is pumped to the day-
tank as needed. Fuel in any storage tank must be constantly used or mixed to prevent degradation.

Uninterruptible Power Supply

An uninterruptible power supply (UPS) is an electrical device that provides instantaneous backup power to a system
when the normal power source goes down. The power from the UPS lasts only a short time, but long enough to
engage other backup power sources or to safely shut down a system. UPS devices are commonly found connected
to computer systems where even the slightest blip in the electrical source could cause data loss. UPSs are also used
for critical systems (healthcare, communications, etc) to provide enough operational time to let the emergency
generator ramp up to full capacity.

There are two main options for storing electricity in a uninterruptible power supply: batteries or a fly wheel. The
battery system is fairly common for smaller loads and is comprised of one or a number of rechargeable batteries. A
battery UPS requires routine maintenance and replacement since the lifespan of a battery is fairly short.

A fly wheel UPS system, also known as a rotary UPS system, uses a spinning mass to generate electricity. Fly wheel
systems are generally used for larger loads and currents. In addition, fly wheels are preferred for their lifespan; due to
the mechanical nature of the system, it will last up to 30 years. Maintenance is required, during which long downtimes
can be expected.

An added benefit of UPS devices, beyond providing backup power, is that they can protect the systems they are
connected to from voltage surges, voltage drops, noise, or distortion. They are essentially able to clean the power,
which further protects the sensitive systems connected to them. The dual nature of the UPS devices means that the
building owner doesn't have to purchase and maintain a separate power conditioner.

Redundancy
The level of redundancy is important to analyze when designing a backup power system because the designer must
factor in failures within the emergency system. Rather than provide one large generator or battery backup, the
backup system will be spread over multiple generators or batteries. For instance, A data center will never rely on one
backup generator - instead a calculation will be run that ensures that power is available even if one (or more)
generators are unavailable.

N + 1 redundancy refers to a backup system that is broken down into N components, and then an additional
component is added. If the critical systems in a building can be run with 3 generators, the designer would provide 3 +
1, or 4, generators. The fourth generator would not be run during typical emergency operations, but would be
engaged if generator 1, 2, or 3 had a problem. There may be a period of time where power is lost while the +1 power
source starts up.

1 + 1 redundancy describes a system where there are two separate power sources that can each supply the full
critical power needs of a building. In addition, both sources are always active. Should one of the backup systems fail,
the second system is already active and operational so there will not be any interruption in power. 1 + 1 redundancy
is less efficient than N + 1, but it provides a much more robust and transparent backup system.

Generator Safety - Prevent Back-feeding

***If you are a homeowner considering a generator for long power outages, be sure that you hire an
electrician to configure your setup and properly install the system. This is not a task for the novice. Serious
injury or death (to you or others) can be caused by an improper installation, not to mention significant
property damage is possible. Be sure to have all safety features installed and NEVER override a safety
feature.***

A proper transfer switch is required for a generator setup. A transfer switch will allow either the main / normal power
from the utility, or power from the generator, to be fed into the building's electrical system. It will never allow both
normal power and emergency power to be on at the same time; the transfer switch disconnects the building from the
utility feed while the generator is active, which is also referred to as islanding. This ensures that the generator cannot
back-feed the electrical grid, which could cause injury or death to technicians working to repair the power lines. In
addition, it prevents serious damage to the generator and other building equipment when normal power is restored by
preventing the two out-of-phase power feeds from "fighting" with each other and overloading equipment that is
intended for a lower amperage.

Light Fixture (Luminaire) Types

Light fixtures, also known as luminaires, come in a variety of sizes, shapes, wattage, etc. The diagram below shows
the major types of fixtures. Obviously, there are many varieties of each type of fixture.
2004 CSI Masterspec Division
Interior Lighting Fixtures, Lamps, And Ballasts: 26 51 13

Light Fixture (Luminaire) Components

The diagram below identifies the components of a light fixture, also known as a luminaire. The diagram shows a
recessed can fixture, but the components apply to all light fixtures. Keep in mind that some of the components are
optional and will not be found on every luminaire. Descriptions of the components can be found below the diagram.
Wiring
Electrical wiring, which provides power to the luminaire. Depicted here is flexible conduit, but it can also be hard
piped based on electrical codes.

Junction Box
The junction box provides a location to connect the wiring that comes from the power source with the internal wiring
for the light fixture. Shown is a box attached to the top of the fixture; however, this is sometimes a separate box and
sometimes the connection is made inside the fixture.
Lamp Holder
The lamp holder or light socket is the receptacle that the lamp screws into.

Lamp
The lamp, often referred to as the light bulb, emits light when connected to a power source. The lamp is often sold
separately from the fixture. It is important to use lamps in a wattage that are recommended for the fixture to prevent
damage or possible fire.

Reflector
The reflector provides a reflective surface to direct or spread the light from the lamp out into the space. Parabolic
reflectors focus light toward a point, while elliptical reflectors spread light.

Lens
The lens is a transparent or translucent material used to direct or diffuse light. In addition, the lens protects the lamp;
however, it can also trap heat, which can be problematic.

Trim
The trim or flange is a decorative element that is detachable. This piece is installed after the finished wall or ceiling
material is installed. Since ceiling materials require a space between the fixture and the material, the trim piece is
used to cover this space and provide a clean finish.

2004 CSI Masterspec Division

Interior Lighting Fixtures, Lamps, And Ballasts: 26 51 13

Light Distribution Curves

Luminaire and lamp manufacturers provide candlepower (or luminous intensity) distribution curves for their fixtures.
The curves provide the designer with important information about the way light is distributed from the fixture and also
how that light falls upon a surface.

Candlepower Distribution Curve

The image above is a candle power distribution curve, which provides information on how light is emitted from a lamp
or light fixture. The diagram represents a section cut through the fixture and shows the intensity of light emitted in
each direction. The portion of the graph above the horizontal 90°-270° line indicates light that shines above the fixture
(indirect), while the portion of the graph below represents light shining down (direct). The straight lines radiating from
the center point identify the angle of the light emitted while the circles represent the intensity. For instance, point A
above shows that the intensity of light at 80° is approximately 110 candlepower. Point B shows that at 30° you will get
about 225 candlepower.

Isochart
To the left is a diagram that provides information on the distribution of light in plan. The isochart (or iso-lux/iso-
candlepower) is useful for determining how much area a light fixture can cover. For instance, in a parking lot, the
diagram at left indicates that there will be about 1/2 of a foot-candle of light at about 18-20 feet from center. If 1/2
foot-candle is acceptable, then the fixtures can be placed about 36-40 feet apart.

Photometric Data Files

Information about a fixture's light distribution is also generally available in a file format that can be loaded into an
analysis or rendering program and used to help better understand the lighting within a space. There are a number of
different file types, the most popular of which are listed below.

IES is the international standard file type for providing luminaire light distribution information. The standard was
developed by the Illuminating Engineering Society of North America (IESNA), which has simply become the
Illuminating Engineering Society. IES files have a .ies file extension.

EULUMDAT is the main format used in Europe. The standard was originally developed in Germany, but there is
currently no official documentation on the format. EULUMDAT files have an .ldt file extension.

CIBSE is a format used primarily in Great Britain and is published by the Chartered Institute of Building Service
Engineers. CIBSE files have a .cibse file extension.

LTLI is a format occasionally used with Autodesk products such as 3ds Max. LTLI was developed by the Danish
Illuminating Laboratory and is the standard used in Scandinavian countries. LTLI files have an .ltli file extension.

Wire Size (Gauge)

Wire thickness is measured in gauge. The table below provides conversion to inches.

AWG Conductor
Gauge Diameter

0000 .46

000 .4096

00 .3648

0 .3249

1 .2893
2 .2576

3 .2294

4 .2043

5 .1819

6 .1620

7 .1443

8 .1285

9 .1144

10 .1019

11 .0907

12 .0808

13 .0720

14 .0641

15 .0571

16 .0508

17 .0453

18 .0403

19 .0359

20 .0320

21 .0285

22 .0253

23 .0226

24 .0201

25 .0179

26 .0159

27 .0142
 28 .0126

29 .0113

30 .0100

2004 CSI Masterspec Division

Medium-Voltage Electrical Distribution: 26 10 00
Low-Voltage Electrical Distribution: 26 20 00

Ground Up or Ground Down?

There is an age-old debate about whether an electrical outlet should be mounted with the ground pin up or
down. Unfortunately, there is not a fully accepted answer. However, it is commonly accepted that the National
Electrical Code (NEC) of the United States, or NFPA 70, does not provide any specific direction for the orientation of
the outlet.

Some theories about the orientation of an outlet:

 The outlet should be oriented with the ground pin up because if the plug comes slightly loose and a metal
object were to fall from above, the ground plug, which usually does not carry current, would deflect the
object so that it would not hit is live prongs. It is accepted that this idea began in health care facilities where
many tools used for patient care are metal. The story goes that hospitals were wired by union electricians
and as the unions grew the practice spread to other types of buildings.
 The outlet should be oriented with the ground pin up because this pin is longer and the plastic around the
plug is meatier, so it will help to keep the plug inserted in the outlet.
  The outlet should be oriented with the ground pin down because a person grabbing the outlet will have
their index finger at the bottom side of the plug and the index finger sticks out further than the
thumb. Having the ground down will keep a person's index finger from touching the live pins.
 The outlet should be oriented with the ground pin down because many common household items such as
nightlights, timers, and battery chargers are oriented with the ground pin down. In addition, GFCI outlets,
which have text on the reset and test buttons, are oriented with the ground pin down (and the text readable).

A quick internet search provides comments that easily debunk any of these theories. The most basic final answer is
that it truly doesn't matter which way your outlets are oriented. Select the strategy that best works for you.

2004 CSI Masterspec Division

Medium-Voltage Electrical Distribution: 26 10 00
Low-Voltage Electrical Distribution: 26 20 00

Electrical Faceplate Types and Dimensions

Electrical faceplates, also called wall plates or cover plates, come in an infinite array of combinations, sizes, and
shapes. However, there are some standard sizes for basic faceplates. First, we will discuss the openings in the face
plates.

Accommodated Devices
There is a wide array of devices that can be accommodated by an electrical faceplate including: outlets, switches,
motion sensors, telephone jacks, data jacks, dimmers, etc. Some of the more common devices are shown below.

Electrical Outlets Toggle or Switch

Openings: 1-11/32" W x 1-1/8" H Opening: 13/32" W x 15/16" H
 Decorative or Rocker Telephone or Data
Opening: 1-1/4" W x 2-1/2" H Opening: Varies

Gangs
Gangs refer to the number of vertical groups of openings that are accommodated. The devices can change between
gangs. For instance, in a 4 gang electrical box, one could have any combination of devices (1 toggle switch and 3
duplex outlets; or 2 toggle switches and 2 duplex outlets; or 1 toggle switch, 2 duplex outlets, and 1 tele/data; etc).

Electrical faceplates come in 1-gang up to 10-gang. Shown below are 1-gang through 4-gang

1-Gang 2-Gang
Shown: Single Duplex Shown: Double Duplex
 3-Gang 4-Gang
Shown: Triple Toggle Shown: Quadruple Duplex

Standard Size Electrical Faceplates

All standard size faceplates are 4-1/2" in height. Widths are listed below. Please note that these sizes are
standard; however, your faceplates may not match.

Gangs Width Gangs Width

1-Gang 2-3/4" 2-Gang 4-1/2"

3-Gang 6-3/8" 4-Gang 8-3/16"

5-Gang 10" 6-Gang 11-13/16"

7-Gang 13-5/8" 8-Gang 15-7/16"

9-Gang 17-1/4" 10-Gang 19-1/16"

2004 CSI Masterspec Division

Medium-Voltage Electrical Distribution: 26 10 00
Low-Voltage Electrical Distribution: 26 20 00

NEMA Enclosure Types

The National Electrical Manufacturers Association (NEMA) maintains a number of standards for electrical
components. Architects are often asked to select a component that has a NEMA enclosure type. Those enclosure
types are listed below and are based on NEMA Standards Publication 250-2003.

Non-Hazardous Locations
NEMA Type 1: For indoor use. Provides a degree of protection to personnel against hazardous internal parts.
Provides a degree of protection to internal components from the ingress of falling dirt.
NEMA Type 2: For indoor use. Provides a degree of protection to personnel against hazardous internal parts.
Provides a degree of protection to internal components from the ingress of falling dirt. Provides a degree of protection
to internal components from the harmful effects of dripping or lightly slashing water.

NEMA Type 3: For indoor or outdoor use. Provides a degree of protection to personnel against hazardous internal
parts. Provides a degree of protection to internal components from the ingress of falling dirt and blowing dust.
Provides a degree of protection to internal components from the harmful effects of the ingress of rain, sleet, or snow.
Will not be damaged by the formation of ice on the exterior of the enclosure.

NEMA Type 3R: Same as NEMA Type 3 except does not protect against wind blown dust.

NEMA Type 3S: Same as NEMA Type 3 except external mechanisms will remain operable when the enclosure is ice
laden.

NEMA Type 3X: Same as NEMA Type 3 except it provides an additional level of protection from corrosion.

NEMA Type 3RX: Same as NEMA Type 3 except it provides an additional level of protection from corrosion but does
not protect against wind blown dust.

NEMA Type 3SX: Same as NEMA Type 3 except it provides an additional level of protection from corrosion and
external mechanisms will remain operable when the enclosure is ice laden.

NEMA Type 4: For indoor or outdoor use. Provides a degree of protection to personnel against hazardous internal
parts. Provides a degree of protection to internal components from the ingress of falling dirt and blowing dust.
Provides a degree of protection to internal components from the harmful effects of the ingress of rain, sleet, snow,
splashing water, and hose directed water. Will not be damaged by the formation of ice on the exterior of the
enclosure.

NEMA Type 4X: Same as NEMA Type 4 except it provides an additional level of protection from corrosion.

NEMA Type 5: For indoor use. Provides a degree of protection to personnel against hazardous internal parts.
Provides a degree of protection to internal components from the ingress of solid objects including falling dirt,
circulating dust, fibers, lint, or other small non-flammable objects. Provides a degree of protection to internal
components from the harmful effects of dripping or lightly slashing water.

