THE QUR'ANIC PRINCIPLES OF PEACEFUL CO-EXISTENCE

By
Dr. Muhammad Tanko Aliyu
mtaliyu@nsuk.edu.ng
Dr. Mrs. Sa’adatu Hassan Liman
saaliman70@gmail.com
Dr. Abdullahi Adamu Sulaiman
aburuqayyah@nsuk.edu.ng

Department of Islamic Studies

Nasarawa State University, Keffi

ABSTRACT

The Qur’an being Allah’s final message to humanity has provided comprehensive guide for
mankind which if judiciously followed, human relations shall witness but progress and
development. Allah has created human being with variegations in thoughts, physical and
geographical conditions in order to recognize one another and develop their environments
according to their abilities. But these differences need to be managed with sagacity to maintain
balance and mutual relationship among human beings. In order to avoid communal clashes,
mutual suspect, anarchy and unjustifiable wars among people of divergent religious, ethnic,
racial and professional affiliations, which are unfortunately recurrent in human history and the
contemporary world, Allah had sent divine guidance for peaceful co-existence. This article
delves through inductive study into the Qur’an to infer principles of peaceful co-existence. It
found that: Freedom of religion, justice, and tolerance, equality of mankind, mutual respect,
dialogue, reconciliation, inter-marriage (between some of them) and approval of propagation as
the only lawful means of religious conversion are the enshrined principles of peaceful co-
existence. The article concludes that these principles are the ingredients for security and
sustainable development in any given society and recommends practical ways of adopting them
in the modern world.

INTRODUCTION

Human beings are created from a single pair of Adam and Eve. But they are diverse in physical
disposition, mental strength, beliefs and inclinations. This is because of the fact that the
component of the first man was complex. The Prophet of Islam told us that “Allah created Adam
from a handful that He took from all the earth. So the sons of Adam came in accordance with
the earth, there are red, white, black, and some in between, smooth and rough, bad and good"
(Abu Dawud 5:205 No. 4693). This complexity does not only reflect in the physical
heterogeneity as explained by this Hadith. It is also manifested the diversity of religious and
cultural values and norms among human being as it is categorically mentioned in Qur’an 64:2.

1
This diversity makes any human gathering liable to conflict. And as such the Allah had provided
guidance for conflict resolution and management. This guidance contained in the manual sent to
Prophets and Messengers of Allah through the ages; which was culminated in the Last and Final
Prophet’s message; the Qur’an. Allah says:

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Mankind was one single nation, and Allah sent Messengers with glad tidings and
warnings; and with them He sent the Book in truth, to judge between people in
matters wherein they differed; but the People of the Book, after the clear Signs
came to them, did not differ among themselves, except through selfish contumacy.
Allah by His Grace Guided the believers to the Truth, concerning that wherein
they differed; For Allah guided whom He will to a path that is straight (Qur’an 2: 213).

The Qur’an therefore contained perfect guidance for judgment between people when they differ
so that they live in peace. It has also provided principles for sustaining peaceful co-existence
among people of conflicting and divergent ideas, cultures and religions.

This paper uncovers these principles through an inductive and thematic study of the Qur’an. If
these principles are fully comprehended by the Muslims and put into practical implementation
without hindrance, peace shall reign in the world and the era of ethno-religious, socio-political,
socio-economic and gender related crises shall come to an end.

DEFINITION OF CONCEPTS:

The Concepts that requires definition in order to guide the reader are the key words of the article
themselves. These include the Qur’an, peaceful co-existence and the Qur’anic Principles.

