Etl 1110-2-510

-**•
S-29 June 1984
DEPARTMENT OF THE ARMY EC 1110-2-510

DAEN-ECE-D U.S. Army Corps of Engineers
DAEN-ECE-G Washington, DC 20314
Engineer Circular
No. 1110-2-510 31 August 1983
EXPIRES 30 JUNE 1984

Engineering and Design
DRAFT OF ENGINEER MANUAL, RETAINING AND FLOOD WALLS
1. Purpose. This circular is to distribute a draft Engineer Manual

1110-2-XXXX, Retaining and Flood Walls, for interim guidance and review
comments.
2. Applicability. This circular applies to all field operating

activities having civil works responsibilities.
3. Discussion. This draft EM provides guidance for the design and

analysis of retaining walls and flood walls of the gravity, reinforced
LU
concrete and sheet pile types. The draft EM combines EM 1110-2-2501, (0
Flood Walls, and EM 1110-2-2502, Retaining Walls, into one manual.
4. Action Required. A review of the draft EM should be made by all

z
LU
applicable division and district design offices as well as applicable
construction and operations elements. District comments are to be sent Q.
to their respective division office. Division offices will review all
comments and forward them with their additional comments to CO
CDR USAGE (DAEN-ECE-DS) WASH DC 20314 by 29 June 1984. RCS exempt:
AR 335-15, paragraph 5-2g.
FOR THE COMMANDER:
•*.
1 Appendix ROBERT H. RYAN
APP A - Draft EM Colonel, Corps of Engineers
Executive Director
Directorate of Engineering &
Construction
»
APPENDIX A
DEPARTMENT OF THE ARMY EC 1110-2-510

DAEN-ECE-D U.S. Army Corps of Engineers 31 Aug 83
%
DAEN-ECE-6 Washington, D.C. 20314
Engineer Manual
No. 1110-2-XXXX DRAFT
Engineering and Design
RETAINING AND FLOOD WALLS
Table of Contents
Subject Paragraph Page
CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION
Purpose 1-1
Applicability 1-2
References 1-3
Scope 1-4
Terminology 1-5
CHAPTER 2. GENERAL DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
0 Section I. Types of Retaining Walls

General
Gravity Concrete Wall
2-1
2-2
2-1
2-1
Cantilever Reinforced Concrete
Wall 2-3 2-1
Sheet Pile Walls 2-4 2-1
Section II Types of Flood Walls

General , 2-5 2-3
T-Type Wall 2-6 2-3
Cantilever I-Type Wall , 2-7 2-3
Other Types of Flood Walls . . . . 2-8 2-3
Section III Differences between Retaining and

Flood Walls
Purpose of Walls , 2-9 2-3
Seepage and Leakage Control
Requirements 2-10 2-6
Wall Stability 2-11 2-6
Special Monoliths 2-12 2-6
Design Philosophy 2-13 2-6
0 DRAFT
V *
EC 1110-2-510
31 Aug 83
Section IV. Coordination between
Disciplines
Stability Considerations 2-14 2-6
Coordination ...... . 2-15 2-7
Section V. Foundation Infestigation and Laboratory
Testing
General............... 2-16 2-7
Field Investigation. ........ 2-17 2-7
Sampling ...... . . 2-18 2-7
Strength Testing . . 2-19 2-8
Design Strengths
Section VL Strength Reduction Factors
General. 2-21 2-8

CHAPTER 3. FORCES ON WALLS
Section 1. Lateral Earth Pressures
General. .............. 3-1 3-1
Single Wedge Equation. 3-2 3-1
Strength Reduction Factor 3-3 3-1
Wedge Geometry 3-4 3-5
Critical Value of Slip
Plane Angle. 3-5 3-8
Line of Action of Lateral Forces . . 3-i 3-12
Lateral Pressure Distribution. ... 3-7 3-14
Wedge Analysis in Layered Soil . . . 3-8 3-14
Irregular Backfill Configurations. . 3-9 3-14
Section II. Water Pressures
General. .............. 3-10 3-17
Seepage Analysis by Line
of Seepage Method 3-11 3-17
Seepage Analysis by Method
of Fragments 3-12 3-17
Surge and Wave Loads ........... 3-13 3-21
Section III, Supplemental Forces
Wind Loads 3-14 3-24
Lateral Earthquake Forces ..... 3-15 3-25
ii
•j
EC 1110-2-510
31 Aug 83
CHAPTER 4. STRUCTURAL STABILITY
Section I. Loading Cases

General 4-1 4-1
Retaining Walls 4-2 4-1
Inland Flood Walls 4-3 4-1
Coastal Flood Walls 4-4 4-2
Section II. Stability Requirements

General 4-5 4-2
Stability Criteria 4-6 4-3
Section III. Overturning Stability

Resultant Location 4-7 4-3
Criteria 4-8 4-3
Section IV. Sliding Equilibrium

Analysis Model 4-9 4-3
Introduction to Analysis Procedure . 4-10 4-3
Sliding Analysis for Design 4-11 4-9
Sliding Analysis for Investigation . 4-12 4-9
Basic Concept, Assumptions and
Simplifications 4-13 4-15
Design Considerations 4-14 4-16
Section V. Base Pressures
Computation of Base Pressures. ... 4-15 4-17
Allowable Base Pressures 4-16 4-18
CHAPTER 5. FOUNDATION ANALYSES

Section I. Bearing Capacity of Wall Foundations
General 5-1 5-1
General Bearing Capacity Equation. . 5-2 5-1
Bearing Capacity Factors 5-3 5-2
Embedment Factors 5-4 5-2
Inclination Factors. . 5-5 5-2
Base Tilt Factors 5-6 5-4
Ground Slope Factors 5-7 5-4
Effective Overburden Pressure. . . . 5-8 5-5
Example 5-9 5-5
Section II. Settlement

General 5-10 5-5
m
EC 1110-2-510
31 Aug 83
Section III. Deep Seated Sliding

General 5-11 5-5
CHAPTER 6. DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION DETAILS
Foundation Preparation 6-1 6-1

Concrete Mix Design 6-2 6-1
Constructability 6-3 6-1
Joints 6-4 6-1
Backfilling 6-5 6-3
CHAPTER 7. SPECIAL CONSIDERATIONS FOR FLOOD WALLS

Section 1. General
Introduction 7-1 7-1
Background Behind Loading Cases. . . 7-2 7-1
Section II. Seepage Control

General 7-3 7-2
Underseepage Control 7-4 7-2
Choice of Seepage Control Measures . 7-5 7-10
Section III. Foundation Considerations

Base Types 7-6 7-10
Unsuitable Foundation Material
and Overbank Fills 7-7 7-11
Scour Protection 7-8 7-11
Section IV. Types of Monoliths

Change of-Alignment Monoliths. . . . 7-9 7-14
Closure and Abutment Monoliths . . . 7-10 7-14
Drainage Structure Monoliths .... 7-11 7-14
Transition Section Between Flood
Walls and Levees 7-12 7-14
Section V. Waterstops and Joints

Waterstops 7-13 7-18
Contraction and Expansion Joints . . 7-14 7-18
Section VI. Site Considerations

Adjacent Structures and Rights-of-
Way 7-15 7-18
Architectural and Landscaping
Considerations 7-16 7-19
IV
/
EC 1110-2-510
31 Aug 83
Subject
1
Paragraph Page
Section VII. Instrumentation

General .............. 7-17 7-19
Types of Instrumentation. ..... 7-18 7-20
Section VIII. O&M Manual Requirements

General 7-19 7-21
Section IX. Review of Existing Flood Walls

Inspection. ............ 7-20 7-21
Repair Measures .......... 7-21 7-23
CHAPTER 8. GRAVITY CONCRETE WALLS

oenera i . ...... ...•*.. 8-1 8-1
Foundation Investigation. ..... 8-2 8-1
Materials ............. 8-3 8-1
Design. .............. 8-4 8-1
CHAPTER 9. CANTILEVER REINFORCED CONCRETE WALLS

General .............. 9-1 9-1
Foundation Investigation. ..... 9-2 9-1
Materials ............. 9-3 9-1
Reinforcement Cover ........ 9-4 9-1
Load Cases. ..... . . 9-5 9-1
Structural Stability. ....... 9-6 9-1
Reinforced Concrete Design 9-7 9-1
Foundation Analyses ... 9-8 9-15
CHAPTER 10. CANTILEVER SHEET PILE WALLS

General .............. 10-1 10-1
Materials ............. 10-2 10-1
I-Walls .............. 10-3 10-1
Design .............. 10-4 10-2
Foundation Investigation ..... 10-5 10-3
CHAPTER 11. ANCHORED SHEET PILE WALLS

General .............. 11-1 11-1
Materials ............. 11-2 11-1
Design ..............
APPENDIX A. REFERENCES
APPENDIX B. DERIVATION OF EQUATION FOR DEPTH