NEMA Type 6: For indoor or outdoor use. Provides a degree of protection to personnel against hazardous internal
parts. Provides a degree of protection to internal components from the ingress of falling dirt. Provides a degree of
protection against the negative effects of ingress of hose directed water or occasional, temporary, shallow
submersion in water. Will not be damaged by the formation of ice on the exterior of the enclosure.

NEMA Type 6P: Same as NEMA Type 6 except provides a degree of protection during prolonged, shallow
submersion in water.

NEMA Type 12: For indoor use. Provided without knockouts. Provides a degree of protection to personnel against
hazardous internal parts. Provides a degree of protection to internal components from the ingress of falling dirt,
circulating dust, fibers, lint, or other small non-flammable objects. Provides a degree of protection to internal
components from the harmful effects of dripping or lightly slashing water.

NEMA Type 12K: Same as NEMA Type 12 except it is provided with knockouts.
 NEMA Type 13: For indoor use. Provides a degree of protection to personnel against hazardous internal parts.
Provides a degree of protection to internal components from the ingress of falling dirt, circulating dust, fibers, lint, or
other small non-flammable objects. Provides a degree of protection to internal components from the harmful effects of
dripping or lightly slashing water. Provides a degree of protection against the spraying, splashing, and seepage of oil
and non-corrosive coolants.

Hazardous Locations
NEMA Type 7: Enclosures constructed for indoor use in hazardous locations classified as Class I, Division 1, Groups
A, B, C, or D as defined in NFPA 70.

NEMA Type 8: Enclosures constructed for either indoor or outdoor use in hazardous locations classified as Class I,
Division 1, Groups A, B, C, and D as defined in NFPA 70.

NEMA Type 9: Enclosures constructed for indoor use in hazardous locations classified as Class II, Division 1,
Groups E, F, or G as defined in NFPA 70.

NEMA Type 10: Enclosures constructed to meet the requirements of the Mine Safety and Health Administration, 30
CFR, Part 18.

2004 CSI Masterspec Division

Electrical: 26 00 00

Site & Landscape

 Green Roof Systems: Intensive, Semi-Intensive, and Extensive

Green Roof Systems: Intensive, Semi-Intensive, and

Extensive
This article provides an general overview of green roofs installed on buildings. We will provide a description of the
three main types of green roofs: intensive, semi-intensive, and extensive. We also provide the benefits and a few
things to watch out for when designing green roofs.

Green Roof Benefits

Heat islands, especially in urban areas, negatively affect microclimates by raising temperatures and altering air
movement patterns. Heat islands are created by buildings and pavement that absorb sunlight during the day and
release the energy as heat in the evening. The phenomenon leads to zones of higher temperatures around urban
areas. We have attempted to address this by using high albedo (light colored) materials, but this simply reflects the
radiant heat to other materials that can absorb it an release it in the evenings. The natural plantings and soils in
green roofs mitigate the heat island effect by better modulating temperature fluctuations caused by radiant heating
during the day. This leads to lower ambient temperatures in the microclimate surrounding buildings.
Green roofs can help reduce energy costs for a building by acting as another layer of insulation between the inside
and outside of the roof. This is most noticeable in intensive green roofs since there is a thicker and more consistent
layer of soil, which provides a higher insulating value. The insulating properties of the soil can also help reduce
sound transmission through the roof from outside the building.

Perhaps the most important benefit of green roofs is that they can reduce the amount of and improve the
quality of stormwater runoff from a building site. The soils of a green roof will capture a significant amount of
stormwater, which is absorbed and used by the planted material. Any water that is released is done so at a slower
and more consistent rate, which helps prevent flooding and runoff that can be destructive to the surrounding
environment. The plants and soils also filter the stormwater, which helps clean it of pollutants that can negatively
affect the natural surroundings. Many jurisdictions now require building owners to collect stormwater in infiltration
basins that clean and slowly release the water back into the ground to help reduce the burden on the sewer systems -
green roofs help do this naturally without the need for special infiltration basins or equipment.

While installing a green roof will not inherently qualify a project for LEED points, green roofs will contribute to
achieving points in any number of categories including heat island effect reduction, storm water quantity and quality
mitigation, and a reduction in energy usage.

One benefit of green roofs that is not easily quantifiable is the aesthetic improvement that landscape provides. This is
especially important where building occupants overlook lower roof areas, which are often barren planes or are full of
mechanical equipment. Simply providing planted areas on these low roofs will improve the appearance of the space,
which may improve occupant mood and well-being.

Green Roof Considerations

There are a number of things to consider when designing for a green roof. One important item to design for is
anincreased structural load. This is especially true of intensive green roofs, which can have soil that is two feet
deep or more. The structural engineer must factor in the weight of completely saturated soil since the plantings and
the soil will hold a significant amount of water.

It is also important to factor in the type and lifetime of the roof membrane that will be used. Green roofs tend to
improve the life of the membrane because it is completely covered by plantings and isn't exposed to the sun's harsh
UV raysn. However, the membrane may be exposed to plant roots, animals and insects, and fertilizer chemicals. It is
important that a protective barrier be used over the waterproofing membrane.

Maintenance is also important to consider when designing a green roof. The owner should understand that a
green roof requires routine landscape maintenance, which can vary from occasional to regular and can add a
significant ongoing cost. In addition, space should be allocated for storage of maintenance materials. For instance, it
may be inconvenient to take a lawnmower to the roof on a weekly basis if there is an area of grass that requires
regular trimming.

Green Roof System Comparison

EXTENSIVE SEMI-INTENSIVE INTENSIVE

sedum, moss, grass, herbs, flowers, sedum, moss, grass, large shrubs,
Plant Options sedum, moss, grass
shrubs trees

Soil Depth 2" to 5" Deep 5" to 8" Deep 8" to 30"+ Deep
 10 to 25 pounds dry
Dry Weight 25 to 40 pounds dry weight 40 to 100+ pounds dry weight
weight

System
Tray, Built-Up Tray, Built-Up Built-up
Types

Maintenance Minimal Occasional / Routine Routine

First Cost Low Medium High

Extensive Green Roofs

Extensive green roofs are generally made up of a very thin layer of soil or other planting medium with shallow-root
plants like sedum, mosses, and grasses. The soil is usually not more than 5" deep and is sometimes contained by a
tray system, which provides a barrier to excessive growth, protects the roof membrane, and also interlocks the entire
system together to prevent wind damage. A more traditional planted roof of built-up layers is also common, but the
tray system offers much more flexibility and comes pre-planted with mature specimens. Extensive systems weigh
anywhere from 10 to 25 pounds per square foot when dry, which is why the interlocking system of trays is important -
otherwise, strong winds could very easily blow the plantings away.

The biggest benefit of extensive green roofs is that they need very little maintenance. The plants, if chosen correctly
for the climate, rarely need water so an irrigation system is not required. Fertilizers are also not required except in
rare instances where weeds need to be controlled. All that is really needed is an occasional inspection to confirm that
the trays are intact and that the plants are flourishing. Extensive roofs are also the cheapest to install and maintain.

Semi-Intensive Green Roofs

Semi-intensive green roofs require a deeper soil layer, but the payoff is in the types of plantings that can be used. In
addition to the mosses, grasses, and sedum of extensive roofs, semi-intensive plantings include herbs, flowering
plants, taller grasses, and small shrubs. Of course, this comes with a steeper price tag due to the additional weight
and root barriers needed. Semi-intensive systems generally weigh between 25 and 40 pounds per square foot when
dry. They are typically constructed in layers, but can also be installed using a tray system.
 Semi-intensive green roofs require a bit more maintenance since the plants tend to need pruning, irrigation, and
fertilization. If the roof is occupied, additional maintenance should be accounted for to make sure the roof is safe and
comfortable. However, maintenance requirements are generally no more than would be expected for sidewalk
planters.

Intensive Green Roofs

Intensive green roofs require the deepest soil and have the greatest impact on the structural design, but they also
accommodate all types of plantings including large shrubs and trees. Intensive systems allow the designer to create a
park-like setting so they are the best option for roof gardens that will be occupied. Intensive green roofs weigh from
35 pounds to beyond 100 pounds per square foot when dry - it is all a matter of the soil depth, which is affected by
the amount of mounding that is used. Tray systems are not a viable option for intensive roofs due to the weight;
therefor, a significant amount of attention must be paid to the various waterproofing and root barrier details.

Maintaining an intensive roof can be quite involved. Many plants will benefit greatly from an irrigation system
especially if non-native vegetation is selected for its aesthetics. Larger plants will also require regular pruning and will
have to be monitored for health. Intensive roofs are usually occupied so special attention needs to be paid to
walkways and other occupied zones so that visitor safety is maintained.

Concrete

 Concrete Industry Resources

 Concrete Composition

 Steel Reinforcing
Concrete Industry Resources
Concrete has been used since the times of the Ancient Egyptians and Ancient Chinese. It is now a vital part of
construction worldwide. Below is a list of masonry industry associations that provide technical information on their
websites.

For concrete related articles on archtoolbox.com, visit the Concrete Page.

American Concrete Institute

The American Concrete Institute website has an informative knowledge center. The ACI also offers continuing
education and a bookstore loaded with publications.

Concrete Reinforcing Steel Institute

The Concrete Reinforcing Steel Institute has a store that contains a number of free technical guides. TheReinforced
Concrete Explorer serves as an inspirational vault of concrete (free, but registration is required).

Tilt-Up Concrete Association

The Tilt-Up Concrete Association website hosts a series of pages that provide basic information about building tilt-up
concrete projects.

National Precast Concrete Association

The National Precast Concrete Association has a website with information about precast concrete. There is a section
specifically for building and site amenities.

Concrete Composition
Concrete is made up of three main ingredients: water, Portland cement, and aggregates. The ratio of the ingredients
changes the properties of the final product, which allows the engineer to design concrete that meets their specific
needs. Admixtures are added to adjust the concrete mixture for specific performance criteria.

Water
The water in the concrete mix should be clean and free of impurities. The amount of water relative to the amount of
cement changes how easily the concrete flows, but also affects the final strength of the concrete. More water makes
for easier flowing concrete, but also makes for lower strength concrete upon curing.

Portland Cement
Cement hardens when mixed with water, which binds all of the ingredients together. Portland cement is the most
common cement used and is composed of alumina, silica, lime, iron, and gypsum. Small amounts of other
ingredients are also included.
Aggregates
Sand, gravel, and crushed stone are used as the aggregates in concrete. Aggregates make up the majority of a
concrete mixture.

Admixtures
Admixtures accomplish a variety of goals. This can be as simple as adding a pigment to color the concrete. Other
admixtures are used for faster curing times in cold weather, creating extremely high-strength concrete, or for
increasing the flowable nature of concrete without compromising the strength. Unfortunately, admixtures can
generate unwanted results such as poor adhesion of finish-flooring. For this reason, many structural engineers and
architects are hesitant to use admixtutres.

Steel Reinforcing
Since concrete is a material that performs well under compressive loads, but performs poorly under tensile loading,
steel is added to the concrete. The steel, which performs well under tensile loading, addresses this concern. Steel
reinforcing is also used to tie different concrete elements together; for instance, to tie a concrete beam to a concrete
column.

Welded Wire Reinforcement

Welded Wire Reinforcing, abbreviated WWR or WWF (Welded Wire Fabric), is generally used for reinforcing floor
slabs. This type of reinforcing is made from a series of bars that run perpendicular to each other - in a grid
layout. The bars are welded together to form a "sheet".

The nomenclature for specifying welded wire fabric is: WWR 8 x 6 - W12 x W16. The 8 refers to the longitudinal
wire spacing, the 6 refers to the transverse spacing. W12 refers to the area of the longitudinal wires in 100ths of an
inch. W16 refers to the area of the transverse wires in 100ths of an inch. In the bold example above, the
reinforcement has longitudinal wires that are 0.12 square inches at 8" spacing; the transverse wires are 0.16 square
inches at 6" spacing.

Steel Reinforcing Bars (Rebar)

Steel reinforcing bars are designated in 8ths of an inch. For instance a #5 bar has a diameter of 5/8". In addition, the
bars are marked with the symbol of the production mill, the type of steel used, and the grade of steel.
 Bar Size Diameter Area

#3 3/8" = 0.375" 0.11 sq in

#4 1/2" = 0.50" 0.20 sq in

#5 5/8"= 0.625" 0.31 sq in

#6 3/4" = 0.75" 0.44 sq in

#7 7/8" = 0.875" 0.60 sq in

#8 1" = 1" 0.79 sq in

#9 1 1/8" = 1.125" 1.00 sq in

#10 1 1/4" = 1.25" 1.27 sq in

#11 1 3/8" = 1.375" 1.48 sq in

#14 1 3/4" = 1.75" 2.41 sq in

#18 2 1/4" = 2.25" 3.98 sq in

More Information
The Concrete Reinforcing Steel Institute has a more detailed description of rebar markings, which also includes
Canadian marking standards.

Masonry

 Masonry Industry Resources

 Brick Sizes

 Brick Orientations

 Typical Brick Bonds

 Concrete Block Sizes and CMU Dimensions

 Mortar vs. Grout

 Masonry Mortar Types

 Masonry Mortar Joints

 Masonry Grout Types

Masonry Industry Resources

Masonry is a building material that has been around since the beginning of time. The most common types of masonry
are bricks and concrete masonry units (concrete block). Below is a list of masonry industry associations that provide
free technical information on their websites.

For masonry related articles on archtoolbox.com, visit the Masonry Page.

Brick Industry Association

The Brick Industry Association website has a wealth of information about brick construction. Their technical notes
section covers all technical topics and provides details for virtually every situation.

National Concrete Masonry Association

The National Concrete Masonry Association has a website full of resources including their numerous technical (e-
TEK) documents.

Masonry Advisory Council

The Masonry Advisory Council provides a searchable database of technical documents that contains details and
information on brick, concrete masonry, and cast stone.

International Masonry Institute

The International Masonry Institute has an outstanding collection of very informative three-dimensional details for
brick and concrete block.