The Qur’an

The Qur’an is the Book of Allah which was revealed to Prophet Muhammad (pbuh) for the
guidance of mankind. It is the final Book of revelation and the only existing one that maintains
its purity and originality. According to Abdul Ati, the authenticity of the Qur’an leaves no doubt
as to the purity, originality and totality of its text. Serious Scholars, Muslims and Non-Muslims
alike, have concluded, beyond doubt, that the Qur’an we use today is the very same Book which
Muhammad (pbuh) received, taught, lived by and bequeathed to humanity almost fourteen
centuries ago (Abdul Ati 376). Its guidance is comprehensive as it affects human being as a
whole in all spheres of his endeavor and for all periods to eternity. It has declared itself as
“guidance for mankind” (2: 185) and a criterion that serves as admonition to all creatures (25:1).

2
The Qur’an, to the Muslim believer, is guidance, comfort and beauty. It is all that and more. It is
the heartbeat of faith, a remembrance in times of joy and anguish, a fountain of precise scientific
reality and the most exquisite lyricism, a treasury of wisdom and supplications (A’zami 3). It is
the primary source of religion, governance, politics, and economy, personal, internal, national
and international affairs.

Peaceful Co-existence

This is a concept comprising two words. It is appropriate to understand them as separate words
before defining the concept. Peaceful is an adjective describing a person or condition
characterized by peace (Webster’s Dictionary of English Usage 722). Peace is the state of
harmonious relations, general security of public places, absence of war, mental stress and
anxiety.The manifestations of peace include: Absence of individual and public fear, sorrow,
misery, grief, anxiety, and war, and the prevalence of harmony, mutual cooperation, tolerance
and respect among various human groups and nationalities.

Peace is achieved through sincere acknowledgement of people's rights and their freedom to use
them as well as sincere and utmost discharge of individual and collective responsibilities of
people as provided in Just laws with fear of Allah.

Co-existence denotes the state of being together in the same place at the same time (Hornby
212). Peaceful co-existence is, therefore, living together of a people in harmony, mutual
understanding and cooperation.

Qur’anic Principles

A principle is a general law a rule or a theory that something is based on (Hornby 925) or a rule
concerning the function of a complex system (WordWeb Dictionary). A Qur’anic Principle is
any Qur’an law concerning the function any complex system. The Qur’anic principles of
peaceful co-existence are, therefore, ‘the commandments of the Qur’an concerning peaceful co-
existence. The prescriptions and proscriptions that are aimed at fostering harmonious relations
and mutual cooperation between people of different religious, ethnical and cultural backgrounds,
living in the same or different parts of the world.

PRINCIPLES OF PEACEFUL CO-EXISTENCE

1. Diversity of Religion is a Divine Degree of Allah

The Qur’an has declared in several verses that Allah has destined that human being are different
in religious affiliations and shall continue to remain so to eternity. It is a divine decree that
cannot change. No Muslim can object Allah’s decree in His creation. It is an article of faith in
Islam to believe in Allah’s cosmic decrees as unchangeable and eternal. The Qur’an declared that
Allah:

3
 ٢ :‫ اﻟﺘﻐﺎﺑﻦ‬L A @ ? > = <; : 9 8 7 6 5M

It is He Who has created you; and of you are some that are Unbelievers, and
some that are Believers: and Allah sees well all that ye do. (64:2)

Allah also says:

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If thy Lord had so willed, He could have made mankind one people: but they will
not cease to dispute (11:118).

On a third note, the Qur’an addresses the believers, thus:

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Do not the Believers know, that, had Allah (so) willed, He could have guided all
mankind (to the right)? (13:31)

All these imply that truth and falsehood, valid and invalid religions shall co-exist in the world,
and as such, Muslims are not requested to work for complete eradication of falsehood. But rather
manage it so that it does not overcome and overshadow them and their right way (Qur'an 2:193,
9: 39, 109:6) If this is appreciated, peaceful struggle would ensue between the different religions
except where the use of force becomes necessary, and that also, to maintain peace.