OF TENSION CRACK
s
EC 1110-2-510
31 Aug 83
APPENDIX C. DERIVATION OF EQUATION FOR SLIP
PLANE ANGLE
APPENDIX D. DETERMINATION OF LINE OF ACTION FOR
HORIZONTAL FORCES
APPENDIX E. DERIVATION OF STRUCTURAL WEDGE
EQUATION
APPENDIX F. DERIVATION OF GENERAL WEDGE
EQUATION
APPENDIX G. CANTILEVER WALL DESIGN
EXAMPLE
APPENDIX H. CANTILEVER WALL INVESTIGATION
EXAMPLE
APPENDIX I. NOTATION - CHAPTERS 3, 4 and 5
APPENDIX J. NOTATION - CHAPTER 9
VI
DRAFT EC 1110-2-510
31 Aug 83
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
1-1. Purpose. The purpose of this manual is to provide guidance for the
safe design and economical construction of retaining walls and flood
walls This manual does not prohibit the use of other methods of analysis
that maintain the same degree of safety and economy as structures designed
by the methods outlined. However, if other methods of analysis are used,
the final design should be checked by the methods outlined herein.
-2. Applicability. This manual applies to all HQUSACE/OCE elements and

1-2.
11 field operating activities having responsibilities for the design of
civil works projects.
1-3. References. References pertaining to this manual are listed in
Appendix A.
1-4. Scope.
a. Types of Walls. This manual presents design guidance for
retaining walls and inland and coastal flood walls.
b. Types of Foundations. This manual describes procedures for the

design of retaining and flood walls on shallow foundations, i.e., bearing
directly on either rock or soil. The substructure design of pile founded
walls is not included.
c. Flood Wall Guidance. A flood wall is treated as a special case
of a retaining wall. Unless specifically noted, the guidance herein
applies to both retaining and flood walls.
d. Geotechnical and Structural Aspects. Both geotechnical and struc¬
tural aspects of design are considered. Coordination between soils and
structural engineers and geologists in the design of retaining and flood
walls is essential.
1-5. Terminology. The following definitions are essential to the use of
this manual.
a. Retaining Wall. Any wall which restrains material to maintain a
difference in elevation.
b. Flood Wall. Any wall having as its principal function the preven¬
tion of flooding of adjacent land.
c. Wedges. Those individual parts of the backfill, structure and

foundation which can be separated into piece-wise linear approximations
of the slip surface.
1-1
V
EC 1110-2-510
31 Aug 83 l-5d
d. Active-type Wedges. Those wedges exerting lateral forces on the

structure that tend to cause movement of the structure.
e. Passive-type Wedges. Those wedges exerting lateral forces on the

structure that tend to resist movement of the structure.
f. Strength Reduction Factor. The coefficient by which the shear

strength of the sliding mass, consisting of the structural and active- and
passive-type wedges, is multiplied to obtain the shear stress needed to
bring the sliding mass into a state of equilibrium along a given set of
slip planes. It is equal to the reciprocal of the safety factor
g. Load Factor. The coefficient by which a load is multiplied to

design structural members by the strength design method.
h. Safety Factor. The factor determined by dividing the total

resisting force or moment by the total applied force or moment.
1-2
DRAFT EC 1110-2-510
31 Aug 83
CHAPTER 2
GENERAL DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS

Section I. Types of Retaining Walls
2-1. General. The most common types of retaining walls are gravity,
cantilever reinforced concrete, and cantilever and anchored sheet pile
walls. These types are covered in the manual and are illustrated in
Figure 2.1. Counterfort and buttressed reinforced concrete walls are
used less commonly and are not included in the manual.
2-2. Gravity Concrete Wall. A gravity wall (Figure 2-1) consists of

mass concrete without reinforcement. It is proportioned so that the
resultant of the forces acting on any internal plane through the wall
falls within, or close to, the kern of the section. A small tensile
capacity is permissible for localized stresses due to extreme and
temporary loading conditions.
2-3. Cantilever Reinforced Concrete Wall. A cantilever reinforced
concrete wall (Figure 2-1) consists of a concrete stem and base slab,
which form an inverted T. The structural members are fully reinforced to
resist applied moments and shears. The base is made as narrow as
possible, but must be wide enough to insure that the wall does not slide,
settle excessively, or exceed the bearing capacity of the foundation.
The toe of the base should be below the zone subject to freezing and
thawing or other seasonal volume changes. This type of wall is usually
more economical and is more widely used than any other type.
2-4. Sheet Pile Walls. Sheet pile walls (Figure 2-1) usually consist of
standard steel or precast prestressed concrete sections.
a. Cantilever Sheet Pile Wall. The cantilever type is used where

the difference in elevation between the fill and the dredge line is
relatively small. Pile embedment below the dredge line must be
sufficient to develop the total resisting force and moment required for
overturning and sliding stability.
b. Anchored Sheet Pile Wall. The anchored type is used where the
difference in elevation between the backfill surface and the dredge line
is large enough to make the use of the cantilever type infeasible. A
tie, anchored to a concrete deadman some distance from the wall, is used
near the top of the wall. The wall acts as a beam overhanging one
support, the tie, with the other support being the depth of embedment
below the dredge line.
2-1
EC 1110-2-510
31 Aug 83
//MrwissiMK ■•>:
jffl.' "• • «* .•
î «' " . '•
1 ••»/.•" A
/ • .•*.•-.:
y\y: .
/ / •#*««'.
/""' - A .. *
fl** '• »' •'
/•• •/•./ v • i^"
/•*."-'* ."'.' \
#v v>....:. ^.1 ^viwr
x^v^ . : .* . , ■ . ■ -^cvvr
^■W:-->.:--:--..-*v:.-.-.*:
GRAVITY CONCRETE CANTILEVER

SHEET
PILING- SHEET PILING
/MWW/ W*#t&/>
n TIE
iy^l
DREDGE
LINE ANCHOR
mJr/
—3W5I N
DREDGE
LINE
//jwkrv
CANTILEVER SHEET PILE ANCHORED SHEET PftE
FIGURE 2-1. TYPES OF RETAINING WALLS

2-2
EC 1110-2-510
2-5 31 Aug 83
Section II. Types of Flood Walls
2-5. General« The most common types of flood walls are T-type walls and
cantilever I-type walls.
2-6. T-Type Wall. Most flood protection walls are of the inverted
T-type (Figure 2-2). The cross bar of the T serves as a base and the
stem serves as the water barrier. When founded on earth, a vertical base
key is sometimes used to increase passive resistence. A key is usually
not included if the wall is founded on rock. When required, the wall can
be supported on piles. A sheet pile cutoff can be included to limit
seepage in a foundation of coarse grained material or for a pile-founded
wall. T-type walls may be provided with a horizontal or sloped base.
These walls are discussed in detail in Chapter 7. The advantages of
sloped and horizontal bases are discussed in paragraph 7-6
2.7. Cantilever I-TypeWall. I-type flood walls consist of driven sheet

piles capped by a concrete wall (Figure 2-2). I-walls are most often
used in connection with levee and T-wall junctions or for protection in
narrow restricted areas where the wall height is not over 10 feet. These
walls are discussed In Chapter 10.
2-8. Other Types of Flood Walls.

a. Braced Sheet Pile Wall. This wall consists of a row of vertical
pre-stressed concrete sheet piles, backed by batter piles connected to
the sheet piles by a cast-in-place horizontal concrete beam (Figure
2-2). This type of wall has been used for coastal flood walls. It is
ideal for wet areas because no excavation or dewatering is required to
construct the wall. The disadvantage is that it does not lend itself to
a rigorous analysis. The design of this wall will not be included in
this draft.
b. Other Types. There are various other types of walls that may be
used for flood walls, such as: buttress, counterfort, gravity, cellular,
and inclined-deck walls (Figure 2-3). These walls will not be further
discussed in this chapter, but details concerning the design of these
walls may be found elsewhere in this manual or in standard textbooks or
trade journals.
Section III. Differences Between Retaining and Flood Walls

2-9. Purpose of Walls. A retaining wall is any wall which retains
material to maintain a change in elevation; whereas, the principle
function of a flood wall is to prevent flooding (inundation) of adjacent
land. It is subject to hydraulic loading on one side which is resisted
by little or no earth loading on the other side.
2-3
EC 1110-2-510
31 Aug 83
SHEET
PILE
HORIZONTAL ftASE KEYED

HORIZONTAL BASE ' SLOPED lASE INTO STROtfrCR SOIL
INVERTED T-TYPE WALLS
HhN TINT
TYPE. I TYPE 2 TYPE 3

CANTILEVER I-TYPE SHEET RLE WALL
7ir\\ w—wr-—w
H ING
F ar. %™ LES
BRACED SHEET PILE COASTAL FLOOD WALL
FIGURE 2-2. TYPES OF FLOOD WALLS