Cast Stone Institute

The Cast Stone Institute provides details, specifications, and articles about cast stone, which is a concrete masonry
product that is made to simulate natural cut stone.

Brick Sizes
Manufacturers produce bricks to their own specifications, so it is important to confirm sizes; however, the sizes in the
tables below come from the Brick Industry Association and are the most commonly produced sizes. Actual Size, also
referred to as Specified Size, is the real dimension of each brick. Nominal size is the actual size plus the width of the
mortar joint. Most bricks are manufactured so that the nominal sizes fit into a grid of 4", which coincides with the
modules of other building materials such as doors, windows, and wood components.

Assuming a 3/8" Mortar Joint Between Bricks

Actual Size Nominal Size Vertical Course

Brick Type
D x H x L (inches) DxHxL
Standard 3 5/8 x 2 1/4 x 8 Not modular 3 courses = 8"

Modular 3 5/8 x 2 1/4 x 7 5/8 4 x 2 2/3 x 8 3 courses = 8"

Norman 3 5/8 x 2 1/4 x 11 5/8 4 x 2 2/3 x 12 3 courses = 8"

Roman 3 5/8 x 1 5/8 x 11 5/8 4 x 2 x 12 1 course = 2"

Jumbo 3 5/8 x 2 3/4 x 8 4x3x8 1 course = 3"

Economy 3 5/8 x 3 5/8 x 7 5/8 4x4x8 1 course = 4"

Engineer 3 5/8 x 2 13/16 x 7 5/8 4 x 3 1/5 x 8 5 courses = 16"

King 2 3/4 x 2 5/8 x 9 5/8 Not modular 5 courses = 16"

Queen 2 3/4 x 2 3/4 x 7 5/8 Not modular 5 courses = 16"

Utility 3 5/8 x 3 5/8 x 11 5/8 4 x 4 x 12 1 course = 4"

Assuming a 1/2" Mortar Joint Between Bricks

Actual Size Nominal Size Vertical Course

Brick Type
D x H x L (inches) DxHxL
Standard 3 1/2 x 2 1/4 x 8 Not modular 3 courses = 8"

Modular 3 1/2 x 2 1/4 x 7 1/2 4 x 2 2/3 x 8 3 courses = 8"

Norman 3 1/2 x 2 1/4 x 11 1/2 4 x 2 2/3 x 12 3 courses = 8"

Roman 3 1/2 x 1 1/2 x 11 1/2 4 x 2 x 12 1 course = 2"

Jumbo 3 1/2 x 2 1/2 x 8 4x3x8 1 course = 3"

Economy 3 1/2 x 3 1/2 x 7 1/2 4x4x8 1 course = 4"

Engineer 3 1/2 x 2 3/4 x 7 1/2 4 x 3 1/5 x 8 5 courses = 16"

King 3 x 2 3/4 x 9 3/4 Not modular 5 courses = 16"

Queen 3 x 2 3/4 x 8 Not modular 5 courses = 16"

Utility 3 1/2 x 3 1/2 x 11 1/2 4 x 4 x 12 1 course = 4"

2004 CSI Masterspec Division

Brick Orientations
The diagrams below represent the orientations for bricks as they are laid in walls. The blue face is the face that will
be exposed.

Stretcher Shiner

Soldier Sailor

Header Rowlock

2004 CSI Masterspec Division

Typical Brick Bonds
The bonds illustrated below represent the most common masonry coursing. From these bonds, an infinite number of
bonds can be developed.

Running Bond
The most standard bond is composed of stretchers offset by 1/2 brick per course.

Common Bond
A course of headers is inserted every five or six courses. A header is always centered on a stretcher and the joints of
each course of headers always align.
English Bond
This bond is comprised of alternating courses of stretchers and headers where a header is centered above a
stretcher. The joints of the stretcher courses align and the joints of the header courses align.
Flemish Bond
Each course is made up of alternating stretchers and headers. Each header is centered on a stretcher above and
below.
Stack Bond
Made up of courses of stretchers where each stretcher is stacked directly above a stretcher and the joints align. This
is not a structural bond and is generally used on interiors for non-load bearing walls.
Concrete Block Sizes and CMU Dimensions
Concrete Masonry Units (CMU), or Concrete Blocks, come in a variety of sizes. CMUs are identified by their depth -
i.e. the thickness of the wall they create. For instance, a 6" CMU is nominally 6" deep. As with brick, CMUs have
actual dimensions and nominal dimensions. The nominal dimension of a CMU is the actual dimension plus the width
of the mortar joint. Typical CMU mortar joints are 3/8". The nominal dimension works within the 4" grid that other
construction materials follow.

4" CMU
 Actual Size Nominal Size
D x H x L (inches) D x H x L (inches)
3 5/8 x 7 5/8 x 7 5/8 4x8x8

3 5/8 x 7 5/8 x 15 5/8 4 x 8 x 16

6" CMU

Actual Size Nominal Size

D x H x L (inches) D x H x L (inches)
5 5/8 x 7 5/8 x 7 5/8 6x8x8

5 5/8 x 7 5/8 x 15 5/8 6 x 8 x 16

8" CMU

Actual Size Nominal Size

D x H x L (inches) D x H x L (inches)
7 5/8 x 7 5/8 x 7 5/8 8x8x8

7 5/8 x 7 5/8 x 15 5/8 8 x 8 x 16

10" CMU

Actual Size Nominal Size

D x H x L (inches) D x H x L (inches)
9 5/8 x 7 5/8 x 7 5/8 10 x 8 x 8

9 5/8 x 7 5/8 x 15 5/8 10 x 8 x 16

12" CMU

Actual Size Nominal Size

D x H x L (inches) D x H x L (inches)
11 5/8 x 7 5/8 x 7 5/8 12 x 8 x 8

11 5/8 x 7 5/8 x 15 5/8 12 x 8 x 16

Mortar vs. Grout

Mortar and grout are used in both masonry work and tile work; however they serve different purposes. Both products
are Portland cement based product, which causes them to harden. The variables are in the size of the aggregates
(stone, sand, etc) and the quantity of water added to the mix.

Mortar
The role of mortar is to make one material stick to another. For instance, a mason laying bricks or concrete masonry
units (CMU) will place morter in the joints between the bricks or blocks. Similarly, a person installing tile will lay a
mortar bed so the tiles stick to the floor or wall.

Grout
Grout is a filler product and is intended to flow. Therefore, it usually has a higher water content. A mason will fill the
cores of a CMU with grout. A person installing tile will use a grout to fill the spaces between the tile after the mortar
has cured.

Variations
Both mortar and grout come in many variations and it is important to select the correct product for the intended
purpose. Consult with a professional or manufacturer for recommendations on which product is best.

CSI Masterformat Divisions

Masonry Mortaring: 04 05 13
Masonry Grouting: 04 05 16

Masonry Mortar Types

Masonry is held together with mortar (between pieces of masonry) and grout (fills cavities in the masonry unit). For a
more detailed discussion about the difference between the two, check out our article Mortar vs. Grout.

Mortar is the material that sticks two masonry units together - it is the stuff you can see between bricks. Since mortar
plays such an important role in masonry construction it is important to understand how to select the correct type of
mortar or grout. This is often a confusing task, but we will try to make it easy and clear. Keep in mind, stronger is not
always better. A mortar that is significantly stronger than the masonry units can put excessive stress on the masonry,
which will cause damage in the form of cracking or spalling.

Mortar is classified by ASTM C 270, Standard Specification for Mortar for Unit Masonry. There are four main types of
mortar, which are described below. In addition, Type K mortar is sometimes used, but is no longer included in the
ASTM C 270 standard. Mortar is meant to be plastic, meaning it will accommodate movement within the wall without
rupturing.

Type M Mortar
Type M mortar is the highest strength mortar (minimum 2500 psi) and should only be used where significant
compressive strength is required. This type of mortar is generally used with stone - since it closely mimics the
strength of stone, it will not fail before the stone itself fails. A lesser-strength mortar may fail prematurely.
Type M Mortar Uses: Below grade applications where extreme gravity or lateral loads are present, such as in
retaining walls. In conjunction with stone or other masonry units that have a high compressive strength.

Type S Mortar
Type S mortar is a medium-strength mortar (minimum 1800 psi). Since it is stronger than Type N, it can be used for
below-grade exterior walls and other exterior projects projects like patios. In addition, it has higher bonding and lateral
strength than type N, which makes it a good choice for resisting moderate soil pressures below grade.

Type S Mortar Uses: Below grade applications with normal to moderate loading. Locations where the masonry is in
contact with the ground, such as paving or shallow retaining walls.

Type N Mortar (General Purpose)

Type N is the most common type of mortar and is the best all-around selection unless special characteristics are
required. It is medium strength (minimum 750 psi) and is meant for reinforced interior and above-grade exterior load-
bearing walls. It is great for semi-soft stone or masonry since it will flex more than a high-strength mortar - this
prevents cracking of the masonry units.

Type N Mortar Uses: General purpose applications above grade where normal loading occurs.

Type O Mortar
Type O mortar is a low strength mortar (minimum 350 psi) that is used in non-load-bearing interior applications. It is
easy to work with so it is often used to repair mortar where the wall is structurally sound. Type O mortar is sometimes
used with masonry units that have a low compressive strength (i.e. sandstone or brownstone) so that the mortar
allows more flexing, which prevents cracks in the units.

Type O Mortar Uses: Interior non-load-bearing applications with very limited exterior use. Repointing where the
structural integrity of the wall is intact.

Type K Mortar
Type K mortar is no longer included in the ASTM C 270 specification; however, it is still sometimes used in historic
preservation projects. It has the lowest compressive strength of any mortar so it will not cause damage to fragile
stones or masonry.

Type K Mortar Uses: Historic Preservation projects where a very soft mortar is required to avoid damage to fragile
stone - note that the mortar will not provide bearing capacity.

Specifying Mortar
There are two methods for specifying mortar when issuing construction documents. You can either specify the
performance properties of the hardened mortar or you can specify the proportions of the ingredients in the mortar. It
is absolutely critical that the specifier understand the structural requirements that the project must adhere to so that
the mortar type and mix can be specified correctly - when in doubt, be sure to consult a structural engineer.

The Performance Specification, requires that a mix be created and tested in a laboratory, which makes it less
common, but much more exact for critical applications. The specifier will identify the minimum compressive strength
allowed after the 28-day cure period, the percentage of air in the hardened mortar, the percentage of water retained
in the mortar, and aggregate ratio of the mix. Once the mix has been tested in a laboratory, the recipe can be used in
the field.

For a Proportion Specification, the specifier will identify the exact proportions of ingredients for the mix. This can be
done using either weights or volumes. This allows all mortar preparation to be done in the field, which makes it the
most common approach since less time is involved in creating the mortar mixtures.

CSI Masterformat Divisions

Masonry Mortaring: 04 05 13

Masonry Mortar Joints

Mortar joints are typically 3/8", but can vary from 1/4" to 1/2". Joints are finished using a tool or the trowel. Each type
of joint has pros and cons, which are mostly related to their effectiveness at shedding water.

V Joint
Concave Joint
Fair: This joint is less
Good: The standard joint, successful at shedding water
which is universally accepted due to the point of the V,
as the best joint for which can be an entry point
preventing water penetration. for water if not tooled
perfectly.

Weathered Joint Struck Joint

Fair: Due to the slope of the Very Poor: The slope of the
mortar, this joint also joint pulls water into the joint
performs fairly and allows it to sit on the
well. However, water can brick, which gives the water
run across the underside of more time to penetrate.
the brick and enter if the
mortar is not well adhered. Interior Use Only

Raked Joint
Flush Joint Very Poor: The ledge allows
Poor: This joint is susceptible water to sit on top of the
to water sitting on the top of brick and potentially get
the joint if it protrudes slightly sucked into the wall.
from the brick.
Interior Use Only
CSI Masterformat Divisions
Masonry Mortaring: 04 05 13

Masonry Grout Types

As you learned in our article, Mortar vs. Grout, grout is a product that fills voids so it must flow. Masonry grout is
made from cement, fine aggregates, and enough water to be fluid.

Grout is used for a number of purposes. Most often, it is used to tie vertical steel reinforcement to the masonry units
in a block wall. Therefore, it must be fluid enough to fill all voids, but eventually strong enough to bond the steel and
masonry together. Another use for grout is to add mass to a block wall to reduce sound transmission or improve the
thermal mass of the wall.

Grout specifications are governed by ASTM C476 Standard Specification for Grout for Masonry, which provides the
proportions of materials to be used. There are two main types of grout:

Fine Grout
Fine grout uses aggregates that are smaller than 3/8". It will have the same compressive strength as coarse grout.
However, the benefit is that fine grout will flow better between tight spaces so it should be used when reinforcing bars
are close to each other. In addition, fine aggregates do not separate as easily so fine grout can be poured from a
higher distance.

Coarse Grout
Coarse grout uses fine aggregates, but it will also include aggregates that are as large as 1/2" in diameter. Coarse
grout is used when reinforcing bars are spaced further apart and when there are larger spaces between the bars and
the masonry. Coarse grout is used whenever possible since it is a more economical mix due to the fact that coarse
aggregates are cheaper and take up more space.

Water Content in Masonry Grout

The amount of water in a grout mixture is very important because the grout needs to flow easily, but it also needs to
achieve a proper compressive strength. In addition, the masonry units will immediately absorb some of the water in
the mix so that needs to be taken into account for the grout mix to remain fluid. When placing grout in a hot and dry
climate, it is very important to take the water content into account.

Grout Admixtures
Additives can be included in the mix to help achieve certain properties that may not be possible with traditional mixes.
It is important that admixtures be included only when specified because they can affect the compressive strength of
the grout. Specifiers should consult a structural engineer prior to using admixtures.

Non-Shrink additives will prevent the shrinkage that occurs as water is absorbed from a mix. The admixture will
expand as water evaporates or is absorbed by adjacent materials. Non-shrink grout is most often used to transfer
compressive force across a void between two structural members.
 Plasticizers replace water in a grout mix in an effort to keep a fluid mix with a limited amount of water. The reduction
in water will allow the grout to develop a higher compressive strength.