2. Freedom of Religion as a Fundamental Human Right

The Qur’an has established freedom of beliefs as a fundamental human right.It has explained the
right religion with Allah to be Islam (3:19, 5:3) and cautioned against fake and corrupted religion
and then gives man a complete freedom to choose. Allah says:

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٥ – ٢ :‫اﻹﻧﺴﺎن‬L Ü Û Ú Ù Ø × Ö Õ Ô Ó Ò Ñ Ð Ï

Verily We created Man from a drop of mingled sperm, in order to try him: So
We gave him(the gifts), of Hearing and Sight.We showed him the Way: whether he
be grateful orungrateful (rests on his will).For the Rejecters we have prepared chains,
yokes, and a Blazing Fire. As to the Righteous, they shall drink of a Cup (of Wine)
mixed with Kafur ... (76:2-5)

The Qur’an also expresses the man freewill to choose his belief in the following categorical
statement;

4
 ٢٩ :‫اﻟﻜﮭﻒ‬LML K J I H G FE D C B M

Say, “The truth is from your Lord”: Let him who willbelieve, and let him who will,
reject (it) (17:29)

And to ensure that this freedom is guaranteed, the Qur’an made its ‘universal declaration’ that:

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٢٥٦ :‫اﻟﺒﻘﺮة‬L ì ë

Let there be no compulsion in religion: Truthstands out clear from Error: whoever
rejects evil andbelieves in Allah hath grasped the most trustworthyhand-hold, that
never breaks. And Allah hearethand knoweth all things (2:257).

Compulsion is incompaible with religion. This is because of three clear facts:

(1) Religion depends uponfaith and will, and these would be meaningless if induced by
force;(2) Truth andError have been so clearly shown up by the mercy ofAllah that there
should beno doubt in the minds of any persons of good will as to the fundamentals of
faith; (٣)Allah's protection is continuous, and His Plan is always to lead us from
thedepths of darkness into the clearest light (Ali 97).

The Qur’an further prohibited forced conversion from or to Islam. In address to the Prophet of
Islam we find the following verses:

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So, (O Prophet,) keep on preaching; you are only a preacher. You are not a taskmaster set
up over them (88:21-22).

٤٨ :‫اﻟﺸﻮرى‬Lsr q p o nm l k j i h M

If then they run away, We have not sent thee as a guard over them (42:48).

PO N M L K J I H G F E D C B A @? > = < ; : 9 8 7 M

١٠٠ - ٩٩ :‫ﯾﻮﻧﺲ‬L W V U T S R Q

If it had been thy Lord´s will, they would all have believed,- all who are on earth!
Will you then compel mankind, against their will, to believe! No soul can believe,
except by the will of Allah, and He will place Doubt (or obscurity) on those who
will not understand (10:99-100).

5
To buttress the freedom of belief further, the Qur’an regards peaceful propagation as the only
legitimate means of invitation to Islam. It commands thus:

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١٢٥ :‫اﻟﻨﺤﻞ‬L ± °

Invite (all) to the Way of thy Lord with wisdom and beautiful preaching; and argue with
them in ways that are best and most gracious: for thy Lord knows best, who have
strayed from His Path, and who receive guidance (16:125).

If the principle of no compulsion in religion is adhered to, religious preaching-especially by the

Muslims, whether amongst them or between them and others- would be, not dogmatic, not self-
regarding, not offensive, but gentle, considerate, and such as would attractthe audience’
attention.

In the words of Ali:

Our manner and our arguments should not be acrimonious, butmodelled on the most
courteous and the most gracious example, so that thehearer may say to himself,
"This man is not dealing merely with dialectics; he isnot trying to get a rise out of me; he
is sincerelyexpounding the faith that is inhim, and his motive is the love of man and the
loveof Allah” (Ali 569).

If Da’wah is carried out in this mannaer, peaceful co-existence shall permeate religious
communities to witness but little or no sviolence. It is in recogntion of this principle that many
Muslim scholars hold to the opinion that peace is the basis of relation between Muslims and
Non-Muslims (Al-Qaradwi 255-427). It is also based on this principle that the protection of
peaceful non-Muslim citizensis regarded as aduty on the Islamic State.