2-4
EC 1110-2-510
31 Aug 83
IIW NxMI
/■V'VfCI
-TIRnr [I^R 77tif

•tK,
l*':'*'#\*
t?^2£2&£i ..-^j.
SHEET SHEET SHEET

PILE PIL.E-H P>LE
CEL^MLAR INCLINED DECK
w. s. L.S.
//A** "'•'
SHEET SHEET
PILE- PILE
BUTTRESS AND COUNTERFORT
GRAVITY
FIGURE 2-3. LESS COMMONLY USED FLOOD WALL TYPES
2-5
EC 1110-2-510
31 Aug 83
2-10. Seepage and Leakage Control Requirements. All water-retaining

structures are subject to seepage through, under and around them.
Inadequate control of the seepage may affect the stability of a flood
wall from uplift or loss of support resulting from erosion. Properly
controlled seepage, even if quantities of flow remain large, presents
little or no hazard. Control of through-seepage is provided by
waterstops. Retaining walls rarely need seepage protection other than to
relieve the hydrostatic load on the fill side of the wall Waterstops
are used in retaining walls to prevent water in the backfill from passing
through the vertical joints. Seepage control and waterstops are more
fully discussed in Chapter 7.
2-11. Mall Stability. Generally, it is more difficult to stabilize

flood walls than retaining walls. By their very nature, floodwalls are
usually built in a flood plain which has poor foundation conditions.
Uplift is always a critical item with flood walls and seldom a problem
with retaining walls. The loads acting on a retaining wall are usually
soil backfills. The water load on a flood wall is more severe,
especially when wave loadings are applicable. When the ground water
surface is above the wall footing, a corrmon occurrence with flood walls,
the allowable bearing capacity of the soil is reduced.
2-12. Special Monoliths. For flood walls special monoliths are required
often. Special monoliths are those which have design conditions that
require the monolith to be designed as a total unit.
2-13. Design Philosophy. Retaining walls are normally built as an

appurtenance to other structures; such as a dam, a hydroelectric power
house, a pump station, etc. The consequences of failure of a retaining
wall are seldom high, unless, of course, the wall failure could trigger
the failure of a more significant structure such as failure of an
embankment dam. Also, retaining walls are seldom more than a few hundred
feet long; so if they are designed conservatively, the added costs are of
limited significance. Flood walls, on the other hand, are usually the
primary feature of a local protection project. They must be designed for
the most economical cross-section per unit length of wall, because they
often extend for great distances. Added to this need for an economical
cross-section is safety. The consequences of failure for a flood wall
are normally very great since it is protecting valuable property and
human life. Thus, the design of retaining and flood walls is a complex
process involving safety and economy which must be executed in a logical,
conservative manner based on the function of the wall.
Section IV. Coordination, Between Disciplines
2-14. Stability Considerations. An adequate assessment of stability

must account for the basic structural behavior, the mechanism of
transmitting compressive and shearing loads to the foundation, the
reaction of the foundation to such loads, and the secondary effects of
the foundation behavior on the structure.
2-6
EC 1110-2-510
2-15 31 Aug 83
2-15. Coordination. A fully coordinated team of soils and structural

engineers and geologists should insure that the results of stability
analyses are properly integrated into the overall design. Some of the
critical aspects of design which require coordination are;
a. Preliminary estimates of geotechnical data, subsurface

conditions, and types of structures which are suitable for the foundation.
b. Seclection of loading conditions, loading effects, potential

failure mechanisms and other related features of the analytical models.
c. Evaluation of the technical and economic feasibility of

alternative type structures.
d. Constructabilityreviews, in accordance with ER 1110-1-803.
e. Refinement of the preliminary structure configuration to reflect

the results of detailed geotechnical site exploration, laboratory testing
and numerical analysis.
f. Modification to the structure configuration during construction
due to unexpected variations in the foundation conditions.
Section V. Foundation Investigation and Laboratory Testing
2-16. General. Of all the geotechnical elements needed to assess the

stability of any wall, the strength parameters for the foundation are the
most difficult to determine. This determination is made by analysis of
laboratory and field tests coupled with intimate knowledge of the
geological structure of a rock foundation or inhomogeneities of a soil
foundation.
2-17. Field Investigation. A field investigation must be a continual
process starting with the preliminary geological review of conditions
progressing to a detailed boring and sample testing program, and
concluding at the end of construction with a safe operational structure.
The scope of investigations and sampling should be based on an assessment
of the inhomogeneity or geologicial complexity. For example the extent
of the investigation could vary from quite limited where the foundation
material is strong even along the weakest potential failure planes to
quite intensive and detailed where weak zones or seams exist. However,
it must be recognized that a certain minimum of investigation is
necessary to determine that weak zones are not present in the foundation.
2-18. Sampling. Representative soil and rock samples including
undisturbed soil samples are required to determine the engineering
properties of the materials. Rock and soil sampling are discussed in
EM 1110-1-1801, Geologic Investigations, EM 1110-2-1803, Subsurface
Investigations, Soils, and EM 1110-2-1907, Soil Sampling.
2-7
EC 1110-2-510
31 Aug 83
2-19. Strength Testing. The nearly infinite number of combinations of
soil and rock properties and rock structural conditions preclude a
standard universal approach to strength testing. Soils engineers and
geologists must clearly define the purpose of each test to those who will
supervise the testing. All available data from geological and
geophysical studies must be used in selecting representative samples for
testing. Decisions must be made concerning the need for in-situ
testing. Soil testing procedures are discussed in EM 1110-2-1906,
Laboratory Soils Testing. Rock testing procedures are discussed in the
Rock Testing Handbook^ and in the International Society of Rock
Mechanics, Suggested Methods for Determining Shear Strengths.28 These
methods may be modified as appropriate to fit the circumstances of the
project.
2-20. Design Strengths. Strength values used in stability analyses are
determined from the available tests and through judgement. Information
in EM 1110-2-1902 should be used in selecting design strengths for soils,
where appropriate. There is no equivalent engineering manual which
provides information on appropriate types of rock tests and selection of
strengths. It is important that the types of tests be based upon the
probable mode of failure. Generally, strengths on rock discontinuities
would be used for an active-type wedge and beneath the structure. Where
a passive-type wedge exists, strengths on discontinuities or intact rock,
or a combination of the two, would be used. Refer to the stability
criteria tables 4-1 through 4-3 (notes 1 through 4) for design strength
and testing guidance.
Section VI. Strength Reduction Factors
2-21. General. Appropriate values of strength reduction factors depend

on;
a. The design condition being analyzed.
b. Degree of confidence in design strength shear values.
c. Consequence of failure.
d. Thoroughness of investigation.
e. Nature of structure-foundation interaction.
f. Quality of construction control.
g. Judgement based on past experierice with similar structures.
In the final analysis, the consequence of failure with respect to human

life, property damage, and impairment of functions are important
considerations in establishing acceptable strength reduction factors for
specific projects. Tables 4-1 through 4-3 list maximum strength
reduction factors for the various design conditions and applicable types
of shear tests.
2-8
DRAFT EC 1110-2-510
31 Aug 83
CHAPTER 3
FORCES ON WALLS
Section I. Lateral Earth Forces
3-1. General. The method of analysis described below for computing

lateral earth forces is an adaption of the multiple wedge sliding
equilibrium analysis described in paragraph 4-12b. Instead of computing
the lateral earth forces from an iterative solution of a multiple wedge
system, the lateral earth forces can be computed approximately from the
single wedge equation shown in Figure 3-1. This approach allows the
designer to compute the soil loadings prior to performing a sliding
analysis.
3-2. Single Wedge Equation. The single wedge equation can be used for
calculating the force due to an active or passive-type wedge. The sign
convention is described in Figure 3-1. The single wedge equation is the
same as the general wedge equation given in Figure 4-4 if only one wedge
is being analyzed, i.e., (P-j-i-P-j) = P. The forces acting on the
active and passive-type wedges are shown in Figure 3-2.
3-3. Strength Reduction Factor (SRF).
a. Definition. The SRF term in the wedge equation is the ratio of

the applied shear stress (T) to the shear strength (Vpr) of the wedge
material along the assumed sliding plane according to equations (3-2) and
(3-3).
SRF = Tr/^F (3-2)
Since X=^TAN^ + C, according to the Mohr-Coulomb failure criterion

(Figure 3-3),
T = SRF ( CTTAN fti ) + SRF (C) (3-3)
The quanity SRF ( 2jr) can be considered as a degree of strength

mobilization.
b. Developed Shear Stress Parameters. The SRF reduces the shear

strength parameters (TAN 0 and C) for the wedge materials to the
developed shear stress parameters (TAN jzfj and C^) which would exist
if the wedges acting on the wall are in sliding equilibrium. The
developed shear stress parameters are related to the actual shear
strength parameters by the SRF, as follows;
SRF = TAN ffj/TAN # = Cd/C (3-4)
3-1
(W +V) [(SRF)TAN^ COSa + SIN a]-U(SRF)TAN^+ (HL - HR ) [(SRF)TAN^ SIN a -COSa] + (SRF) CL
p = EQ.(3-I)
COS a -(SRF)TAN^ SIN a
WHERE:
P = LATERAL (HORIZONTAL) FORCE PRODUCED BY WEDGE,
W = TOTAL WEIGHT OF MATERIAL IN WEDGE, INCLUDING WATER.
V = ANY VERTICAL FORCE APPLIED TO THE WEDGE.
A = ANGLE BETWEEN THE SLIP PLANE OF THE WEDGE AND THE HORIZONTAL,
U = UPLIFT FORCE ACTING ON AND NORMAL TO THE SLIP PLANE OF THE WEDGE.
HL = ANY EXTERNAL HORIZONTAL FORCE APPLIED TO THE WEDGE, ACTING TO THE RIGHT.
HR = ANY EXTERNAL HORIZONTAL FORCE APPLIED TO THE WEDGE, ACTING TO THE LEFT.
<t> = ANGLE OF INTERNAL FRICTION ON THE SLIP PLANE OF THE WEDGE.
SRF= STRENGTH REDUCTION FACTOR
C = COHESION ON THE SLIP PLANE OF THE WEDGE .
L = LENGTH ALONG THE SLIP PLANE OF THE WEDGE.
SIGN CONVENTIONS TO BE FOLLOWED IN USING THIS EQUATION ARE".

a HAS A NEGATIVE SIGN WHEN ROTATION FROM THE HORIZONTAL, AT THE BASE OF THE WEDGE,
TO THE SLIP PLANE IS IN A CLOCKWISE DIRECTION (POSITIVE IS COUNTER-CLOCKWISE). H|_ AS
DEFINED IS POSITIVE. HR AS DEFINED IS POSITIVE. V IS POSITIVE WHEN ACTING DOWNWARD.
ALL OTHER VALUES |N THE EQUATION ARE ALWAYS POSITIVE.
FIGURE 3-1. SINGLE WEDGE EQUATION