A retarder will slow the set time of the grout. This will allow the grout to remain fluid and workable in extremely hot or
dry weather conditions.

An accelerator will make the grout set faster than normal. This is typically used in very cold conditions to prevent ice
crystals from forming in the grout and to reduce the amount of time that the construction needs to be protected from
the cold.

Specifying Grout
As with mortar, masonry grout is specified by using either the performance method or the proportion method. It is
important that the specifier understand the structural requirements that the project must adhere to so that the grout
can be specified correctly - when in doubt, be sure to consult a structural engineer.

A Performance Specification will dictate a compressive strength that the grout must achieve after having set for 7
days and also the final compressive strength after 28 days. The performance specification requires laboratory tests to
confirm the mix will perform as needed, so it is used only in the most critical situations.

Most often, a Proportion Specification is used. In this case, the specifier will identify the amount of cement,
aggregates (fine and coarse), water, and any additives required. The quantities are specified by either weight or
volume. Since this allows the mix to be created in the field without further testing, it is the most common specification
method.

CSI Masterformat Divisions

Masonry Grouting: 04 05 16

Metals

 Structural Steel Shapes

 Cold Formed Metal Framing

 Metal Thickness (Gauge)

 Stainless Steel Grades

 Stainless Steel Finishing

 Metal Coatings
 Galvanic Action

Structural Steel Shapes

There are a wide variety of steel shapes available. The most common shapes are listed below; however, many
manufacturers have special shapes.

The nomenclature for steel shapes follows two standards:

1. For wide flange, bearing pile, S-shapes, channels, and tees: the letter indicates the shape, the first number
indicates the nominal height, and the second number indicates the weight per 1 foot of length. For instance,
the W12x36 listed in the table below is a wide flange shape that has a nominal height of 12" and weighs 36
pounds per foot of length.
2. For steel tubes, pipes, plates, and angles: the 3 numbers indicate the height, width, and thickness of the
steel.

Image Description Nomenclature Notes

Flange surfaces are parallel; flange

Wide Flange W12x36 thickness is not necessarily equal to
the web thickness.

Flange surfaces are parallel; flange

Bearing Pile HP14x73
and web have equal thicknesses.

American
S15x50 The inner flange surface is sloped.
Standard Beam
 Standard AISC flanges have sloped
Channel C12x30
inner flange surfaces.

WT shapes are cut from a wide

flange.
WT12x38

Tee ST shapes are cut from American

ST12x38
Standard Beams.
MT12x38
MT shapes are cut from non-standard
I-shapes.

Hollow Steel
HSS12x6x0.5 Either nomenclature is acceptable;
Section
however, HSS is more common.
TS12x6x0.5
Steel Tube

L2x2x0.5 Angles come in equal leg or unequal

Angle leg sizes. The diagram at left shows
L6x3x0.5 an unequal leg.

Pipe Pipe 4 STD

 PL Very small plates can also be called
Plate
0.5x12"x30" bars.

2004 CSI Masterspec Division

Structural Metal Framing: 05 10 00
Metal Fabrications: 05 50 00

Cold Formed Metal Framing

Cold formed metal framing, also referred to as light gauge metal framing (LGMF), has overtaken wood stick framing
in commercial and institutional construction. It is also being used in some residential applications. The advantages of
LGMF are many, including: light weight, no warping, easy cutting, and fast installation.

Cold formed metal framing comes in many shapes and sizes. The most common shapes are diagrammed below, with
dimensions.

Metal Stud Sizes

The most common size stud is a 3 5/8" wide stud. Combined with a layer of 5/8" gypsum wall board on both sides will
give a 4 7/8" thick wall.

Shaftwall / C-H Stud Sizes

Shaftwall is used when only one side of the wall is accessible, as in mechanical shafts where there is no floor on one
side of the wall. The 1" portion of the stud holds a 1" shaft liner, which can be installed from the floor-side of the wall;
fasteners are not required to hold the shaft liner in place. After the shaft liner is installed, gypsum wall board is
installed as usual from the floor-side of the wall. The taller leg of the J Track goes on the shaft-side of the wall to help
hold the shaft liner in place.

Metal Furring Sizes

Both hat channels (left) and zee furring (right) are used to apply gypsum wall board to a concrete or CMU block wall.

2004 CSI Masterspec Division

Cold Formed Metal Framing: 05 40 00

Metal Thickness (Gauge)

Metal sheet thickness is measured in gauge. The table below provides conversion to inches. Wire/conductor sizes
are also measured in gauge and are equivalent to the non-ferrous thicknesses listed below.

AWG Non-Ferrous Metal Galvanized Standard Stainless

Alum, Brass, etc. Steel Steel Steel
Gauge
Inches Inches Inches Inches

1 .2893 .2812

2 .2576 .2656

3 .2294 .2391 .2500

4 .2043 .2242 .2344

5 .1819 .2092 .2187

6 .1620 .1943 .2031

7 .1443 .1793 .1875

8 .1285 .1680 .1644 .1719

9 .1144 .1532 .1495 .1562

10 .1019 .1382 .1345 .1406

11 .0907 .1233 .1196 .1250

12 .0808 .1084 .1046 .1094

13 .0720 .0934 .0897 .0937

14 .0641 .0785 .0747 .0781

15 .0571 .0710 .0673 .0703

16 .0508 .0635 .0598 .0625

17 .0453 .0575 .0538 .0562

18 .0403 .0516 .0478 .0500

19 .0359 .0456 .0418 .0437

20 .0320 .0396 .0359 .0375

21 .0285 .0366 .0329 .0344

22 .0253 .0336 .0299 .0312

23 .0226 .0306 .0269 .0281

24 .0201 .0276 .0239 .0250

25 .0179 .0247 .0209 .0219

26 .0159 .0217 .0179 .0187

27 .0142 .0202 .0164 .0172

28 .0126 .0187 .0149 .0156

 29 .0113 .0172 .0135 .0141

30 .0100 .0157 .0120 .0125

Stainless Steel Grades

Stainless steel is an important metal alloy, finding uses in thousands of applications in building construction and
renovation, as well as in industry and domestic applications. The metal is prized for its ability to resist corrosion and
admired for its beautiful yet sturdy appearance. Since stainless steel is an alloy created by mixing several different
types of materials, its characteristics and appearance can be manipulated.

The stainless steel types are identified in the United States through the use of a 3-digit numbering system, dependent
upon their internal crystalline structure type. The sections below will describe the most common types of stainless
steel currently used in the building industry.

300 Series
300 series steels are austenitic, which means that they are a solid solution of iron containing face-centered cubic
crystals. The greatest contributor to alloy in austenitic stainless steels is chromium and nickel. These steels are easy
to maintain, can withstand high temperatures and are very corrosion resistant. The 300 series stainless steels most
commonly used in the construction industry are described below.

301 Stainless Steel

This type of stainless steel is often used in decorative interior and exterior applications due to a shiny surface and
resistance to atmospheric corrosion. 301 steel is also extremely strong in tension yet remains readily workable at
room temperature.

This steel, along with the other 300 series steels, has a variant with an added “L” in the name (for example, 301L).
The “L” represents a low carbon content, which provides increased workability and increased corrosion resistance at
weld locations when joining two or more stainless steel pieces together.

304 Stainless Steel

304 stainless steel is the most commonly used type of stainless steel alloy, is easily available and is found in a wide
range of applications. This type of steel comprises over 50% of the stainless steel produced worldwide, and is
sometimes known as “18-8” steel due to its 18% chromium, 8% nickel content. 304 stainless steel lends itself to easy
shaping due to its balanced chemical structure, is highly resistant to corrosion and easy to weld.

304H stainless steel with an increase carbon content is also available -- this variant is suitable for applications in
environments with elevated temperatures.

316 Stainless Steel

316 stainless steel contains a percentage of the element molybdenum (around 2-3%), which provides greater
resistance to corrosion than 304 stainless steel. This type of steel is commonly used in applications where the metal
will be exposed to corrosive environments (such as acidic vapors) or in situations where the steel would be exposed
to saltwater. 316 steel is also known as “surgical stainless” and finds extensive use in the medical and food industry.
Due to its increased corrosion resistance, 316 finds many uses in cold-weather climates where deicing salts are used
to clear streets and sidewalks. The steel is highly resistant to the chemicals used in deicing and requires minimal
polishing to retain its exterior finish.

317 Stainless Steel

Type 317 steel is not commonly used in the construction industry, but can be the best fit for projects and situations
where the environment requires a stainless steel with even higher corrosion resistance than type 316. This increased
potential for corrosion may stem from industrial pollution, excessive salt exposure, climates that are hot and humid
with low rainfall, and for steel containing a high surface roughness. Type 317 steel contains molybdenum in a range
of 3-4%.

To achieve even greater levels of corrosion resistance than 317L steel, there is another variant entitled “317 LMN”,
which contains increased quantities of molybdenum and nitrogen in the alloy.

400 Series
400 series steels contains ferritic (body-centered cubic crystal) and martensitic (lens-shaped crystal) steels. These
steels contain approximately 11% more chromium than the 300 series, providing high strength and wear resistance
but a greater susceptibility to corrosion than 300 steels. The most commonly used 400 series steel in the construction
industry is 430.

430 Stainless Steel

430 stainless steel is ferritic and is often used in decorative applications , as it is relatively easy to form and the
surface lends itself to easy cleaning and polishing. The steel has a magnetic field and is best suited to interior
environments where it will not be subjected to a corrosive atmosphere.

904L Stainless Steel

Though typically confined to industrial applications, 904L stainless steel can be used in cases where extreme
corrosion resistance is required, over and above that of 317 LMN stainless. 904L contains copper, which is what
allows the metal to be more acid tolerant than other stainless steels. In addition, this steel is easier to weld than o ther
low-carbon stainless steels, as it has a lower tendency to form precipitates during the welding process.

Stainless Steel Finishing

Stainless steel with a finished surface provides a modern, decorative look to all types of built structures. Current
technology allows for an extensive amount of finish types and techniques. The sections below will describe the
different types of stainless steel finishes.

Stainless steel finish designations

Prepared stainless steel surfaces are assigned number designations ranging from 03 to 10 based on the coarseness
of the surface, with 03 representing the coarsest finish and 10 representing the smoothest.

03: This finish is known as a rough-ground finish. Grinding is accomplished using a rough abrasive, and metal with
this type of finish is typically in the state of being prepared for additional work. A 03 finish is not normally used in any
type of final product.
04: This is commonly called an architectural or brushed finish. The grit on the finishing belt is used to create polishing
lines of uniform thickness. Typically the lines are created in a parallel pattern, but can be modified to provide
alternative designs as described in Special Finishes below. Brushed finishes are typically less resistant to corrosion
than smooth finishes due to a higher likelihood of water or other fluids becoming entrapped within the grooves and
creating an environment more susceptible to oxidation.

05: A 05 is known as a sanitary finish. 05 stainless steel is commonly used for kitchen appliances and medical
equipment. This finish is designed to remove any type of pitting on the surface of the steel that would create a
reservoir for bacterial growth.

06: This is called a fine satin finish. The overall concept is similar to an architectural finish, but since the polishing grit
is finer the lines remaining after polishing are less defined and shallower, which creates less reflective faces on the
steel.

07: A 07 finish is polished and buffed to a point that provides a shine but not necessarily a flawless finish. Steels that
will be receiving a chrome plating are often polished to a number seven.

08: The mirror finish of a 08 is accomplished using a very fine grit and is polished to a point where all noticeable
surface defects are removed. This finish is not always achievable if excessive pitting is present.

09: A 09 or bead-blast finish is created by applying a high-velocity air stream to the steel that contains abrasive
material such as sand or glass beads. Very small pits are created in the metal surface that provides a consistent
matte finish. Glass beads typically create a finely textured surface with a silver look, while very small sand particles
will create a coarse surface with a medium to dark gray color.

10: Electropolished surfaces are classified as a 10 finish. In electropolishing, an electrically stimulated chemical
reaction is used to remove particles from the metal surface (basically the opposite of electroplating).

Special Stainless Steel Finishes

In addition to the various types of coarse to smooth finishes that can be applied to stainless steel, there are several
different types of finishes that can be created to give the steel a particular look and feel.

Swirls and Circles

Swirls and circles can be applied to steel using an abrasive pad to scratch the pattern into the surface. Concentric,
ordered layouts can be created, or random swirls (often referred to as Random Orbital) may be created over the
entirety of the steel surface. The creation of ordered layouts of inscribed circles into metal is sometimes known as
engine turning.

Patterns
Patterns can be stamped into thin sheets of stainless steel to provide a virtually infinite variety of geometric finishes,
many of which mimic patterns found in other types of materials. Some examples of patterns are natural looking
sandstone and brick, geometric-based patterns such as raised circles and squares, and also patterns which are
custom-made for particular applications such as those that include a company logo.

Distressed Finish
A distressed finish consists of random scratches applied to the steel surface through the use of a wire wheel. This
pattern is often used in locations with high pedestrian traffic, as minor scratches resulting from contact with the metal
would be hidden inside the pattern. A distressed finish pattern that is composed of very small thin lines is commonly
known as Angel hair.

Etching
Steel can be etched using an acid to strip away the surface layer and create a rough, matte, silver-gray finish. This
technique allows the creation of an extremely varied amount of designs, particularly through use of temporary
protective coatings that allow for modification of select portions of the steel. Etching is commonly used to inscribe
text, company logos or linework into the surface of the metal.

Pickling
Pickling is a type of treatment used to remove a thin layer from the surface of stainless steel. Oxide or scaling can
develop on stainless steel from exposure to high temperatures, such as those experienced during heat treatment or
welding. The pickling process involves submersion of the steel in acid or application of a stiff acid paste (known as
pickling paste) to break down and remove the hardened scale and a layer of the steel surface. Once the pickling
process is complete, steel is normally passivated, which regenerates the oxide film on the steel surface and restores
its ability to resist corrosion.

Electroplating
Electroplating is a technique used to apply a very thin coat of metal to the surface of an electrically-conductive
material. Since metal is an excellent conductor of electricity, this method provides a relatively easy means of applying
surface finishes. The process involves immersion of the object to be coated and a solid piece of the coating material
in a solution. The solution will also contain molecules of the coating material. Using a direct-current power source, the
object to be coated is connected to the negative terminal, which results in the coating metal adhering to the surface of
the object.