Confirming this Qur’anic principle, Ibn ‘Ashur said:

Were it not because freedom of belief is one of the fundamentals of the Shari’ah, the
punishment for the miscreant who conceals unbelief and shows belief would not have
been such that his repentance should not be accepted by God, for he has no excuse in
doing so (160).

3. Equality of All Mankind in the World

The Glorious Qur’an informed us that human being has a single origin despite their differences
in race, colour, language and geographical locations. It says:

6
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١ :‫اﻟﻨﺴﺎء‬L ? > =

O mankind! Reverence your Guardian-Lord, who created you from a single person,
created, of like nature, his mate, and from them twain scattered (like seeds) countless
men and women; -reverence Allah ،through whom you demand your mutual (rights) and
(reverence) the wombs (that bore you): for Allah ever watches over you (4:1)

This unity of origin is repeated in Qur’an 6:97, 7: 189 and 39: 6 to emphasize the import of the
verse quoted above, that is, you are all equal and you should respect your relationship as
descendants of single parents. This calls for mutual respect and understanding among people,
thereby fostering peaceful co-existence. In a related verse, Allah explains that the differences are
made to serve as signs of Allah’s glory (Qur’an 30:22). For despite the differences in countries
and climates, languages and complexions, they feel in the same way and they are all equally
under Allah’s care (Ali 859)

This equality of men before Allah is also expressed in another plain verse of the Qur’an. It says:

١٣ :‫اﻟﺤﺠﺮات‬L [ Z Y X W VU T S R Q PO N M L K J I H G F E M

O mankind! We created you from a single (pair) of a male and a female, and made you
intonations and tribes, that ye may know each other (not that you may despise each
other). Verily the most honoured of you in the sight of Allah is (he who is) the most
righteous of you. And Allah has full knowledge and is well acquainted (with all things)
(49:13).

Ta’aruf or familiarity between males and females, tribes and nations implies mutual co-existence
of mankind and cooperation between them in arrears where some excel others and where some
are in need of others assistance in order to develop their tribes, languages and nations. No
individual, male or female, no tribe, language, country or complexion is superior to another by
virtue of it being so. And as such they should only learn from one another and teach one another.
None has the right to claim that his peculiar characteristics are better than those of the rest.
According to at-Tabari, Ta’aruf connotes familiarity of nations and tribes with one another in
terms of close or distant relations; their diversity in lineage not a basis for virtue or closeness to
Allah. (9:7548)

The Prophet (SAW) also stressed this equality in a number of statements; two of such may
suffice in this regard. He said:

‫ﻲ ٍ َو َﻻ ِﻷَﺣْ َﻤ َﺮ‬
ّ ِ‫ﻋﻠَﻰ َﻋ َﺮﺑ‬ ّ ِ‫ﻋﻠَﻰ أ َ ْﻋ َﺠﻤ‬
ّ ِ‫ﻲ ٍ َو َﻻ ِﻟﻌَ َﺠﻤ‬
َ ٍ‫ﻲ‬ َ ٍ‫ﻲ‬ ْ َ‫ﺎس أ َ َﻻ إِ ﱠن َرﺑﱠ ُﻜ ْﻢ َواﺣِ ﺪٌ َوإِ ﱠن أَﺑَﺎ ُﻛ ْﻢ َواﺣِ ﺪ ٌ أ َ َﻻ َﻻ ﻓ‬
ّ ِ‫ﻀ َﻞ ِﻟﻌَ َﺮﺑ‬ ُ ‫ﯾَﺎ أَﯾﱡ َﮭﺎ اﻟﻨﱠ‬
‫ﻋﻠَﻰ أَﺣْ َﻤ َﺮ ِإ ﱠﻻ ﺑِﺎﻟﺘ ﱠ ْﻘ َﻮى‬ َ َ‫ﻋﻠَﻰ أَﺳ َْﻮدَ َو َﻻ أَﺳ َْﻮد‬َ