EC 1110-2-510
31 Aug 83
TENSION
CRACK
HR
FORCES ON ACTIVE-TYPE WEDGE
HL
FORCES ON PASSIVE-TYPE WEDGE
FIGURE 3-2. FORCES ON WEDGE;S

3-3
EC 1110-2-510
31 Aug 83
TF = o-TAN (t> +C
•m* <T
SHEAR STRENGTH ENVELOPE
FIGURE 3-3. MOHR-COULOMS eMUURE CRITERION

3-4
EC 1110-2-510
3-3b 31 Aug 83
In a single wedge analysis, the SRF applies only to that wedge of the
sliding mass.
c. SRF for Computing Medge Forces. The actual value of the SRF for
multiple wedges is determined by a trial and error procedure (applying
the general wedge equation to each wedge), which continues until the sum
of the horizontal forces acting on the wedges is equal to zero. To
simplify this procedure for computing the forces exerted by the soil
wedges on the structure, an SRF of 2/3 will be used for computing the
critical slip plane angle (paragraph 3-5) and the corresponding force P
(paragraph 3-2).
(1) Active-type Wedge Forces. The soil wedge forces computed
using an SRF of 2/3 will give greater than active earth pressures since
the shear strength of the soil is not fully mobilized. For a wedge with
a horizontal surface and shear strength parameters of $ =: 30° and C = 0,
an SRF of 2/3 gives a wedge force P equivalent to the force computed
using an earth pressure coefficient of 0.47. (An SRF of 1 corresponds to
an earth pressure coefficient of 0.33 as shown in Figure 3-4). The
validity of using greater than active earth pressures for retaining
walls, whether or not the wall can yield by an amount sufficient to
reduce the lateral earth pressure to the minimum active state initially,
is discussed by Casagrande29 and Matsuo, Kenmochi and Yagi30.
(2) Passive-type Wedge Forces. For a passive-type wedge with a
horizontal surface and shear strength parameters of 0 = 30° and C = 0,
an SRF of 2/3 gives a passive force equivalent to that computed using an
earth pressure coefficient of 2.13. (An SRF of 1 corresponds to an earth
pressure coefficient of 3.0 as shown in Figure 3-4). Since no shear
strength needs to be mobilized, i.e., 0 = 0 and C = 0, to produce a
passive force determined by an earth pressure coefficient of 1.00, the
earth pressure coefficient of 2.13 represents a 56.5 percent
(2.13-1.00)/(3.00-1.00) mobilization of the full shear strength resistance
for the wedge described. However, if in the designer^ judgement, the
wall deformations will not be sufficient to mobilize this partial passive
resistance, a lower SRF than 2/3 can be used in order to be compatible
with expected deformations. The minimum passive resistance for a soil
wedge should be the weight of the wedge defined by alpha («*< ) = 45°.
This is equivalent to an earth pressure coefficient of LOO. See Figure
3-4.
(3) The rationale for assigning the SRF values something other
than 2/3 should be developed in consultation with and approved by HQUSACE
(DAEN-ECE).
3-4. Wedge Geometry, The geometries of a typical active-type and a
typical passive-type wedge are shown in Figure 3-5. The active-and
passive-type wedges should always be oriented as shown in these figures,
in order that the lateral forces produced by active-type sedges will
always be negative and those produced by passive-type wedges will always
be positive. The absolute value of alpha is used in calculating the
3-5
EC 1110-2-510
31 Aug 83
p=KArh
SRF=
1 ^/-V-*'^'*-5-"*--''!
•—, »
.33rh
L
.47Xh
SINGLE ACTIVE WEDGE
P = Kprcl'
Jj ^
SRF = T
TS^r SRF=I
■ ,T
-V
rd
z.isrd
s/d
SINGLE PASSIVE WEDGE
FIGURE 3-4. SINGLE ACTIVE AND PASSIVE WEDGES
3-6
EC 1110-2-510
31 Aug 83
h-dc
aCOS)S =
TAN a -TAN )Qu
k/3
TENSION CRACK ACTIVE

WEDGE ONLY-
o
-
h-dc
_
COS a SlN (a-jfel)
<£>
. (h-dc)COSa
1
a JC
o
SIN(a-)Q) 1
TRIG. IDENT.: SIN (0-0) = SIN a
h-dc
TAN a COSp -SIN£
L _ o COS/3 _
COS a " SIN a - TAN
ACTIVE TYPE WEDGE
TAN a - TAN B
c-SLIP PLANE
PASSIVE TYPE WEDGE
JIT I
I i GUBE 3-5. WEDGE GEOMETRY
3-7
EC 1110-2-510
31 Aug 83 3-4
dimensions in Figure 3-5, and beta (/S) is taken as positive for top
surfaces sloping upward away from the vertical faces of the wedges. The
value of dc (the depth of the tension crack) is given by:
[1 - (SRF) TAN <(> TAN a] (SRF) c x-gx

2
"y [1 + (SRF) TAN + COT a] [ (SRF) TAN + SIN a — SIN a COS a]
The proper sign convention for alpha is used in calculating dc. See
Appendix B for the derivation of Equation 3-5.
3-5. Critical Value of Slip Plane Angle.
a. General. The magnitude of the horizontal force P for either the

typical active-tyt)e or passive-type wedges is a function of the
orientation of the slip plane as defined by alpha. The critical angle
alpha for the active-type wedge is that angle which gives the maximum
force P. The critical angle alpha for the passive-type wedge is that
angle which gives the minimum force P. For a backfill with an irregular
surface, a trial and error process varying alpha is usually needed to
determine the critical alpha. But for the special case of a backfill
with an unbroken top surface, and a strip surcharge V, the following
equation can be used to compute the critical alpha for an active-type
wedge:
Y-c, " \/c?+ 4cA

a=TAN",l ! -) (3-6)
The critical angle alpha for a passive-type wedge with an unbroken top
surface, supporting a strip surcharge V, is given by the equation:
a=TAN
/77
•ci + V c7+ 4c- (3-7)
3-8
EC 1110-2-510
3-5a 31 Aug 83
For the active-type wedge the general equations for cj, and C2 are,
(1) for a cohesionless backfill:
c, = 2(SRF)TAN f ; (3-8a)
(SRF)TAN<K1 - (SRF)TAN <(. TAN/?] -TAN/3 ,. ...

C2 = ■ (3-8bJ
(SRF)TAN <}>
(2) for a cohesive or cohesionless backfill with a strip

surcharge:
>
4(SRF)C [(SRF) TAN + + TAN p] 4V TAN p [1 + (SRFrTAN^]
2 2
2(SRF) TAN^ + y(h + dc) , y(h -dc2) (3-9a)
c, =.
2(SRF)C [1 - (SRF)TAN j TAN p]

(SRFJTAN f [1 - (SRF)TAN p] -TAN/J +| y (h + dc) j
:
C2 =;
A l
2V TAN/?2 [1 + (SRF)2 TAN2<t>]

,2 _ J 2
rW-dS) (3-9b)
where
2 SRF C
A = (SRF)TAN + + ( > [' - (SRF)TAN + TAN p] _ 2V[1 +(SRF)Z TAN2<H
y (h + dc) y (h2 - dc2)
3-9
EC 1110-2-510
31 Aug 83 3-5a
For a passive-type wedge, the equations for cj, and C2 are the same
as for the active-type wedge except that the value of dc is always
taken as zero. See Appendix C for the derivation of Equations 3-6 and
3-7.
b. Limitations of Critical Slip Plane Equations. The equatiiions for

:i and eg are valid except when the strip surcharge, V, is too large
ci lai
or when the slope of the top surface is too great. The maximum value for
the strip surchage is determined by setting the denominator of the
equation for ci or C2 equal to zero and solving for V. This value is:
VM _ r (h2 - dc2KSRF)TAN + + 2(SRF)C(h - dc)[l -(SRF)TAN + TAN ffi (3-10)

2[1 + (SRF)2 TAN2<}>]
When V^V^ the value of alpha is set by the location of the strip
surcharge as shown in Figure 3-6, and given by the equation:
"h -dc + (S)TAN<n p.-Q)

[ABSOLUTE VALUE] a = TAN
Even when }J<ym9 a check should be made to be certain that the entire
strip surcharge lies on the top surface of the wedge defined by the
calculated value of alpha. Also when {c|+4c2)< 0, alpha is
indeterminate. This is an indication that the slope of the top surface
is too great to be sustained by the strength parameters (SRFJTAN # and
(SRF)C.
c. Critical Slip Plane Equations for Backfills with Horizontal Top

Surface. The critical value of alpha for an active-type wedge with a
horizontal top surface and with or without a uniform surcharge can be
computed as follows:
a= 45° + 2£ (3-12)
WHERE 2
+d = TAN-HCSRFJTAN^]
For a passive-type wedge with a horizontal top surface alpha can be

3-10
* M
EC 1110-2-510
31 Aug 83
EDGE OF STRIP
SURCHARGE
V>Vvi
SLIP PLANE
h-dc
TAN a - TAN £
h - dc + S TAN /3
TAN a ■^S_ + TAN/?
S
VALUE■] a
1
f- h-dc + STA JLL)
DABSOLUTE = TAN"
TA
FIGURE 3-6. SURCHARGE EFFECT ON CRITICAL SLIP PLANE