Metal Coatings
Metal coatings are used to prevent ferrous metals from corroding and also to improve the appearance of all
metals. Each type of coating accomplishes a different goal and has its own appearance.

Anodizing
While anodizing is most common with aluminum, it can also be used on other metals such as titanium and
zinc. However, ferrous metals cannot be anodized because the iron oxide, or rust, flakes off, which causes the
anodized layer to also flake off. When aluminum is exposed to oxygen, a layer of aluminum oxide is formed on the
surface of the metal. Anodizing effectively increases the thickness of this aluminum oxide layer, which makes it more
resistant to corrosion. To further increase the durability and corrosion resistance, a clear sealant can be used. The
anodizing process also provides better adhesion for paints and other finishes. Finally, the anodized aluminum can be
dyed prior to sealing to provide a colored aluminum.

Galvanizing
Galvanizing is a process by which a layer of zinc is applied to a ferrous metal to prevent corrosion. The process
most-commonly refers to hot-dip galvanizing, where a piece of steel is dipped into a bath of molten zinc. The zinc
adheres to the steel and immediately reacts with oxygen in the air to form a very strong zinc oxide layer, which
prevents corrosion of the steel below. The zinc and steel form a metallurgical bond so the coating will not flake
off. The finish is a dull gray and has a crystalline appearance. The galvanized steel can be painted to achieve a
specific color. When galvanized metal is welded, the weld and exposed steel must be coated with a special zinc
paint to prevent the joint from rusting since the galvanized coating has been removed.

Electroplating
Electric current is used to adhere a solution of (generally) cadmium and chromium to a metal. Nickel plating is a form
of electroplating. One problem with electroplating is that it is difficult to achieve a uniform thickness on a piece. The
plating resists corrosion and provides a pleasing appearance.

Powder Coatings
A dry powder is electrostatically applied to a metal part. The part is then cured under heat of about 200 degrees
Fahrenheit, which produces a very consistent and pleasing appearance. Powder coatings are generally more
environmentally friendly than paints since solvents are not require. Powder coatings come in an unlimited range of
colors.

Porcelain Enamel Coatings

Most commonly seen in cast-iron cookware, enamel coatings provide a smooth and consistent coating that is
resistant to stains and scratches. The coating also prevents corrosion. Since they are resistant to stains, enamel
coatings provide easy cleaning for surfaces prone to graffiti. Porcelain enamels are used most often on toilet-room
partitions.

Galvanic Action
 Galvanic action occurs when two electrochemically dissimilar
metals are in contact and a conductive path occurs for electrons
and ions to move from one metal to the other. One metal
corrodes as its ions are deposited onto the other
metal. Therefore, it is important to keep these dissimilar metals
insulated from each other to prevent accelerated
corrosion. Generally, water, and especially salt water, serve as
the conductive path between two metals so it is important to keep
dissimilar metals separated in wet conditions.

Cathodes are noble, or stable, metals that are not prone to

corrosion. Examples are gold, silver, nickel, and
titanium. Jewelery is made from these materials because it does
not corrode rapidly.

Anodes are less stable and are more susceptible to corrosion.

Examples include zinc, galvanized steel, and aluminum.

Since anodes and cathodes will react with each other, it is very
important to keep these metals apart. For instance, if zinc was in
contact with silver and this was submerged in a salt-water
solution, the zinc ions would be transferred to the silver and the
zinc would corrode.

The scale at left shows the relative location, in the galvanic

series, of many common metals. When two metals are close to
each other on the scale, they have a lessor tendency to corrode. However, there are many factors that can affect the
corrosion resistance, including the alloy of the metal, and the environment. The scale shown to the left is based on
the metals being submerged in seawater and should be used only as a general outline.

The galvanic scale demonstrates that if a stainless steel element was fastened in place using galvanized (zinc) metal
fasteners, the galvanized fasteners would rapidly corrode as its ions move toward the stainless steel, which would
cause the stainless steel element to come loose.

Wood / Plastic / Composites

 Wood Industry Resources

 Fasteners - Screws

 Fasteners - Nails

 Wood Lumber Cuts

 Wood Veneer Slices

 Wood Veneer Matching - Adjacent Leaves

 Wood Veneer Matching - End Matching

 Wood Veneer Matching - Balancing

Fasteners - Screws
Screws are most often used to fasten materials such as wood and metals; however, they can also be used with other
materials. This article provides information on screw types.

Screw Composition

Screws are metal fasteners that have a threaded shank, which is driven by turning. The threads prevent the screw
from pulling out.

The head of the screw has a recessed area that accepts a tool, such as a drill or screwdriver, which turns the screw
into place. Various shapes are used depending on the type of materials being fastened, the intended appearance,
and the type of driving device.

The threads are the helical ridges along the screw, which provide the friction that keeps the two materials together..
The pitch is the distance between threads. Coarse-threaded screws have a larger pitch, i.e. the threads are farther
apart.

Screw Types
Drywall Screw
Wood Screw

Bugle head, thin shank, specifically designed to

Generally coarse-threaded, threaded point that
fasten drywall to studs, often used as a multi-
creates its own mated threads in wood.
purpose screw.

Sheetmetal Screw Cap Screw

Short, coarse-threaded, typically a round head. Threaded screw, no point, used to fasten machine
Used to fasten sheetmetal or other thin materials. parts with pre-threaded holes. Driven with a bolt
driver rather than a screwdriver.

Machine Screw Set Screw

Narrow shank, fine-threaded, used with a nut or No head, the shank is slotted.
driven into a pre-threaded hole.

Screw Head Shapes

Screws have various head shapes that are used for different materials or final appearances.

Flat Head Pan Head Round Head Truss Head

Oval Head Fillister Head Bugle Head

Screw Head Types

Screws have different slots in the head to accept the different types of driving tools.

Slotted Head Phillips Head Allen Head Square Head Security Head

Fasteners - Nails
While nails are most often used for fastening wood, they can also be used to fasten materials to concrete, masonry,
or metals. This article provides information on nail size, shape, and use.

Nail Composition
Nails are used to fasten two materials together using friction. Made of metal, nails are either cut from a flat stock or
pulled from a round wire.

The head of the nail is enlarged and flattened to allow for easy hammering. Various shapes are used depending on
the type of materials being fastened and the intended appearance.

The shank is the long slender portion of the nail. Nails hold materials together through the friction created between
the shank and the material. Shanks may have threads or grooves to help increase friction. Shanks are generally
round or elliptical, but are also sometimes square or rectangular.

The nail point is the tapered portion at the end of the shank that wedges a material apart to allow the nail to be driven
into the material. Nail points are round point, diamond point (shown at left), or chisel point.

Nail Sizes
The size of nails is measured in pennies, with the symbol "d". As nails get longer, the diameter of the wire generally
becomes larger as well. Nails longer than 6" are usually referred to as spikes.

Size (penny) Length (inches) Size (penny) Length (inches)

2d 1" 10d 3"

3d 1 1/4" 12d 3 1/4"

 4d 1 1/2" 16d 3 1/2"

5d 1 3/4" 20d 4"

6d 2" 30d 4 1/2"

7d 2 1/4" 40d 5"

8d 2 1/2" 50d 5 1/2"

9d 2 3/4" 60d 6"

Nail Types
Common Nail Box Nail

Large, flat head; general use nail Large, flat head; thinner shank than common nail

Casing Nail Finishing Nail

Small, conical head; thin shank; used where head Small barrel head; thin shank; meant to be driven
is driven flush and remains visible below the surface and covered with putty; head
may have a dimple to accept a nail set

Cut Nail or Cut Flooring Nail Brad

Tapered, rectangular shank; blunt tip to prevent A smaller version of a finishing nail
splitting
 Drywall Nail Concrete Nail or Masonry Nail

Large, flat head; shank is usually grooved with Flat head; grooved or fluted shank; hardened steel;
concentric rings sometimes has a diamond point

Roofing Nail Duplex Nail, Form Nail, or Scaffold Nail

Very large, flat head; short shank; Two flat heads; prevents nail from being driven
sometimes grooved flush, which allows easy removal

Spiral Nail or Screw Nail

Flat head; spiral shank;

rotates like a screw when driven

Nail Coatings
While many nails come without a special coating, there are some common coatings that are used regularly.

Hot-dipped Galvanized coatings provide a resistance to rust. Galvanized nails should be used where moisture may
cause deterioration of the fastener. In addition, galvanized nails are recommended for pressure-treated wood
because copper is part of the treatment; due to galvanic action, the copper would corrode metal nails without the zinc
coating.

Vinyl coatings serve two purposes. First, the vinyl makes the nail easier to drive by reducing friction. However, the
friction still generates enough heat, which leads to the second purpose. When driven, the vinyl melts. After cooling,
the vinyl is adhered to the nail and the wood, which makes it harder to remove. The vinyl coating is usually green or
yellow.

While not a coating, stainless steel nails resist corrosion. However, they are more expensive than coated nails.
Wood Lumber Cuts
Logs are cut into boards in a few different ways, which produce different characteristics and amounts of waste. This
article covers the different types of cuts for wood boards. If you are looking for information on slicing wood veneers,
please check out our article, Wood Veneer Slices.

Plain Sawn Lumber

Plain sawn lumber is the most common type of cut. The annular rings are generally 30 degrees or less to the face of
the board; this is often referred to as tangential grain.

Plain sawn lumber yields the least waste and the widest boards.

A cathedral pattern is typically evident on the face of the board.

The diagram at left shows how a log can be cut so the entire contents is plain sawn. In this case, the log is rotated 90
degrees after each cut, which helps maintain the annular ring pattern. Alternatively, the log can be sawn continuously
without rotating - one board after another all the way through the log (inset graphic). This will actually produce some
boards that are "quarter sawn" near the center of the log (highlighted) since the annular rings will be 90 degrees to
the face of the board.
Quarter Sawn Lumber
The annular rings of a quarter sawn board are about 60-90 degrees to the face of the board; this is often referred to
as radial grain. The goal is to keep the grain as close to perpendicular (90 degrees) to the face of the board as
possible to maintain dimensional stability.

Quarter sawn lumber yields more waste and narrower boards than plain sawn. Therefore, quarter sawn lumber is
more expensive

A narrow grain pattern is typically evident on the face of the board. Flecks (also known as figure) are generally
evident in quarter sawn red oak and white oak, but can also be seen in other species.

The diagram at left shows two different methods of cutting quarter sawn boards, which are highlighted. The remaining
boards that aren't highlighted are considered rift sawn boards since the annular rings are closer to 45 degrees.
Rift Sawn Lumber
The annular rings or a rift sawn board are about 30-60 degrees to the face of the board, but 45 degrees is the most
optimum. Similar to quarter sawn lumber, rift sawn lumber is also referred to as radial grain.

The diagram at left highlights the boards that are considered rift sawn. Since there are very few boards that meet the
requirement of 45-degree grain, rift sawn lumber is the most expensive cut.

A narrow and very straight grain pattern is visible on the face of the board. Rift sawn lumber is usually used with oak
to avoid the flecks that are common in the species.

A Note About Our Diagrams and Cutting Methods

We have received a lot of feedback about our diagrams above and we have had different versions of those diagrams
at various times. There are a lot of diagrams on the internet that show different cutting patterns than we show.
However, we believe our diagrams are accurate. We have done a significant amount of research and have had
conversations with various lumber organizations and associations. The conclusion we have reached is that there are
many different ways to cut a log into boards and different mills use different methods. Identifying a board as plain
sawn, quarter sawn, or rift sawn has to do with the angle of the grain relative to the face of the board and the amount
of fleck or figure visible on the face. The method of cutting the log into boards is not the important factor.

2004 CSI Masterspec Divisions

Rough Carpentry: 06 10 00
Finish Carpentry: 06 20 00

Wood Veneer Slices

This article is a discussion about how thin wood veneers are sliced from a log and what kinds of characteristics are
visible as a result. If you are interested in the characteristics of boards and lumber, check out our article Wood
Lumber Cuts.

The appearance of a veneer is directly related to the method used to slice the pieces, or leaves. A series of leaves
are always kept in order as they are cut from the flitch, or section of a log. This allows the designer to control the
grain pattern as it progresses around an item or room, often called matching.

Plain Sliced Veneer

Plain slicing is the most common method of cutting a log, where the slice is parallel to the center cut of a log. It
produces a cathedral pattern at the center of the leaf and a straight pattern at the sides.

Quarter Sliced Veneer

Quarter sliced veneers produce a straight line pattern across the face of the veneer. The density of lines varies
across a log and among different species. Some hardwoods, including oak and sometimes maple, have a secondary
pattern of flecks, which is referred to as "figure," which many designers find to be attractive. Quarter sliced veneers
are more expensive than plain sliced.

Rift Sliced Veneer

Like quarter slicing, rift sliced veneers produce a straight line pattern across the face. However, rift slicing is done
slightly off the radius lines, which reduces the fleck or figure that is produced by quarter slicing. Rift slicing is mostly
done with oak; rarely with other species.

Rotary Sliced Veneer

Rotary sliced veneers are produced by placing a log on a lathe and slicing in line with the growth rings, much like
unrolling a roll of paper. A very random and broad pattern is produced, which makes it difficult to match at veneer
edges. For this reason, rotary slicing is rarely used.

Barber Pole Effect

As the knife passes through a log, it compresses the face closest to the outside of the log. The pores on the face
closest to the center of the log are released. Due to this stressing and the natural growth of the material, the two
faces reflect light differently. When used in a book matched layout (refer to our wood veneer matching article), this
produces an alternating light and dark pattern across adjacent leaves. This pattern is often referred to as a barber
pole effect and is generally considered unattractive.

2004 CSI Masterspec Divisions

Finish Carpentry: 06 20 00
Architectural Woodwork: 06 40 00

Wood Veneer Matching - Adjacent Leaves

Varying the matching of adjacent wood panels offers the designer many options for wood aesthetics. Due to the
natural growth of trees, matching and coloring of wood panels is an inexact science. This often causes conflict
between designers and manufacturers. However, if the designer is aware of the natural variation in wood, many
pleasing aesthetics are possible.