7
 O You Mankind! Indeed your Lord is One and indeed your Ancestor is one. Indeed there
is no virtue for an Arab over a Non-Arab man nor there any virtue for Non-Arab over any
Arab man, nor for red over black nor black over red except through piety (Ahmad 47:48)

He also said:

‫ِﺢ‬
ٍ ‫ﺻﺎﻟ‬ َ ‫ِّﯾﻦ أ َ ْو‬
َ ‫ﻋ َﻤ ٍﻞ‬ ْ َ‫ْﺲ ِﻷ َ َﺣ ٍﺪ ﻓ‬
ِ ‫ﻀ ٌﻞ إِ ﱠﻻ ﺑِﺎﻟﺪ‬ َ ‫ﺎع ﻟَ ْﻢ ﺗ َْﻤﻠَﺌُﻮهُ ﻟَﯿ‬
ِ ‫ﺼ‬‫ﻒ اﻟ ﱠ‬ َ ‫ﻋﻠَﻰ أَ َﺣ ٍﺪ َوإِﻧﱠ َﻤﺎ أ َ ْﻧﺘ ُ ْﻢ َوﻟَﺪ ُ آد َ َم‬
‫ط ﱡ‬ َ ‫ب‬
ٍ ‫ﺖ ﺑِ ِﺴﺒَﺎ‬ َ ‫إِ ﱠن أ َ ْﻧ‬
َ ‫ﺴﺎﺑَ ُﻜ ْﻢ َھ ِﺬ ِه ﻟَ ْﯿ‬
ْ ‫ﺴ‬

Indeed these your lineages are not a curse against any of you. You are all children of Adam,
equals of one another. None of you has any inherent virtue except through religious
consciousness or righteous deed (Ahmad 35:185)

Finally, the Qur’an told us that Allah has honoured mankind and placed him above many of His
creatures (17:70). It is therefore godly and humane to co-exist peacefully with peaceful human
beings.

4. Justice in Treatment of both Muslims and Non-Muslims

The notion of equality between mankind implies that they are treated equally before the law
regardless of their religious, cultural and geographical identities. Thus, the Qur’an commands
fairness and justice to all in worldly relations, even at the period of hostilities. It says:

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٨ :‫اﻟﻤﺎﺋﺪة‬L ¹ ¸ ¶ µ ´ ³ ²± °

O you who believe! stand out firmly for Allah, as witnesses to fair dealing, and let
not the hatred of others to you make you swerve to wrong and depart from justice. Be
just: that is next to piety and fear Allah. For Allah is well-acquainted with all that you do
(5:8)

This principle is practiced in a spectacular case during the time of Prophet Muhammad (pbuh)
when a weak-faithed Muslim stole a cloak and plotted to escape by accusing a Jew. The clan of
the thief came to argue for him claiming that he was a good Muslim and requesting the
intervention of the Prophet. The Qur’an was immediately revealed to exonerate the Jew. Allah
says:

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8
 Surely, We have revealed to you the Book with the truth, so that you may judge between
people according to what Allah has shown you. Do not be an advocate for those who
breach trust. Seek forgiveness from Allah. Surely, Allah is All-Forgiving, Very-Merciful.
Do not argue on behalf of those who betray themselves. Surely, Allah does not like
anyone who is a sinful betrayer .They feel shy before people, but do not feel shy before
Allah. He (Allah) is with them when they make plans at night to give a statement He
(Allah) does not like. Allah encompasses whatever they do. Look, this is what you are!
You have argued for them in the worldly life, but who shall argue for them with Allah on
the Day of Judgement, or who shall be their defender? (5:105-109).