3-11
EC 1110-2-510
31 Aug 83 3-5c
a=450-ii (3-13)
2
3-6. Line of Action of Lateral Forces. A typical wedge is shown in

Figure 3-7. The total lateral force, P, produced by this wedge may be
separated into five parts; Py due to the surcharge, P^ due to the
moist weight of the material in the wedge, P^s due to the difference in
weight between saturated and moist material in the saturated part of the
wedge, Py due to uplift on the slip plane, and PQI due to the
cohesive resistance along the slip plane.
Then
P = Py + PWM + Pws + Pu + PCL (3-14)
where
p V[(SRF)TAN 4 COS a + SIN a] (3.14a)

V
COS a - (SRF)TAN <|> SINa
PWM = WM[(SRF)TAN + COS a + SIN a] (3-14b)

COS a - (SRF)TAN 4 SIN a
WS[(SRF)TAN <}> COS a + SIN a) (3- 14;C)

COS a - (SRF)TAN 4 SIN a
Pu = -U(SRF)TAN4 (3-14d)
COS a -(SRF)TAN ^SIN a
=
(SRF)CL (3-14e)
ret
COS a - (SRF)TAN <|> SIN a
Setting the summation of moments about point C equal to zero we obtain
["(h - dc)(h2+ 2dc)1 /h - dc\

3 Py Hy + PWM h + dc J + Pws Hs + Pu Hs + 3 PCLV 2 /
3P
and the line of action of the force P is determined. The derivation for
the location of the line of action of P^m is given in Appendix D.
3-12
EC 1110-2-510
31 Aug 83
S-X
CRACK; ACTIVE WEDGE-

COHESIVE MATERIAL
ONLY. SLIP PLANES FOR
STRIP SURCHARGE
SLIP PLANE FOR
ENTIRE WEDGE
-SATURATED PART
OF WEDGE
CM l>-
FIGURE 3-7. LINES OF ACTION FOR FORCES

3-13
EC 1110-2-510
31 Aug 83 3-7
3-7. Lateral Pressure Distribution, The line of action of the lateral

force produced by a wedge is determined as described in paragraph 3-6.
However, the distribution of lateral pressure on the wall must also be
determined in order that the structural design of the wall can be
completed. A partially saturated wedge, behind a retaining wall, is
shown in Figure 3-8. A relatively simple method for finding the pressure
distribution on the wall is illustrated in Figure 3-8. The total force
(P) may be considered equal to the area of the trapezoidal pressure
diagram with its centroid at a distance "a" below point E, as shown in
pressure diagram (1) of Figure 3-8. From the geometry of a trapezoid.
2P (2hw - 3a)
PE = (3-16)
l4
2P(3a-hw)
Pc = (3-17)
If a vertical pressure exists on the top surface at "E," that is if the

surcharge on the top surface extends to the wall the trapezoidal distri¬
bution in (1) of Figure 3-8 is the distribution on the wall. If the
vertical pressure at point E is zero, as in Figure 3-8, the pressure
diagram should be modified. The unshaded part of (1) is replaced by (2),
which has the same area and centroid. Then the shaded part of (1) is
added to (2) to obtain the pressure distribution (3) on the wall, as
shown in Figure 3-8. This is not the only manner in which the distribu¬
tion of pressure on the wall can be obtained; any other reasonable method
of distribution may be used_if the area of the pressure diagram is equal
to P and its centroid lies y distance above point C.
3-8. Hedge Analysis in Layered Soil. When the backfill behind a wall
consists of two or more types of soils, the methods discussed in
paragraphs 3-1 through 3-7 remain valid. This condition is illustrated
in Figure 3-9. The impervious blanket on the top surface is considered
to be a uniform surcharge on wedge 1. The impervious blanket, moist
granular material, and saturated granular material are considered to be a
uniform surcharge on wedge 2. The lateral forces produced by the
surcharges, weight of wedges, and uplifts on the slip planes are
calculated in the manner already described. See Appendix G for an
example.
3-9. Irregular Backfill Configurations. When the top surface of a wedge
has an irregular shape, it is often possible to perform an approximate
analysis using the provisions of paragraph 3-5 to calculate the critical
slip plane angle alpha, thereby avoiding an iterative solution which
varies alpha until the maximum horizontal force P is found. Even when
3-14
EC 1110-2-510
31 Aug 83
S2-X2
>
X
<\j
X
t ,' '.:'?:.• -./••'b'; .'♦, •/:» .• o '.' ' /''■;v'. v v
p
P = Pvi + PV2 + WM + PWS + pU
r(h-dc)(h-f2dcn.t;r u D .h-dcx
-. 3(PV1HV| + PV2HV2) + PWML h+dc . J* WSHS + PU Hs+3PCL(-Lg£)
P
3P
T
I-
1
II
o
(>:
■.•.k'.: •Vli"
FIGURE 3-8. LATERAL PRESSURE DISTRIBUTION

3-15
EC 1110-2-510
31 Aug 83
WEDGE I WEDGE 2
CRACK IMPERVIOUS BLANKET
# zz
(X
UJ
<
> ^ SATURATION
m z £ LINE-^N.
UJ < .6'
x CD 2
o
o
MMMt
6 :V-y.-../.."^-.;.-.*.-^;':! 'WW*
FIGURE 3-9. WEDGE ANALYSIS IN LAYERED SOIL

3-16
EC 1110-2-510
3-9 31 Aug 83
the irregularity is very complex, the methods of paragraph 3-5 can be

used to furnish an approximation for alpha, thus shortening any iterative
procedure required for a more exact determination. Two examples of
broken surfaces are shown in Figure 3-10. In the top view of Figure 3-10
11
h" is set equal to the distance from the bottom of the wedge to the
level top surface and the shaded area is considered a negative strip
surcharge; the equations for ci and C2 can then be used to find
alpha. In the bottom view of Figure 3-10 "h" is set as shown and the
shaded area is considered a positive surcharge; again the equations for
ci and C2 are used to find alpha.
SECTION II. WATER PRESSURES
3-10. General. Static pressures due to water above the ground surface
is equal to the density of the water multiplied by the depth of water.
Forces due to water below the ground surface are included in the wedge
analysis by using the saturated weight for the weight of the wedge, the
weight of any water above the surface of the wedge as a surcharge load,
and the uplift force along the wedge slip plane. (See Figure 3-7 and the
example in Appendix G).
3-11. Seepage Analysis by Line of Seepage Method. If seepage exists, the
line of seepage method affords a relatively simple approximate method for
determining water pressures along wedge slip planes This method is
sufficiently accurate in most cases. A seepage path along wedge slip
planes is shown in Figure 3-11, and the method of calculating water
pressures at points on this path is given.
3-12. Seepage Analysis by Method of Fragments.

a. General. The method of fragments is a more accurate approximate
method for performing a seepage analysis than the line of seepage method.
This method was developed by Pavlovsky in 1935 (Reference 31). The
underlying assumption of the method is that equipotential lines at various
critical points in the flow region can be approximated by straight
vertical lines. These vertical lines divide the flow region into parts
called fragments. Figure 3-12 shows the flow region for a typical
retaining wall divided into three such fragments. The head loss in any
fragment is determined as
% - 5-
1+ (3-18)
where:
3-17
EC 1110-2-510
31 Aug 83
ASSUMED TOP SURFACE

0=0
ACTUAL TOP
SURFACE
FIGURE 3-10. WEDGE ANALYSIS FOR IRREGULAR BACKFILL
3-18
EC 1110-2-510
31 Aug 83
WEDGE I WEDGE 2 WEDGE
SLIP
PLANE
• SLIP
PLANE
SLIP PLANE
TOTAL LENGTH OF SEEPAGE PATH = Ls = Lsi +LS2 + LS3
"' ■ [hsl" -^rf1}r"

ua = fhhsi - Ah (LSI
.SI+LS2"1 XW
LS J
WHERE rw = UNIT WEIGHT OF WATER
FIGURE 3-11. LINE OF SEEPAGE METHOD
3-19
EC 1110-2-510
31 Aug 83
//*#Mt -jimrnrT,
in
//&// iw/m/f
CVJ
CO
CS-' ■^••.
A^ nB
Â UB CVJ
©
TOP OF IMPERVIOUS
/// // /////////
LAYER
'n- i
+ +
'^j = 0| ^2 ^3
</>, AND </>3 ARE OBTAINED FROM FIGURE 3-10
02
^^ = -L
a
U
A = rw S. -
U s h (0| +02)"
B rw S| -
2 0] . rw s
2 +
TIT
2 0j
FIGURE 3-12. FLOW REGION FOR METHOD OF FRAGMENTS

3- 20
EC 1110-2-510
3-12a 31 Aug 83
hj = Head loss through the fragment.

h = Total head differential across wall
fy = Form factor for the fragment.
24j = Summation of form factors for all fragments in
the flow region.
For a detailed explanation of this method see reference 31.
b. Form Factors.
(1) Fragment ?f in Figure 3-12, is called a Type I fragment.
The form factor for Type I fragments is:
♦;-ii 0-19)
(2) Fragments 1 and 3f in Figure 3-12, are called Type II

fragments. The form factor for this type fragment may be obtained from
Figure 3-13.
c. Mater Pressures. The manner in which water pressures are
calculated at critical points is illustrated in Figure 3-12.
d. Toe Drain Effect. A wall with a toe drain is shown in Figure