Slip Matching
The panels are"slipped" over without turning or flipping. The effect is a repeating pattern in which the grain lines are
not continuous. Slip matching is especially pleasing with rift or quarter sawn lumber, where the grain tends to be
straight. Since the panels are not flipped, light reflects the same from board to board and stain is accepted equally.

Book Matching

The panels are slid and flipped, much like the pages of a book. This creates a repeating pattern over 2 panels where
the grain lines connect at either end. Since the panels are flipped, light is refracted differently on adjacent panels and
stains may be accepted differently. This sometimes creates a barber-pole effect, where panels alternate from a
lighter shade to a darker shade. Certain species of wood accentuate this effect.

Random Match
The panels are placed in a random order and orientation. This provides a completely random and unmatched look.

Wood Veneer Matching - End Matching

There are three main types of end matching, which are used in combination with book or slip matching.

Architectural End Match

This match has leaves that are book or slip matched, first end-to-end, and then side-to-side. This creates then most
regular grain line continuity - i.e. the grain lines come closest at panel joints. The diagram below is considered, Book
Match, Architectural End Match. The numbers indicate the order that the slices are placed.
Continuous End Match
This end match has leaves that are book or slip matched in a continuous patter, either vertically or horizontally. The
diagram below is a Slip Match, Continuous End Match with Horizontal Sequencing. The numbers indicate the order in
which the slices are placed.
Panel End Match
This match has leaves that are book or slip matched into large assemblies. Then the assemblies are broken into
sub-assemblies and stacked in an end match. Due to the way that the panels are matched, the grain will not align at
the ends; however, there is a cost savings associated with this type of matching.
Wood Veneer Matching - Balancing
Within a certain panel, leaves can be balance matched or running matched. Balance matched panels can also be
center matched.

Running Match
Since it generates the least waste, a running match is cheapest. Leaves are placed in order of slicing onto a panel
until the end of the panel. The final leaf may not have the same width as previous panels. The first leaf of the next
panel uses the left-over portion of the previous leaf. These are referred to as remainders and are highlighted in the
diagram below.
Balance Match
A step up from the running match is a balance match, where the width of the leaves is consistent across a panel.

Balance and Center Match

The most aesthetically appealing is a balance and center match, where the leaves are all the same width and the
grain pattern is centered on the panel. This is the most labor intensive and, therefore, is most expensive.
 Thermal & Moisture Protection

 R-values of Insulation and Other Building Materials

R-values of Insulation and Other Building Materials

The American Society of Heating, Refrigerating, and Air-Conditioning Engineers (ASHRAE) provides R-values of
building materials in their 1997 Handbook of Fundamentals.

R-values are additive. For instance if you have a material with an R-value of 12 and another material with an R-value
of 3, then both materials combined have an R-value of 15.

Many energy modeling programs and code calculations require U-values of assemblies. The U-value is simply the
reciprocal of the total R-value of the assembly.

Building Material R-Values

MATERIAL THICKNESS R-VALUE

Air Films

Exterior 0.17

Interior Wall 0.68

Interior Ceiling 0.61

Air Space

Minimum 1/2" up to 4" 1.00

Building Board

Gypsum Wall Board 1/2" 0.45

Gypsum Wall Board 5/8" 0.5625

Plywood 1/2" 0.62

Plywood 1" 1.25

Fiber board sheathing 1/2" 1.32

Medium Density Particle Board 1/2" 0.53

Insulating Materials

R-11 Mineral Fiber with 2x4 metal studs @ 16" OC 5.50

R-11 Mineral Fiber with 2x4 wood studs @ 16" OC 12.44

R-11 Mineral Fiber with 2x4 metal studs @ 24" OC 6.60

R-19 Mineral Fiber with 2x6 metal studs @ 16" OC 7.10

R-19 Mineral Fiber with 2x6 metal studs @ 24" OC 8.55

R-19 Mineral Fiber with 2x6 wood studs @ 24" OC 19.11

Expanded Polystyrene (Extruded) 1" 5.00

Polyurethane Foam (Foamed on site) 1" 6.25

Polyisocyanurate (Foil Faced) 1" 7.20

Masonry and Concrete

Common Brick 4" 0.80

Face Brick 4" 0.44

Concrete Masonry Unit (CMU) 4" 0.80

Concrete Masonry Unit (CMU) 8" 1.11

Concrete Masonry Unit (CMU) 12" 1.28

Concrete 60 pounds per cubic foot 1" 0.52

Concrete 70 pounds per cubic foot 1" 0.42

Concrete 80 pounds per cubic foot 1" 0.33

Concrete 90 pounds per cubic foot 1" 0.26

Concrete 100 pounds per cubic foot 1" 0.21

Concrete 120 pounds per cubic foot 1" 0.13

Concrete 150 pounds per cubic foot 1" 0.07

Granite 1" 0.05

Sandstone / Limestone 1" 0.08

Siding

Aluminum / Vinyl (not insulated) 0.61

Aluminum / Vinyl (1/2" insulation) 1.80

Flooring

Hardwood 3/4" 0.68

Tile 0.05

Carpet with fiber pad 2.08

Carpet with rubber pad 1.23

Roofing

Asphalt Shingles 0.44

Wood Shingles 0.97

Glazing

Single Pane 1/4" 0.91

Double Pane with 1/4" air space 1.69

Double Pane with 1/2" air space 2.04

Double Pane with 3/4" air space 2.38

Triple Pane with 1/4" air spaces 2.56

 Triple Pane with 1/2" air spaces 3.23

Doors

Wood, solid core 1 3/4" 2.17

Insulated metal door 2" 15.00

The R-values above for specific assemblies like doors and glazing are generalizations because they can vary
significantly based on special materials that the manufacturer uses. For instance, using argon gas in a double pane
insulating glass unit will dramatically improve the R-value. Consult manufacturer literature for values specific to your
project.

The values in the table above were taken from a number of sources including: The ASHRAE Handbook,
ColoradoENERGY.org, and Building Construction Illustrated by Francis D.K. Ching. Other minor sources were also
used. Archtoolbox does not test materials or assemblies.

Doors / Windows / Openings

 Door Components and Door Types

 Door Hardware Function

 Door Lockset Types

 Door Protection - Kick Plates, Mop Plates, Armor Plates

 Door Handing

 Hollow Metal Door Frame Anchors

 Fire Rated Door Labels / Ratings

 Window Types

 Types of Glass Used in Windows

 Glass Surface Numbers

Door Components and Door Types

Regardless of whether the specified doors are wood or metal, the following components and door types are available.
However, the details and method of construction vary depending on the door and frame materials.

Door Components

Door Types
 Flush Door Panel Door

Frameless Glass Door Framed Glass Door

 Louvered Door Louvered Vision Door

Vision Door Door and Sidelight

Door Hardware Function

The following list shows different door lockset functions. Manufacturers may use various terminology, but these are
standard terms. Refer to specific manufacture data prior to specifying types.

Locksets that require a key to retract the latch or deadbolt on the inside are not recommended for egress use.

Locksets Without a Deadbolt

Classroom Lockset - The latchbolt is retracted by the grip on either side unless the outside grip is locked by the
outside key.

Classroom Security Lockset - The latchbolt is retracted by the grip on either side unless the outside grip is locked
by either the inside key or the outside key. Operating the inside grip always retracts the latchbolt.

Institutional (Asylum) Lockset - The latchbolt is retracted by a key on either side. The grips on both sides are rigid.

Office Lockset - The latchbolt is retracted by the grip on either side unless the outside grip is locked by the toggle or
outside key. Operating the inside grip does not unlock the outside grip.

Passage Lockset - The latchbolt is always retracted by the grip on either side. Both grips are always free.

Privacy Lockset - The latchbolt is retracted by the grip on either side unless the outside grip is locked by the inside
thumb-turn, button, or key. Operating the inside grip unlocks the outside grip. An emergency release tool unlocks
the outside grip. Some manufacturers offer models that also unlock the outside grip when the door is closed (i.e. the
door can only be locked from the inside if the door is fully closed - locking an open door then closing the door unlocks
the outside grip).

Public Restroom Lockset - The latchbolt is retracted by the inside grip or an outside key. The latchbolt is retracted
by the outside grip unless the grip is locked by a key from the inside. The latchbolt / outside grip cannot be locked by
a key from the outside.

Storeroom Lockset - The latchbolt is retracted by the inside grip or outside key. The outside grip is optional, but
when provided it is always rigid.

Locksets With a Deadbolt

Apartment Lockset - The deadbolt is engaged or retracted by an outside key or an inside thumb-turn. When the
deadbolt is engaged the outside grip is locked and will not retract the latchbolt. When the deadbolt is engaged the
inside grip simultaneously retracts both the deadbolt and the latchbolt. The latchbolt alone can be locked by a toggle
(engaging the deadbolt is not required to lock the outside grip).

Classroom Security Lockset - The deadbolt is engaged or retracted by key on either side. When the deadbolt is
engaged the outside grip is locked and will not retract the latchbolt. When the deadbolt is engaged the inside grip
simultaneously retracts both the deadbolt and the latchbolt and leaves the outside grip unlocked.

Dormitory Lockset -The deadbolt is engaged or retracted by an outside key or an inside thumb-turn. When the
deadbolt is engaged the outside grip is locked and will not retract the latchbolt. The latchbolt is retracted by the grip
on either side as long as the deadbolt is retracted. When the deadbolt is engaged the inside grip simultaneously
retracts both the deadbolt and the latch.

Storeroom Lockset - The latchbolt is retracted by the grip on either side. The deadbolt is engaged or retracted by
the outside key or the inside key / thumb-turn. The latch and deadbolt operate independently.

Store Door Lockset - The latchbolt is retracted by the grip on either side. The deadbolt is engaged or retracted by
the key on either side. The latch and deadbolt operate independently.
Deadbolt Only
Deadlock - The deadbolt is engaged and retracted by an outside key. An optional inside key or thumb-turn will
engage or retract deadbolt.

Classroom Deadlock - The deadbolt is engaged and retracted by an outside key. An inside thumb-turn will retract
the deadbolt only (it will not engage the deadbolt). An optional inside key will engage the deadbolt.

Door Lockset Types

There are 4 main types of locksets used. The choice of a lockset depends on use and aesthetic preference.

Cylinder Lockset

Cylinder locksets are most common in residential applications, but they are also used in institutional and office
spaces. A hole is bored into the face of the door and a second hole is bored through the door edge and into the first
hole. The main lock cylinder shaft is installed into the larger hole. After, the smaller latch cylinder is installed into the
edge hole.

Mortise Lockset
Mortise locksets are generally used in institutional and commercial applications. The lock unit is installed in a mortise
cut into the edge of the door. The handle and lock are then installed.

Unit Lockset
Unit locksets are not regularly used. A rectangular notch is cut into the door and the single-piece unit lock is installed
into the opening then tightened.

Rim Lockset
Rim locksets are used when modification of the door is not possible. The rim lock is face mounted to the door and a
strike is face mounted to the door frame. These locksets are only accessible from one side of the door; i.e. there is
not a handle or lever on the outside of the door. Pictured above is a rim lock with key access. In many applications, a
thumb-turn is used instead of a key.

Door Protection - Kick Plates, Mop Plates, Armor Plates

Door protection is applied to the surface of a door to help prevent damage to the surface finish of the door. It is used
most often in institutional and commercial buildings since these types of buildings see significant wear and tear to
doors. If people use their feet to open doors or if they use carts and other objects to push open a door, then door
protection should be considered. There are a number of options available, depending on what type of protection is
required.
Kick Plates
Kick plates are used where a door may be pushed open with a foot. By definition, kick plates are attached to the
push-side of a door. Kick plates come in a variety of heights from 10" tall to 16" tall and are usually manufactured in
2" increments. It is recommended that kick plates be 16" tall in any space where a wheelchair is used so that the foot
rests come in contact with the plate.

Armor Plates
Armor plates are used where carts are pushed through doors. As with kick plates, armor plates are always installed
on the push-side of the door. The two most common sizes are 36" tall and 42" tall, but they come in sizes from 18" to
48" (usually in 2" increments.) Armor plates on fire rated doors must be tested, labeled, and installed properly.

Mop Plates
Mop plates are installed on the pull-side of the door. Since the pull-side of the door usually doesn't receive the abuse
of feet or carts, a smaller plate is installed to take the bumps and dings from mops or vacuum cleaners. Kick plates
are typically 6" tall, but also come in 4" and 8" heights.

Stretcher Plates
Stretcher plates are applied to either side of the door and protect the middle part of the door. As the name s uggests,
stretcher plates are typically used in hospitals to protect the door in the area where a stretcher or hospital bed will
crash into it. Installation height and the size of the plate vary based on the types of gurneys used in the facility.

Protection Plate Width

In general, protection plates on single doors are sized to be 2" less than the width of the door and the plates are
centered on the door panel. Protection plates for pairs of doors are cut to be 1" less than the width of the door panels
and are centered on each panel. It is important to confirm this criteria with the building owner since some institutions
have different requirements.

Push Plates
Push plates are installed on non-latching doors where a person simply pushes the door open without having to use a
knob or handle - this prevents oils and dirt from damaging the door finish. The size of push plates varies, but they are
usually 8" wide by 16" tall for flush doors. Where a stile-and-rail door is installed, 4" wide push plates are used.

Edge Guards
Edge guards protect the ends of a door panel. They are useful where doors are held open or where objects tend to
get in the way of a closing door. There are two types of edge guards: caps and angles. Angles are L-shaped and will
protect only one corner of the door edge, while caps are U-shaped and will protect the both corners of the door edge.
The edge guards will have cut-outs for other hardware (latches, bolts, hinges, etc.) where needed. Typical heights for
edge protection are 36" and 42" - full height edge protection is only installed where specifically needed to help reduce
cost.

Door edges are typically surface applied, but they can also be mortised into the door so that the door edge is flush
with the face of the door. Door edges that are surface applied may also be shaped to overlap mop, kick, or armor
plates.