5. Dialogue as the most effective means of Conflict Resolution

Dialogue is a frank exchange of ideas or views on a specific issue in an effort to attain mutual
understanding (Webster Reference Dictionary). According to Bidmos (4), it connotes “an
exchange of ideas in which the participants make proportionately equal contributions”. The
Qur’an is full of dialogue with non- Muslims and especially the people of the Book; Jews and
Christians. It has commanded the believers to use dialogue in resolving ideological conflicts
between them and other religious groups. It says:

P O N M L K J I H G F E D C B A @ ? > = < ; :M

٦٤ :‫ آل ﻋﻤﺮان‬L Z Y X W V U T SR Q

Say: "O People of the Book! come to common terms as between us and you: That
we worship none but Allah. That we associate no partners with him; that we erect not,
from among ourselves, Lords and patrons other than Allah. If then they turn back, say
you: "Bear witness that we (at least) are Muslims (bowing to Allah’s Will) (3:64).

The Qur’an also instructed that dialogue must be conducted in an atmosphere of mutual respect
and through ways that are best and most gracious (16: 125). It says concerning inter-religious
dialogue:

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٤٦ :‫ اﻟﻌﻨﻜﺒﻮت‬L < ; : 9 8

And dispute ye not with the People of the Book except with means better (than
mere disputation), unless it be with those of them who inflict wrong (and injury):
but say, "We believe in the revelation which has come down to us and in that
which came down to you; Our Allah and your Allah is one; and it is to Him we
bow (in Islam)." (29:46)

9
Commenting on the verse Ali postulates that mere disputations are futile. In order to achieve
our purpose as true standard-bearers for Allah, we shall have to find true common grounds of
belief, as stated in the latter part of this verse, and also to show by our urbanity,
kindness, sincerity, truth, and genuine anxiety, for the good of others, that we are not cranks or
merely seeking selfish or questionable aims.

If this principle is adopted between and among all religious groups, their peaceful co-existence is
guaranteed.

6. Permissibility of Inter-Personal Relations with Non-Muslim

Another Qur’anic principle that is meant to foster peaceful co-existence is the permissibility of
inter-marriage between Muslim males and non-Muslim (Jewish and Christian) females. This
implies harmonious relations, mutual understanding and cooperation between the couples’
families. The Qur’an says:

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Ù Ø × Ö Õ Ô Ó Ò Ñ Ð Ï ÎÍ Ì Ë Ê É È Ç Æ Å Ä

٥ :‫ اﳌﺎﺋﺪة‬L Ú

This day are (all) things good and pure made lawful unto you. The food of the
People of the Book is lawful unto you and yours is lawful unto them. (Lawful unto you
in marriage) are (not only) chaste women who are believers, but chaste women
among the People of the Book, revealed before your time-, when ye give them
their due dowers, and desire chastity, not lewdness, nor secret intrigues if anyone
rejects faith, fruitless is his work, and in the Hereafter he will be in the ranks of
those who have lost (all spiritual good) (5:5).

7. Maintaining the Kinship of Peaceful Relatives Regardless of Religious Affiliation

It is a general principle in the Qur’an that Muslims should be kind to all people (Qur’an 2: 83).
This is because of the fact that despite their diversity they are bound by a universal brotherhood
having stemmed from a single pair of parents; Adam and Hauwa. This remote kinship should be
maintained in one way or the other (Qur’an 3: 1). Moreover, the Qur’an is more emphatic on the
close relationships of lineage and marriage; it has commanded good treatment of kith and kin
without any recourse to their religious background and regarded kindness to them as duty of
righteousness on the Muslims (Qur’an 2:177, 4:37, 16:90).