3-14. The effect of the drain is to lower the water surface on the toe
side, to the bottom of the drain, thereby reducing seepage pressures and
the chance for boils. Fragments 1 and 3 are again Type II, and fragment
2 is Type I. However, calculations for head losses and water pressures
for the stability analysis should use a water surface assuming a zero
effectiveness of the toe drain. This assumption is due to the
uncertainity of the toe drain effectiveness over a long period of time.
3-13. Surge and Wave Loads.

a. General. Wave and water level predictions for the design of
walls shall be determined with the criteria in the Shore Protection
Manual^ of the U.S. Army Coastal Engineering Research Center. Design
forces acting upon the wall shall be determined for the water levels and
the waves predicted, taking into account the most severe fetch and the
effects of shoaling, refraction, and diffraction. A distinction is made
between the action of nonbreaking, breaking and broken waves.
3-21
EC 1110-2-510
31 Aug 83
FIGURE 3-13. FORM FACTORS FOR TYPE IE FRAGMENTS
3-22
EC 1110-2-510
31 Aug 83
»Mmii WW i;.1
-^r
*»' 1
sz
C/5
.'fc!
"TT"
!JM/M// ^^T' !t&/W/
y^ ^V^^
-CBCC «IIPPArP
\-
-
TOE DRAIN -^
C/)
O
® ! © ® H
TOP OF IMPERVIOUS
1 LAYER -^\
1 | '»
FIGURE 3-14. TOE DRAIN EFFECT

3-23
EC 1110-2-510
31 Aug 83 3-13b
b. Wave Heights. Wave heights for design are obtained from the
statistical distribution of all waves in a wave train, and are defined as
f o 11ows:
Hs = Average of the highest 1/3 of all waves
Hi = 1.67 Hs = Average of highest 1 percent of all waves

=
Hb Height of wave which breaks in water depth db
c. Nonbreaking Wave Condition. When the depth of water is such that
waves do not break, a nonbreaking condition exists. This occurs when the
water depth at the wall is greater than approximately 1.5 times the
maximum wave height. The Hj wave shall be used for the nonbreaking
condition. Design nonbreaking wave pressures shall be computed using the
Miche-Rudgren Method, as described in the Shore Protection Manual
Whenever the maximum Stillwater level results in a nonbreaking condition,
lower Stillwater levels should be investigated for the possibility that
shallow water may produce breaking wave forces which are larger than the
nonbreaking forces.
d. Breaking Wave Condition, The breaking condition occurs when the

steepness of the wave and the bottom slope in front of the wall have
certain relationships to each other. Typically, breaking waves occur when
the water depth (at a distance of approximately one-half but not over 3/4
a wave length in front of a wall) is between 1.3 and 1.5 times the wave
weight. The design breaker height (Hb) is the highest wave which
breaks within a distance of 7 to 8 wave heights in front of the wall.
Design breaking wave pressures should be determined by the Minikin Method,
presented in the Shore Protection Manual. Theoretically, a breaking wave
produces a force on the structure that cannot be exceeded.
e. Broken Wave Condition. Broken waves are those that break in a
zone lying within a distance between one half and one wave length from the
wall. The design breaker height in this case (Hb) is the highest wave
which will be broken in the break zone. Design wave forces for the height
(Hb) should be determined by the method presented in the Shore
Protection Manual.
f. Seepage Pressures. Seepage pressures are based on the elevation

of the surge Stillwater level (See para. 4-4).
SECTION III. SUPPLEMENTAL FORCES
3-14. Wind Loads. Wind loads should be considered on retaining walls

during construction, prior to placing backfill. Wind loads can act on a
floodwall for the entire life of the structure. In locations subjected
to hurricanes the wind load used should be 50 psf on exposed surfaces; in
other locations 30 psf should be used.
3-24
EC 1110-2-510
3-15 31 Aug 83
3-15. Lateral Earthquake Forces. The geometry and weights of the
active- and passive-type wedges will be determined using an SRF equal to
0.90 for computing the static and seismic lateral forces. The static
lateral forces produced will be determined from the single wedge equation
given in Figure 3-1. The line of action for the static forces will be as
obtained by the method given in paragraph 3-6. The lateral forces
produced by horizontal and vertical seismic accelerations acting on these
wedges will be applied, in addition to the static forces, to the
structural wedge to calculate sliding and overturning stabilities.
a. Wedge Lateral Forces for Horizontal Seismic Acceleration. A

typical active-type wedge is shown in Figure 3-15. The lateral force due
to seismic action is K^W where K^ is the coefficient of horizontal
earthquake acceleration and W is the weight of material in the wedge
including water. This force can be treated as an HL force (See Figures
3-1 and 3-2). The line of action of this force passes through the center
of gravity of the wedge. A typical passive-type wedge is shown in Figure
3-15, and the earthquake induced force and its line action are determined
in the same manner as they were for the active-type wedge. This force
can be treated as an HL force also. The seismic coefficients listed in
Table 1 of ER 1110-2-1806, dated 16 May 1983, should be used for Kh.
b. Wedge Lateral Forces for Vertical Seismic Acceleration. A

typical active-type wedge is shown in Figure 3-16. The lateral force due
to vertical seismic acceleration is obtained by substituting KVW for W
in the single wedge equation and solving for P^. Ky is the
coefficient of vertical seismic acceleration and W is the weight of the
material in the wedge including water. The line of action of this force
is the same as the line of action of the static lateral force. A typical
passive-type wedge is shown in Figure 3-16, and the force and its line of
action are determined in the same manner as they were for the active-type
wedge. These forces can be treated as HL forces (See Figures 3-1 and
3-2). Kv can be taken as 2/3 K^.
c. Seismic Force Due to Water Above Ground. Water standing above
ground can have its static pressure, acting against a wall, increased or
decreased due to seismic action. Figure 3-17 shows the pressures and
forces due to earthquake for free standing water. The dynamic force is
given by Westergaard^ equation as:
PE = (2/3) CE Khh2 (3-20)
where CE is a factor depending upon the depth of water, h, in feet, and

the earthquake foundation period of vibration, T, in seconds. Wester-
gaard's approximate equation for C^ in kip-second-foot units is:
3-25
EC 1110-2-510
31 Aug 83
C.G. OF MATERIAL IN WEDGE

(INCLUDING WATER)
LATERAL FORCE FOR ACTIVE TYPE WEDGE-

HORIZONTAL ACCELERATION

(INCLUDING WATER)
KhW = PE
SLIP
PLANE
LATERAL FORCE FOR PASSIVE TYPE WEDGE-

HORIZONTAL ACCELERATION
FIGURE 3-15. WEDGE FORCES DUE TO HORIZONTAL

EARTHQUAKE ACCELERATION
3-26
EC 1110-2-510
31 Aug 83

(INCLUDING WATER)
SLIP
PLANE
LATERAL FORCE FOR ACTIVE TYPE WEDGE-

VERTICAL ACCELERATION

(INCLUDING WATER)
SLIP
PLANE
LATERAL FORCE FOR FWSSIVE TYPE WEDGE

VERTICAL ACCELERATION
FIGURE 3-16. WEDGE FORCES DUE TO VERTICAL

EARTHQUAKE ACCELERATION
3-27
EC 1110-2-510
31 Aug 83
WATER SURFACE
•*f
WATER SURFACE
PE */.
TOP OF
GROUND
d PE
imm TOP OF
GROUND
f^/^/f
'}(•}. ■■•:••*::: -^
FIGURE 3-17. HYDRODYNAMIC FORCES FOR FREE

STANDING WATER
3-28
EC 1110-2-510
3-15c 31 Aug 83
r 0.051
Yl - 0.72 (H/1000T)2
Normally, for retaining and flood walls, Cg can be taken as 0.051. The
pressure distribution is parabolic, and the pressure at any point y below
the top surface is:
PE = CE KhYhy" (3-21)
The line of action of force P^ is 0.4h above the ground surface.

d. Structural Wedge. In addition to the forces due to the active-
and passive-type wedges, horizontal and vertical forces caused by seismic
action are applied at the center of gravity of the structural wedge.
These forces are KfoW and KVW; where W is the weight of the structural
wedge. Applying all forces to the free body of the structural wedge, a
sliding analysis is performed in accordance with paragraph 4-11 for
design or paragraph 4-12 for investigation.
3-29
DRAFT EC 1110-2-510
31 Aug 83
CHAPTER 4
STRUCTURAL STABILITY
Section I. Loading Cases
4-1. General. The following loading cases are generally representative

oft conditions affecting retaining walls and inland and coastal flood
walls. The loading cases for a specific wall should be chosen, as
applicable, from the lists below. Loadings which are not listed below
should be included where applicable.
4-2. Retaining Malls.