Materials for Door Protection

Door protection is available in plastic or metal. Common metals are stainless steel, aluminum, diamond plate, and
brass. Plastic door protection is usually either PVC (vinyl) or acrylic. Thicknesses of the sheets varies, but can be
anywhere from 0.050" up to .125" thick.

Door Protection for Rated Doors

NFPA 80: Standard for Fire Doors and Other Opening Protectives, indicates that protection plates can be applied to
the bottom 16" of a door panel (one or both sides). Plates over 16" in height may affect the fire protection, but are
allowed as long as they have been tested and approved. A label is required for any protection plate where the top of
the plate is 16" or more above the bottom of the door.

Door Handing
Door handing is easily determined while standing on the OUTSIDE of the door.

LEFT HAND REVERSE DOOR: The hinges are on the left and the door opens toward the outside of the room.

LEFT HAND DOOR: The hinges are on the left and the door opens into the room.

RIGHT HAND DOOR: The hinges are on the right and the door opens into the room.

RIGHT HAND REVERSE DOOR: The hinges are on the right and the door opens toward the outside of the room.

An alternate method of remembering door handing is to follow the procedure below:

1. Stand on the outside of the door and place your back toward the hinge side of the frame.
2. Without moving and without reaching across your body, grab the door knob/lever.
3. While still holding the door knob or lever, turn to face the door.
4. Open the door.
o If you used your left hand and you didn't have to move to open the door (i.e. the door opens away
from you), you have a LEFT HAND DOOR.
o If you used your left hand and you had to step out of the way to open the door (i.e. the door opens
toward you), you have a LEFT HAND REVERSE DOOR.
o If you used your right hand and you didn't have to move to open the door (i.e. the door opens away
from you), you have a RIGHT HAND DOOR.
o If you used your right hand and you had to step out of the way to open the door (i.e. the door opens
toward you), you have a RIGHT HAND REVERSE DOOR.

Hollow Metal Door Frame Anchors

Hollow metal door frames are commonly used in commercial and institutional buildings. The diagrams below show
metal door frame anchors based on the type of framing used. Frames are installed after a majority of the studs are in
place, but before the gypsum wall board has been installed. Hollow metal door frames in a masonry wall are installed
with the masonry.

Base Anchor Masonry

An angle is welded inside the frame. Screws or other The door frame is placed and the masonry wall is built
fasteners are driven through the angle into the structural around the frame. The leg of the T shape is grouted into
flooring. the wall.

Metal Studs Wood Studs

A zee is welded inside the frame. A screw can be driven A zee is welded inside the frame. Portions of the flange
through a metal stud into the zee. are bent into place and secured to the stud with screws.
Fire Rated Door Labels / Ratings
Doors and frames are rated and given a label after extensive testing by the Underwriters Laboratory. Rated doors
must be self-closing and must have a positive latch.

UL Label Rating Rating Max Glass Area

A 3 HR 180 MIN 100 square inches per leaf

B 1 1/2 HR 90 MIN 100 square inches per leaf

C 3/4 HR 45 MIN 1296 square inches per lite

D 1 1/2 HR 90 MIN Refer to local codes

E 3/4 HR 45 MIN Refer to local codes

1/3 HR 20 MIN 1296 square inches per lite

S SMOKE SMOKE

UL Labels D and E are for exterior doors that are subject to fire hazards from the outside of the door.

Refer to the codes applicable to your specific jurisdiction for label or rating requirements.

CSI Masterformat Divisions

Metal Doors and Frames: 08 11 00
Metal Frames: 08 12 00
Metal Doors: 08 13 00
Wood Doors: 08 14 00
Plastic Doors: 08 15 00
Composite Doors: 08 16 00
Integrated Door Opening Assemblies: 08 17 00
Window Types

Single Hung Window Double Hung Window

Fixed Window Casement Window

 Sliding Window Awning Window

Hopper Window

Types of Glass Used in Windows

There are multiple ways of treating glass to enhance its strength, energy efficiency, or appearance. For a detailed
discussion of the code implications of safety glazing in buildings, we suggest Douglas Hansen's article, Safety
Glazing.

Float Glass
Float glass gets its name from the modern process used to create large, thin, flat panels from molten glass. The
molten glass is passed onto a pool of molten tin. This process produces a very smooth piece of glass with a highly
consistent thickness.

Annealed Glass
Annealed glass is a piece of float glass that has been cooled in a slow and controlled manner. This slow cooling
process reduces the internal stresses within the sheet of glass so that it becomes stronger. Float glass is generally
annealed and is the starting point for further treatment. Annealed glass will break into large and sharp shards or
pieces. Due to safety concerns, annealed glass is rarely used in buildings.

Heat Strengthened Glass

Heat strengthened glass is made from a sheet of annealed glass that is reheated beyond its annealing point of about
1200 degrees Fahrenheit and then cooled rapidly, but not as rapidly as tempered glass. Since it isn't cooled as
quickly, the compressive and tensile stresses aren't quite equal across a section of glass. Therefore, the glass is only
about twice as strong as annealed glass. Heat strengthened glass will break into smaller pieces than annealed glass,
but these pieces may still be sharp and can cause injury. For this reason, heat strengthened glassis not considered to
be safety glass. Heat strengthened glass is rarely used in buildings except when it is laminated.

Fully Tempered Glass

Tempering is a process that takes a piece of annealed glass and makes it four times as strong. After annealed glass
is cut and finished to size (tempered glass cannot be cut), it is heated past its annealing point of about 1200 degrees
Fahrenheit. Then, the glass is very rapidly cooled, which allows the internal portion of the glass to remain fluid for
some time. Since the center stays fluid longer than the outer surfaces, an equal amount of tensile and compressive
stresses are formed across the glass, which makes it significantly stronger. Fully tempered glass is a safety glass that
will shatter into small granular pieces, which reduces the risk of injury.

Tempered glass is ideally used as a safety glass where the glazing may need to be broken out of the frame in an
emergency. For instance, the side windows of a car are tempered so that they can be broken away in the event of an
accident.

Heat Soaked Tempered Glass

Heat soaking is a method of testing tempered glass for unstable nickel sulfide inclusions, which are imperfections in
the glass that may cause spontaneous breakage of the pane. The panes of glass are put into an oven and heated to
a temperature of around 550 degrees Fahrenheit for a few hours. This causes any nickel sulfide inclusions to expand
disproportionately to the glass, which makes the glass break. The idea is to force any unstable glass panes to break
before they have a chance to fail in the field. This can be quite important where the glass pane is critical for safety -
for instance, in a glass railing. Of course, the process increases the cost of the glass panes. It is important to note
that heat soaking is not a perfect process and it will not eliminate incidences of spontaneous breakage, but it will
catch most of them.
Laminated Glass
Laminated glass is made by fusing two or more layers of glass with inter-layers of polyvinyl butyral (PVB) through the
use of heat and pressure. The process creates a safety glass.

If the laminated glass is made using sheets of heat strengthened glass, then the sheet of glass will break into large
pieces, but it will be held in the frame by the PVB inter-layer. This provides safety, but also adds a level of security
since the glass remains in place and prevents a person or object from passing through.

If the laminated glass is made using sheets of tempered glass, then the sheet will fall out of the frame, but will mostly
stay together due to the PVB inter-layer. The glass looks a lot like a wet blanket when shattered.

Laminated glass is best used as a safety glass where the glazing must remain intact if it is broken - either for safety
or security. For instance, the windshield of a car is laminated heat-strengthened glass so that if an object hits it, the
object won't pass through and injure an occupant nor will the glass shatter into the faces of the occupants.

Wire Glass
Wire glass is generally thought to be stronger than annealed glass; however, this is not true. Wire glass is actually
less strong than annealed glass because the integrated wire disrupts the continuity of the glass structure. Wire
glass is not considered to be safety glass.

Wire glass is most often used as a fire resistant glass because the wire holds the glass in place if it shatters due to
high heat. In addition, the wire holds the broken glass in place under pressure from a fire hose. Under high
temperatures, the wire holds the glass in place better than the PVB films used in laminated glass.

Insulated Glass Unit (IGU)

Insulated glass units (IGU) are built-up assemblies where two pieces of glass are separated by a spacer - this is
referred to as double-glazing. Triple-glazing is becoming more common and is made of three pieces of glass and two
spacers. The spaces between pieces of glass can be filled with air or an inert gas, such as Argon. Argon is most
common, but Xenon and Krypton are more efficient (and considerably more expensive). The sheets of glass are
tempered or laminated for safety, and are generally 1/4" thick with a 1/2" air space. Finally, the most critical
component of an IGU is the desiccant, which removes humidity from the cavity to prevent condensation within the
IGU.

Double-glazed IGUs made from 1/4" glass and a 1/2" space filled with air have an R-value of around R-2. Changing
the air to Argon gas raises the R-value to R-3. Further changing the glass to Low-E, described below, can take the
assembly to an R-value of R-4. Finally, a triple-glazed IGU can have a value of R-5 or slightly higher. As always,
please refer to manufacturer data for R-values of specific IGUs.

Low-Emissivity Glass
Low-emissivity (Low-E) glass is glass that has a special coating that reflects the infrared portions of light, while letting
the visible light spectrum through. This is beneficial because the infrared heat from the sun is reflected away from the
building in the summer and during the winter the infrared heat that is already inside a building is reflected back into
the space.
There are two general types of Low-E coating, tin or silver. Tin oxide is applied to the glass at high temperatures to
create a very hard and durable Low-E coating. The alternative is a silver coating, which must be enclosed in an IGU
so that the silver doesn't degrade over time due of oxidation.

Low-E coatings often have a slight blue-green tint, which many architects find unacceptable. Newer Low-E coatings
are produced with less tint, but it is important to review product samples daylight at varying angles to fully understand
what the aesthetics will be when installed.

Glass Surface Numbers

Glass surfaces are identified by number, starting with the exterior surface, which is always Surface Number 1. Each
pane of glass has two surfaces, so there are always an even number of glass surfaces in any glazing unit.

It is important to correctly identify the glass surface number because decorative or energy efficient coatings are
applied to the glass based on the surface number. In addition, the coating can have a different appearance or may
function better on certain surfaces. For double-pane insulated glass units, coatings are usually added to surface #2
and surface #3 so that the coating is "inside" the unit, which protects if from damage.

Single Pane - Glass Surface Numbers

Double Pane - Glass Surface Numbers

Triple Pane - Glass Surface Numbers

 Finishes

 Ceramic Tile

 Paint Sheen

 Walls - Gypsum Board Finish Levels

 Flooring - Carpet

 Flooring - Resilient Flooring

 Flooring - Terrazzo

 Suspended Ceilings - Acoustic Ceiling Tiles

Ceramic Tile
Ceramic tile is a fired clay tile that can be used on floors, walls, and counter tops. Ceramic tiles can be glazed or
unglazed and they come in a wide variety of shapes and sizes.

Thin-Set Ceramic Tile

A thin-set tile installation is one in which the tiles are adhered to a substrate with a 3/16" thick layer of mortar. The
mortar can be a cement, latex, or epoxy mortar; also available is an organic adhesive. Thin-set tile installations are
only acceptable for use on stable and uniform substrates since the thinness of the mortar hinders the ability to
account for imperfections. Proper installation of the framing and substrate are critical to a quality tile installation.

In wet applications, thin-set ceramic tile should be applied over a cement backer board, which is more dimensionally
stable than other substrates. The cement backer board is also resistant to mold; however, some installers prefer to
add a layer of felt paper or other water-resistant membrane to prevent the framing from rotting in the rare event of
water getting through the cement board.

Thick-Set or Mud-Set Ceramic Tile

A thick-set or mud-set tile installation consists of finish tiles set over a 1-1/4" to 2" thick portland cement mortar bed.
The mortar bed sits over the sub-floor and provides a smooth and stable base for the tile installation. Suitable sub-
floors for thick-set tile installations include concrete slabs and properly installed wood. In a floating mortar
bedsystem, a cleavage membrane is installed over the sub-floor. This membrane allows the tile system to move
independently of the sub-floor. Otherwise, the mortar bed is laid directly over the sub-floor to create a bonded mortar
bed installation.

When the tiles are set while the mortar bed is still plastic, a thin layer of dry-set mortar or a thin layer of a portland
cement mixture is used to adhere the tiles. This is called a bond coat. If the mortar bed has completely set, then the
tiles are adhered with a bond coat of latex-portland cement.

For thick-set wall tile installations, a metal lath is installed over the wall surface (masonry, concrete, stud framing,
gyspum wall board, etc). The metal lath allows the mortar bed to adhere to the wall surface.

There are a few advantages to using a thick-set mortar bed application. First, the mortar bed can be used to adjust
uneven sub-floors and it also creates an ideal surface for tile adhesion. The thickness of the mortar bed allows the
floors to be sloped; for instance, to slope a shower to a drain. The mortar bed can also conceal other items, such as
tubes for heated floors or waterproof pans. An advantage specific to thick-set installations with a cleavage membrane
is that cracks or defects in the sub-floor are not transferred to the mortar bed or finish tile layer.

Paint Sheen
Paint sheen is the glossiness of the paint finish. The glossiness affects the reflectivity, clean-ability, and the types of
wall imperfections that can be hidden.

Flat Paint
Flat paints are ideal for areas that are rough or have imperfections that need to be hidden. Light is not reflected from
flat paints, so the variations in the smoothness of the wall are not as noticeable. Flat paints are not easily cleaned
and can stain easily because they are more porous so they are generally used in areas that do not get dirty easily.

Primers are a type of paint that serve as a base coat for higher sheen paints. Gypsum wall board has a smoother
finish than the drywall compound used at joints in the wall board. The primer helps to hide this difference and allows
high sheen paints to look much smoother across the change in material.

Uses: ceilings, rough walls.

Eggshell, Satin, Low-Luster Paint

These low-sheen paints offer a aesthetically pleasing finish that has more life than a flat paint. For this reason, many
people paint their walls with an eggshell paint. The reflection from the paint highlights the texture that the paint picks
up from the roller. The problem with these finishes is that they cannot be touched-up. When a hole is patched, or a
mark needs to be covered, the painter must paint the entire wall to avoid "flashing", which is the difference in
reflection that is caused from two different paint applications. However, eggshell paints are more cleanable or scrub-
able than flat paints.