In relation to parents the Qur’an consistently commanded the Muslim to be kind, humble and
peaceful with them even when they are hostile to his commitment to Islam. It instructed thus:

10
 [ Z Y X W V U T S R Q P O N M L K J I H G FM

v u t s r q po n m l k ji h g f ed c b a ` _ ^ ] \

١٥ - ١٤ :‫ ﻟﻘﻤﺎن‬L x w

And We have enjoined on man (to be good) to his parents: in travail upon travail
did his mother bear him, and in years twain was his weaning: (hear the command),
"Show gratitude to Me and to thy parents: to Me is (thy final) Goal". But if they
strive to make thee join in worship with Me things of which thou hast no
knowledge, obey them not; yet bear them company in this life with justice (and
consideration), and follow the way of those who turn to me (in love): in the end
the return of you all is to Me, and I will tell you the truth (and meaning) of all that
ye did" (Qur’an 31:14-15)

Peace must be maintained with parents and relatives even when the struggle to convert a Muslim
to polytheism. He should also struggle with them to maintain his faith, but still, peacefully. It
follows that the same treatment should be observed with uncles and aunties who are, according
to Islam, parents to their nephews and nieces (Al-Bukhari 5:338).

RECOMMENDATIONS

The foregoing are some Qur’anic principles for peaceful co-existence among mankind on the
earth. They are perfect principles that need sincere and diligent implementation to bring about
sustainable harmony and cordial relationship among people across religious, cultural, national
and international divides.

a. Peace and dialogue as enshrined in Islam should form part of school syllabus to be taught
at all levels of education to Muslim children by competent Islamic scholars;
b. All religious bodies and especially national umbrella bodies should train their officials on
methods of religious and inter-faith dialogue;
c. Inter-faith dialogue and peace mission committee should be formed within religious
bodies for resolution of intra-faith disputes and inter-religious and cultural conflicts;
d. Periodic seminar sessions and conferences should be organized on peaceful co-existence
and the resolutions and communiqués should be spread widely and implemented with
sincerity and due diligence.
e. Government should establish an inter-faith committee under a ministry or directorate of
religious affairs with an all-inclusive membership of competent representatives of
religious bodies and empower them with relevant laws to implement resolutions of
peaceful co-existence in the society.

CONCLUSION

11
It is natural to differ but satanic to refuse to identify the extent and nature of the difference for
proper management of conflict. It is divine to identify common terms and cooperate to achieve
common goals. We must acknowledge our differences and tolerate one another to live in peace.
Religion, especially Islam had forbidden all types of bigotry and mischief against fellow human
beings and recognizes freedom of religion as a fundamental human right the must be guaranteed
to all Muslims and by all Muslims. All sources of discord and unrest in the society are
downplayed through relevant principles of peaceful co-existence enshrined in the Qur’an.

The international community needs to consider religious teachings and implement them with
sincerity to foster peace and mutual cooperation and understanding in the comity of nations.

WORKS CITED

A’zami, M. M., The History of the Qur’anic Text from Revelation to Compilation, Leicester: UK
Islamic Academy, ND.

Abd Al-‘Ati, H., Islam in Focus, Cairo: Al-Falah Foundation, 1424/2003

Abu Dawud, S. A., Sunan Abu Dawud, translated by YaserQadhi, Riyadh: Darus Salam, 2008.

Ahmad, Ibn Hambal, Musnad Imam Ahmad, http://www.al-islam.com

Al-Bukhari, M. I., Sahih al-Bukhari, trans. M. M. Khan, Riyad: Darus Salam, 1997.

Ali, A. Y., Modern English Translation of the Qur’an, Meanings and Commentary, Kansas City:
Manar International Corp. 2001.

Bidmos, M. A., Inter-Religious Dialogue: The Nigerian Experience, Abuja: Penaf Publishing
Inc. 2nd Edition, 2006.

Hornby, A. S., Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary of Current English. New York: Oxford
University Press, 6th Edition, 2000.

Ibn Ashur, M. T., Ibn Ashur’s Treatease on Maqasid al- Shari’ah, trans. M. E. El-Mesawi,
London: IIIT, 2006.

Tabari, M. J., Jami’ul Bayan 'an Ta’wili Ayi al-Qur’an, Cairo: Mu’assat al-Risalah, 2000.

Webster Publishers, Webster Dictionary of English Usage, Massacusetts: Merriam – Webster

Inc. Publishers, 1989.

---, Webster Reference Dictionary, downloaded from wordweb.info.

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