a. CASE Rl, Usual Loading. Backfill in place to final elevation;
surcharge loading (if any exists) acting; backfill dry, moist, or
partially saturated as the case may be; lateral and uplift pressures due
to water (if any exist) acting. This case also includes the usual loads
possible during construction which are not considered short duration
1oads.
b. CASE R2, Extreme Loading. Same as for Case Rl except that
backfill is partially or completely saturated, as the case may be, for a
short duration, or another type of loading of short duration is applied,
i.e., high wind loads, equipment surcharges during construction, etc.
c. CASE R3, Earthquake Loading. Case Rl with earthquake-induced

lateral and vertical loads added, if applicable; uplift same as for Case
Rl.
4-3. Inland Flood Walls.
a. CASE II, Usual Flood Loading. Backfill in place to final
elevation; water level at the design water level (top of wall less
freeboard) on the unprotected side; uplift.
b. CASE 12, Extreme Flood Loading. Same as for Case II except the
water level is at the top of unprotected side of wall.
c. CASE 13, Earthquake Loading. Backfill in place to final
elevation; water at the usual level during the non-flood stage; uplift,
if applicable; earthquake-induced lateral and vertical loads, if
applicable. (Note: If the wall has no significant load during the non-
flood stage, no earthquake case is necessary.)
4-1
EC 1110-2-510
31 Aug 83 4-3d
d. CASE 14, Construction Short Duration Loading. Flood wall in
place with loads added which are possible during the construction period
but are of short duration such as from strong winds and construction
equipment surcharges.
4-4. Coastal Flood Walls.
a. CASE CI, Surge Stillwater Loading. Backfill in place to final

elevation; water at the surge Stillwater level on the unprotected side;
no wave force; uplift.
b. CASE C2a, Nonbreaking Wave Loading. Case CI with a nonbreaking

wave loading added, if applicable; uplift same as for Case CI.
c. CASE C2b, Breaking Wave Loading. Case CI with a breaking wave

loading added, if applicable; uplift same as for Case CI.
d. CASE C2c, Broken Wave Loading. Case CI with a broken wave

loading added, if applicable; uplift same as for Case CI.
e. CASE C3, Earthquake Loading. Backfill in place to final

elevation; water at the usual (non-storm) level; uplift, if applicable;
earthquake-induced lateral and vertical loads, if applicable. (Note: If
the wall has no significant load during the usual (non-storm) stage, no
earthquake case is necessary.)
f. CASE C4, Construction Short Duration Loading. Flood wall in

place with loads added which are possible during the construction period
but are of short duration, such as from strong winds and construction
equipment surcharges.
\j
g. CASE C5, Wind Loading. Backfill in place to final elevation;

water at the usual (non-storm) level on the unprotected side; wind load
of 50 psf on protected side of wall.
Section II. Stability Requirements
4-5. General. The basic requirements for the stability of a retaining
or flood wall for all loading conditions are:
a. That it be safe against sliding at the base of the wall, or

through any soil layer or rock seam below the base.
b. That it be safe against overturning at the base of the wall,

and, in the case of gravity walls, at any horizontal plane within the
wall.
c. That it be safe against bearing failure and excessive

differential settlement in the foundation.
4-2
EC 1110-2-510
4-6 31 Aug 83
4-6. Stability Criteria. The stability criteria for retaining walls and
inland and coastal flood walls by loading case are listed in Tables 4-1
through 4-3.
Section III. Overturning Stability
4-7. Resultant Location. The overturning stability is computed by

applying all the vertical and lateral forces to a free body of the
structural wedge, and summing moments caused by these forces about a
common point on the assumed plane of sliding. The resultant location
along the sliding plan with respect to the common point assumed for the
moment computations is:
Resultant Location = SuTwnation of Moments (4.1)

Summation of Vertical Forces
The methods to be used in determining the lateral and uplift forces are
described in Chapter 3.
4-8. Criteria. The overturning stability requirements in Tables 4-1

through 4-3 are given as minimum base areas in compression. Figure 4-1
illustrates the relationship between the base area in compression and the
resultant location. See Section V for the computation of the base
pressures, q.
Section IV. Sliding Equilibrium
4-9. Analysis Model. In the sliding equilibrium analysis the retaining

or flood wall and the soil acting on the wall are assumed to act as a
system of wedges. The soil-structure system is divided into one or more
active-type wedges, one structural wedge, and one or more passive-type
wedges, as shown in Figure 4-2. This is called the multiple wedge model.
4-10. Introduction to Analysis Procedure.
a. General Approach. A trial and error process is required, if
the system consists of two or more wedges, to find the actual value of
the strength reduction factor (SRF). The SRF is defined mathematically
as the developed shear stress parameters divided by the shear strength
parameters, as follows:
SRF = TAN ^d/TAN J0 » Cd/C (4-2)
An in depth explanation of the SRF is provided in paragraph 3-3. The

multiple wedge analysis usually requires at least three iterations to
compute the SRF for which horizontal equilibrium is obtained.
4-3
Table 4-1. RETAINING WALL STABILITY CRITERIA
C I-1
UD »—»
o
Maximum Strength Minimum 00 I
CO I>0
Case Loading Reduction Factor, SRF Shear Strength Test Required Minimum Base Area In Compression Bearing Capacity cn
No. Condition (Factor of Safety, FS) Soil Foundation(l) Rock Foundation(4) Soil Foundation Rock Foundation Safety Factor i—»
o
Rl Usual 2/3 (1.5) (Q &/or S)(2) Direct Shear 100% 75% 3.0
R2 Extreme 0.75 (1.33) (Q &/or S)(2M3) Direct Shear 75% 50% 2.0
R3 Earthquake 0.90 (1.1) (Q &/or S)(2H3) Direct Shear Resultant Resultant 1.1
Within Base Within Base
1. For a sliding analysis at the base of the structure, the value of cohesion used should not exceed the adhesion between concrete
and the foundation material.
2. For soil foundations which are not free draining (permeability <10 x IQ-^cm/sec), analyze for both Q and S strengths. For free
draining soil foundations (permeability > 10 x lO'^cm/sec), analyze for S strengths only.
3. For construction loadings in cases Rl or R2, use Q strengths when excess pore water pressure in the soil foundation is anticipated
and S strengths when it is not anticipated.
4. The sliding analysis of a wall on rock should be based on the frictional resistance (tan^) of concrete on rock or rock on rock.
The values should be obtained from direct shear tests of pre-cut samples of concrete on rock and rock on rock, or direct shear tests
on natural rock joints or bedding planes.
Table 4-2. INLAND FLOOD WALL STABILITY CRITERIA
Maximum Strength Minimum

Case Loading Reduction Factor, !SRF Shear Strength Test Required Minimum Base Area In Compression Bearing Capacity
No. Condition (Factor of Safety, FS) Soil Foundation (1) Rock Foundatiori(4) Soil Foundat-ion Rock Foundation Safety Factor
11 Usual Flood 2/3 (1.5) (Q &/or S)(2) Direct Shear 100% 75% 3.0
2
12 Extreme 2/3 (1.5) (Q &/or S)( ) Direct Shear 75% 50% 2.0
Flood
13 Earthquake 0.90 (1.1) (Q &/or S)(2) Direct Shear Resultant Resultant 1.1
2. For soil foundations which are not free draining (permeability< 10 x 10"4cm/sec)» analyze for both Q and S strengths For free
draining soil foundations (permeability > 10 x lO"^/^^ analyze for S strengths only.
3. For the construction loading case, use Q strengths when excess pore water pressure in the soil foundation is anticipated and S
strengths when it is not anticipated.
4. The sliding analysis of a wall on rock should be based on the frictional resistance (tan^) of concrete on rock or rock on rock.
on natural rock joints or bedding planes
Oil I-*
*-* i—»
o
y* i
c ro
%n i
on
oo t-*
oi o
Table 4-3. COASTAL FLOOD WALL STABILITY CRITERIA
Maximum Strength ____ Mini mum

Case Loading Reduction Factor, SRF Shear Strength Test Required Minimum Base Area In Compression Bearing Capacity 35" ^
C I—»
No. Condition (Factor of Safety, FS) Soil Foundation(l) Rock Foundation^) Soil Foundation Rock Foundation Safety Factor in !—»
o
oo I
2 OU IV
CI Surge 2/3 (1.5) (Q &/or S)( ) Direct Shear 100% 75% 3.0 I
Stillwater
C2 Wave
C2a Nonbreak¬ 2/3 (1.5) (Q k/or S)(2) Direct Shear 75% 50% 2.0
ing
C2b Breaking 0.80 (1.25) (Q i/or S)(2) Direct Shear 60% 40% 1.5
2
C2c Broken 2/3 (1.5) (Q &/or S)( ) Direct Shear 75% 50% 2.0
C3 Earthquake 0.90 (1.1) (Q &/or S) Direct Shear Resultant Resultant i.l
(Q Ei/or S)(3) Direct Shear 75% 50% 2.0
C5 Wind 2/3 (1.5) 2.0
2. For soil foundations which are not free draining
4
(permeability^10 x lQ-4cm/sec), analyze for both Q and S strengths. For free
draining soil foundations (permeability > 10 x 10- cm/sec)s analyze for S strengths only.
3. For construction loading case, use Q strengths when excess pore water pressure in the soil foundation is anticipated and S
strengths when it is not anticipated.
4. The sliding analysis of a wall on rock should be based on the frictional resistance (tan 9*) of concrete on rock or rock on rock.
on natural rock joints or bedding planes/
EC 1110-2-510
31 Aug 83
CO
UJ 0)
Q
82 UJ
O </i . (T
I-O
O zxr. Q.
z o
< o
X
H <^
»-<
_jcr
(0UJ 31-
V>V) co z
UJ< UJ UJ
J 03 (TO
UJ
CO
•*>
<z
gS zP
O) CO UJ<
< O) UiO
<
u ?3
CD UJ
(Z
sO Q.
£* UJV) o—
2o
X_J
C03
t 1
zco
Oui
1
1
3o
00
ro
CD
"IC
^W
—J
I UJ —1_ »-
CO » £
UJ z
I
•^ S (0 z
O O UJ UJU.
o o a: 00
UJ
Z)
C£
4-7
EC 1110-2-510 * *
31 Aug 83
PASSIVE-TYPE
ACTIVE-TYPE WEDGES WEDGE
£ ^ STRUCTURAL WEDGE
***T ** J6>y
ASSUMED SLIP PLANES
FIGURE 4-2. SOIL-STRUCTURE SYSTEM
4-8
EC 1110-2-510
4-10b 31 Aug 83
b. Simplified Approach, To shorten the amount of work and still
arrive at a satisfactory approximation, a single wedge analysis can be
used as described below for the design of a wall. The multiple wedge
analysis is described in the section on investigating the sliding
stability for existing walls, paragraph 4-12.
4-11. Sliding Analysis for Design.