Uses: typical room walls.

Semi-Gloss Paint
The middle-zone between gloss and low-luster paints, semi-gloss offers a more durable finish that resists stains
better than less-glossy paints. The higher sheen also makes these paints less porous, so they are often used on
walls, doors, or trim that tend to be touched by dirty hands or in wet areas.

Since the higher gloss level highlights imperfections, it is recommended that walls with semi-gloss paint have a Level
5 Finish. In addition, semi-gloss paints are prone to flashing and cannot be touched-up.

Uses: doors, door trim, bathrooms, kitchens, walls prone to staining or fingerprints.

Gloss Paint
The highest sheen level are gloss paints. These are most resistant to stains and dirt. Due to their shininess, many
people dislike the aesthetic. They are rarely used except in areas that need extra durability.

Gloss painted walls require a Level 5 Finish and cannot be touched-up.

Uses: walls needing extra clean-ability or durability

Walls - Gypsum Board Finish Levels

Details

Category: Finishes

Gypsum wall board finishes are specified by ASTM C 840 and Gypsum Association GA-214-M-97. These documents
are summarized below.

Level 0 - There is no tape, joint compound, corner bead or any other accessories. Used as a temporary barrier or in
areas where the finishes have not been determined.

Level 1 - Tape is embedded in a single layer of joint compound at all joints and interior corners. The surfaces must
be free from excess joint compound, but tool marks and ridges are acceptable. Generally used above ceilings and in
back-of-house areas.

Level 2 - Tape is embedded in a layer of joint compound and then tooled with an additional thin layer of joint
compound. Fasteners and accessories shall be covered with one layer of joint compound. The surfaces must be
free from excess joint compound, but tool marks and ridges are acceptable. Generally used above ceilings and in
back-of-house areas, garages, and mechanical rooms.

Level 3 - Tape is embedded and tooled with an additional thin layer of joint compound (Level 2). An additional coat
of joint compound is applied. Fasteners and accessories shall be covered with two coats of joint
compound. Fasteners and accessories shall be covered with two layers of joint compound. All surfaces, including
joint compound, shall be smooth and free of tool marks. Used where a heavy wall covering or other heavy textured
material will be applied over the wall surface.

Level 4 - Tape is embedded and tooled with an additional thin layer of joint compound (Level 2). Two additional
coats of joint compound are applied to board joints. Interior corners receive one additional coat of joint
compound. Fasteners and accessories shall be covered with three layers of joint compound. All surfaces, including
joint compound, shall be smooth and free of tool marks. A drywall primer shall be applied prior to final painting. Used
where flat paints and lightweight wall coverings will be applied over the wall surface.

Level 5 - Tape is embedded and tooled with an additional thin layer of joint compound (Level 2). Two additional
coats of joint compound are applied to board joints. Interior corners receive one additional coat of joint
compound. Fasteners and accessories shall be covered with three layers of joint compound. Finally, a thin skim coat
of joint compound (or other specialized material) is applied to the entire surface of the wall. All surfaces shall be
smooth and free of tool marks. Level 5 is the highest level of finish and is used where semi-gloss, gloss, or other
non-textured paints are used. Also used where severe lighting conditions occur, such as wall-wash light fixtures.

Flooring - Carpet
Carpet is a loom-woven, fibrous flooring system widely used in residential, commercial, and institutional construction.

Carpet Tile
Carpet tiles come in a standard 18" x 18" size. The yarn is adhered to a backing, which is generally vinyl. After the
installer lays out the grid with chalk lines, the tiles are glued to the sub-floor with an adhesive. Some carpet tiles
come in a self-adhesive form, which is basically a peel-and-stick product.

Carpet tiles are not stitched together, so the 18" grid is visible. However, this also serves as a design element. Tiles
are typically laid out in the following patterns plus a random pattern; however, custom patterns are also used.

Monolithic Quarter Turn

 Brick Ashlar

Broadloom Carpet
Carpet is also manufactured in 12-foot wide rolls, which are then seamed together on-site (stitched or taped and
ironed) to create a monolithic appearance. Broadloom carpet installation is more labor intensive because of the
seaming required and the challenge in moving large rolls of carpet. In addition, the unrolled carpet does not initially
lie flat.

Carpet Padding
Carpet padding is used most often in residential applications; however, it is available for both broadloom and tiles. In
institutional and commercial applications, the padding is typically a rubber backing that is permanently adhered to the
tile. Other types of padding include foam and fiber.

Flooring - Resilient Flooring

Resilient flooring refers to flooring materials that are relatively firm and stiff, yet will flex to provide a comfortable
surface to walk upon. These surfaces will also return to form - or bounce back - after being weighted. Resilient floors
are typically resistant to staining, are easy to clean, and are very durable. For these reasons, resilient flooring is
widely used in institutional and commercial applications.

Resilient Flooring Types and Sizes

Sheet Flooring -- sheets come in a variety of widths. Sheets provide a more homogeneous flooring appearance and
can be butt-laid or welded to avoid penetration of liquids.

Tile Flooring -- tiles come in a variety of shapes and sizes. Tiles tend to be easier to move and install, due to their
size; however, they are prone to moisture getting under the floor because of the number of joints.

Resilient Flooring Materials

Vinyl -- a durable and stain resistant synthetic flooring. Vinyl flooring is manufactured in sheet and tile goods. Vinyl
floors are often used because they can be manufactured to look like just about any natural surface including ceramic
tile and stone. Vinyl has some staining issues and requires continuous buffing/finishing to maintain its shine and
prevent yellowing. Recently, vinyl has been criticized because it is not considered an environmentally friendly
product. Vinyl chloride is released from the product during manufacturing and after installation.

Rubber -- a durable and stain resistant natural flooring. Rubber flooring is becoming the standard flooring used in
commercial and institutional environments because it maintains its appearance without having to be resealed
regularly. Natural rubber products are rapidly renewable. In addition, rubber flooring can be made from recycled
rubber. Rubber provides a color-through product. Although rubber floors are usually tile, sheet products are becoming
more available.

Cork -- a durable natural flooring. Cork is considered a renewable resource and provides an appealing aesthetic.
Although it is more costly, properly installed (and coated) cork is as durable as other resilient floors. Cork is available
in tiles or in pre-manufactured panels. A big benefit of cork is its compressive quality, which makes it very comfortable
to walk on.

Linoleum -- a durable natural flooring. Made from linseed oil, linoleum is a rapidly renewable product. Sold primarily
as a sheet good, linoleum tiles are available, but are prone to corners lifting. A proper top-coat is required to protect
linoleum and provide a durable, stain-resistant product. Linoleum is a very long-lasting product, but requires
occasional refinishing.

Vinyl vs Linoleum -- It is important to note that vinyl and linoleum have historically been used interchangeably. A
linoleum product that contains vinyl chloride is not a natural product.

Flooring Adhesives
The flooring manufacture's recommended adhesives should always be used. Most manufacturers are providing low-
VOC products to prevent fumes from off-gassing into the building and environment. Unfortunately, these low-VOC
products can be less "sticky" than traditional adhesives so it is very important to follow all recommendations for
preparation of the substrate.

Some tile goods come with peel-and-stick backings that do not require additional adhesives, which are ideal for the
do-it-yourself homeowner.

Flooring - Terrazzo
Terrazzo is a solid flooring material made with chips of marble or other stone pieces set in a cementitious or resinous
binder. After the terrazzo has cured, it is ground and polished to a shiny and durable finish.

Types of Terrazzo - Aesthetic Appearance

Standard Terrazzo is made from relatively small stone chips and is typically ground and polished.

Venetian Terrazzo is also ground and polished, however the stone chips are larger in size. The larger chips can also
be infilled with smaller chips.

Rustic Terrazzo is a uniformly textured finish where the binder is recessed from the chips. To accomplish this, the
surface is sprayed before the binder fully sets, which slightly exposes the stone chips.
Palladiana Terrazzo is more of a mosaic finish where very large chips (or slabs) of stone are set with the joints
between slabs infilled with standard terrazzo.

There are a number of terrazzo systems that can be used. The diagrams below show the main types of systems.
While the type of terrazzo is selected for its physical appearance, the terrazzo system is selected based on
construction technique and the project conditions.

Thin-set Terrazzo

Thin-set Terrazzo is a 1/4" or 3/8" thick resinous topping that is directly applied over a sub-floor. Typically the sub-
floor is concrete due to its stability; however, plywood floors may also be used if they are properly installed. Usually,
the resin is epoxy, but polyacrylate is a common alternative. A flexible membrane may be installed between the sub-
floor and the terrazzo finish so that minor cracks from the sub-floor are not translated to the finish flooring. Zinc,
brass, or plastic dividers must be installed above any control joints in the sub-floor so that the terrazzo finish does not
crack along the joints.

Thin-set Terrazzo Composition (from bottom): Sub-floor (typically concrete or plywood) -- 1/4" or 3/8" terrazzo
finish.

Monolithic Terrazzo

Monolithic Terrazzo is a 1/2" thick cementitious finish applied directly over a concrete sub-floor. When the sub-floor
is very smooth a bonding agent is required so the terrazzo finish properly adheres to the concrete. The flatness and
general quality of the concrete sub-floor is critical in preventing the terrazzo from cracking. Monolithic terrazzo is
generally recommended for slab-on-grade applications because typical above grade floors are prone to deflecting,
which causes cracks in the terrazzo finish. As with thin-set systems, monolithic systems require dividers at all control
joints in the concrete sub-floor.

Monolithic Terrazzo Composition (from bottom): Concrete slab -- Bonding agent when required -- 1/2" terrazzo
finish.

Bonded Terrazzo
Bonded Terrazzo is a 1/2" thick cementitious finish applied over a sand-cement mortar underbed, which sits on a
finished concrete slab. The advantage of a bonded terrazzo system over a monolithic system is that the sand-cement
underbed easily accommodates variations in the concrete slab; therefore, the quality of the slab is not as critical.
However, due to the thickness of the mortar underbed, a slab depression of 1.75" to 2.5" is required. Dividers are
required at all control joints in the concrete slab. Bonded terrazzo systems are acceptable for use indoors and
outdoors.

Bonded Terrazzo Composition (from bottom): Rough-finished concrete slab -- Mortar underbed -- 1/2" terrazzo
finish.

Sand Cushion Terrazzo

Sand Cushion Terrazzo is a 1/2" cementitious terrazzo finish that sits on a mesh reinforced mortar underbed, which
is separated from the sub-floor by a isolation sheet. A sand cushion terrazzo floor is the ideal system for a floor where
deflection or movement is anticipated. However, due to the thickness of the system a slab depression of 2.5" to 3" is
required. Dividers at approximately 5'-0" on center are still required to help offset any expansion or contraction of the
terrazzo finish. The isolation sheet and mesh reinforced mortar underbed will absorb most of the sub-floor
imperfections so that they are not telegraphed to the finished terrazzo.

Sand Cushion Terrazzo Composition (from bottom): Plywood or concrete sub-floor -- Thin layer of sand --
Isolation sheet -- Sand-cement underbed with mesh reinforcement -- 1/2" terrazzo finish.

Suspended Ceilings - Acoustic Ceiling Tiles

One type of suspended ceiling is made up of Acoustic Ceiling Tiles (ACT) and a stick-built grid system. Sometimes
called a lay-in ceiling, this type of system is versatile, durable, and cost effective. In addition, the ceiling tiles can be
removed without damage to the system so that above ceiling items can be maintained. Seen throughout many
commercial and institutional buildings, ACT is a popular ceiling material that now has a wide variety of aesthetic
options.

Suspended Acoustic Ceiling Components

The diagram below identifies the major components of a suspended lay-in ceiling. The continuous main beam
Tshapes are suspended from the structure above by hanger wires. Shorter cross T segments connect to the main
beam T shapes to make a rigid frame. Edge molding shapes are attached to the walls around the perimeter of the
room. Finally, ceiling tiles are dropped into the grid to finish the ceiling.

Ceiling Grid T Shapes

The most commonly used T shapes are 15/16" wide; however, 9/16" wide T shapes are becoming more common.
Suspended ceiling manufacturers also make a variety of shapes that offer aesthetic options to the designer. A
stepped T shape is often used with tegular tiles to provide a more ceiling with more depth. A reveal T shape provides
a notch along the length of the grid that makes the T shapes recede more than a typical T shape.
There are two common edge moldings used to terminate a ceiling grid at a wall. The standard shape is the Angle
Molding. Also available is a Shadow Molding, which creates a shadow line along the edge of the room. Manufacturers
also provide their own series of edge molding shapes.

Ceiling Tile Materials and Design

Ceiling tiles come in an infinite variety of textures and designs. Most ceiling tiles are made from mineral fiber, but
other materials are available, such as fiberglass. Mineral fiber tiles typically have a high Noise Reduction Coefficient
(NRC), which means they are good at absorbing sound within a space to prevent echo or loud environments. While
some tiles have a high Ceiling Attenuation Class (CAC), meaning they prevent sound from passing through the
ceiling to another space, acoustic ceiling tiles are generally not used to provide privacy between spaces.

In addition to tile material, there are a wide variety of designs available. Tiles may have a rough appearance or a
smooth appearance. Tiles may also have designs imprinted in them or other patterns scored into the tile. There are a
few edge options that are typical, as shown below.
Ceiling Tile Sizes
Ceiling tiles come in a wide variety of shapes and sizes. In addition to the standard tiles, custom tiles are available
from most manufacturers. Ceiling tiles can be made in virtually any shape. Standard sizes are listed below in inches.

12" x 12" 12" x 24" 24" x 24"

24" x 24" 24" x 48" 24" x 60"

24" x 72" 30" x 30" 20" x 60"

30" x 60" 60" x 60" 48" x 48"

Seismic Considerations
For suspended ceilings in seismic zones, special considerations must be made. Some of these considerations
include wider edge moldings, limits on size of ceiling or weight of ceiling, additional attachment requirements,
additional bracing requirements, and additional inspection requirements.

Refer to to the codes of your jurisdiction for more detailed information.