a. Structural Wedge Analysis. For design purposes a free body of
the structural wedge is isolated and the lateral forces from the active -
and passive-type wedges, as determined by the method described in Chapter
3, are applied to it. The SRF for the structural wedge (SRFs) can be
computed directly from the structural wedge equation in Figure 4-3 (See
Appendix E for derivation). If part of the base area of the structural
wedge is not in compression, the cohesive shear acting on that part of
the base should be neglected and the uplift should be assumed constant.
b. Criteria. The SRFS computed should be equal to or less than

those given in Tables 4-1 through 4-3. If the SRFS is greater than the
maximum SRF specified for the loading case being analyzed, the base of
the wall must be widened, sloped, or a key provided to provide the
increased sliding resistance required. If the SRFS is less than the
maximum SRF specified, the sliding resistance of the base can be reduced
if overturning, settlement, and bearing capacity criteria can still be
met.
4-12. Sliding Analysis for Investigation.
a. Structural Wedge Analysis. First, the SRFc can be computed

for the structural wedge, as described in paragraph 4-11. If the SRFS
is less than or equal to the maximum SRF specified in Tables 4-1 through
4-3, no further analysis is required. If the SRFS is greater than the
maximum SRF specified, a multiple wedge analysis, as described below,
should be performed to compute the actual SRF for the entire sliding
mass, assuming the same SRF for each wedge.
b. Multiple Wedge Analysis.
(1) This method computes the SRF required to bring the sliding
mass consisting of the structural wedge and the active- and passive-type
wedges into a state of horizontal equilibrium along a given set of slip
planes.
(2) The general wedge equation is given in Figure 4-4 (See
Appendix F for derivation). This equation is used to compute the sum of
the applied forces acting horizontally on each wedge for an assumed SRF.
The same SRF is used for each wedge.
4-9
< PL~ PR+ HL-HR) COSa-lW+V) SIN a
SRFS . EQ.(4-3)
tPL~pR +H
L~HR) TAN<
£ SINa+(W-»-V) TbN<t> COS a - U TAN<£+ CL
WHERE
SRFg- STRENGTH REDUCTION FACTOR FOR THE STRUCTURAL WEDGE.
PL -= ABSOLUTE VALUE OF TOTAL HORIZONTAL FORCE FROM ACTIVE-TYPE WEDGES.
PR == ABSOLUTE VALUE OF TOTAL HORIZONTAL FORCE FROM PASSIVE-TYPE WEDGES.
HL =" ANY HORIZONTAL FORCE ON STRUCTURAL WEDGE ACTING TOWARD THE RIGHT NOT DUE TO
THE WEDGES.
HR * ANY HORIZONTAL FORCE ON STRUCTURAL WEDGE ACTING TOWARD THE LEFT NOT DUE TO
THE WEDGES.
W « TOTAL WEIGHT OF WATER, SOIL,ROCK OR CONCRETE IN THE STRUCTURAL WEDGE.
V * ANY VERTICAL FORCE APPLIED ON THE TOP OF THE STRUCTURAL WEDGE.
U = UPLIFT FORCE EXISTING ALONG THE SLIP PLANE OF THE STRUCTURAL WEDGE.
a = ANGLE FROM THE HORIZONTAL AT THE LEFT END OF THE SLIP PLANE TO THE SLIP PLANE
OF THE STRUCTURAL WEDGE (POSITIVE IS COUNTER-CLOCKWISE, SEE FIGURE 4-5)
= ANGLE OF SHEARING OR INTERNAL FRICTION OF THE STRUCTURAL WEDGE.
c * COHESION OR ADHESION, WHICHEVER IS THE SMALLEST, ON THE SLIP PLANE OF THfc

STRUCTURAL WEDGE.
= LENGTH ALONG THE SLIP PLANE OF THE STRUCTURAL WEDGE.
FIGURE 4-3. STRUCTURAL WEDGE EQUATION

p,>_(Wj+Vi)pSRFi)TANfr
COSaj + SINa J -Uj (SRFj )TANî-KHU-HRJ) QsRFj)TAN<ftiSINai-COSqi]+(SRFi)CjLi ^^^^
''' ' " COSaj- (SRFj)TANî SINaj tM*r^
WHERE
i = NUMBER OF WEDGE BEING ANALYZED .
(Pi-| -Pj) = SUMMATION OF APPLIED FORCES ACTING HORIZONTALLY ON THE J1*1 WEDGE. (A NEGATIVE VALUE FOR
THIS TERM INDICATES THAT THE APPLIED FORCES ACTING ON THE i^ WEDGE EXCEED THE FORCES
RESISTING SLIDING ALONG THE BASE OF THE WEDGE. A POSITIVE VALUE FOR THE TERM INDICATES
THAT THE APPLIED FORCES ACTING ON THE i* WEDGE ARE LESS THAN THE FORCES RESISTING
SLIDING ALONG THE BASE OF THAT WEDGE.)
Wj = TOTAL WEIGHT OF WATER, SOIL, ROCK OR CONCRETE IN THE ith WEDGE.
Vj = ANY VERTICAL FORCE APPLIED ABOVE TOP OF THE Ith WEDGE .
1
a
i = ANGLE BETWEEN THE SLIP PLANE SURFACE OF THE i* WEDGE AND THE H0RIZ0NTAL(POSmVE IS COUNTER-CLOCKWISE)
= UPLIFT FORCE EXERTED ALONG THE SLIP PLANE SURFACE OF THE i*WEDGE.
= ANY HORIZONTAL FORCE APPLIED ABOVE THE TOP OR BELOW THE BOTTOM OF THE LEFT SIDE ADJACENT WEDGE.
"Ri = ANY HORIZONTAL FORCE APPLIED ABOVE THE TOP OR BELOW THE BOTTOM OF THE RIGHT SIDE ADJACENT WEDGE.
= ANGLE OF SHEARING OR INTERNAL FRICTION OF THE i^1 WEDGE.
SRFi = STRENGTH REDUCTION FACTOR FOR SLIDING OF THE Ith WEDGE.
NOTE! ALL WEDGES IN THE SYSTEM MUST HAVE THE SAME SRF. (SEE DERIVATION IN APPENDIX F .)
Cj = COHESION OR ADHESION, WHICHEVER IS THE SMALLEST, ON THE POTENTIAL SLIP SURFACE OF THE ith
WEDGE. (COHESION SHOULD NOT EXCEED THE ADHESION AT THE STRUCTURE-FOUNDATION INTERFACE).
Li = LENGTH ALONG THE SLIP PLANE SURFACE OF THE i*1 WEDGE.
FIGURE 4-4. GENERAL WEDGE EQUATION

EC 1110-2-510
31 Aug 83 4-12b(3)
(3) The geometry and sign convention of a typical ith wedge and
adjacent wedges are shown in Figure 4-5. The distribution of pressures
and resultant forces acting on a typical wedge are shown in Figure 4-6.
(4) The critical value of the slip plane angle for the special
case of a backfill with an unbroken (uniformly sloping or horizontal) top
surface, and a strip surcharge V, can be found by the equations given in
paragraph 3-5. For backfill with an irregular top surface, the critical
slip plane angle can be approximated by the equations in paragraph 3-5,
as described in paragraph 3-9. Thus, an iterative procedure, if needed
to find the critical slip plane angle for a wedge more precisely, can be
shortened.
(5) An example of a multiple wedge analysis for a typical loading
condition is presented in Appendix H.
c. Procedure for a Multiple Wedge Analysis.

(1) Divide the assumed sliding mass into a number of wedges,
including a single structural wedge, based on the configuration and
discontinuitites of the backfill, wall proportions, and discontinuities
of the foundation.
(2) Estimate the SRF for the first trial.
(3) Compute the critical sliding angles for each wedge.
(4) Compute the uplift pressures, if any, along the slip plane.
The effects of seepage should be included.
(5) Compute the weight of the wedges, including any water and
surcharges.
(6) Compute the summation of the lateral forces for each wedge
using the general wedge equation.
(7) Sum the lateral forces for all the wedges.
(8) If the sum of the lateral force is negative, increase the SRF
and recompute the sum of the lateral forces. Continue this trial and
error process until the sum of the lateral forces is approximately zero
for the SRF selected. This will determine the critical SRF for putting
the sliding mass in horizontal equilibrium, i.e., where the sum of the
applied forces acting horizontally equals the sum of the resisting forces
acting horizontally. If the sum of the lateral forces is positive,
decrease the SRF and recompute.
4-12
EC 1110-2-510
31 Aug 83
*- +x
+x
POSITIVE ROTATION OF AXES
NEGATIVE ROTATION OF AXES
+ Yi+|
M
+ Yi
+ Yi-|
î-l
/3i + l<
(i-l$t)WEDGE ith WEDGE

(STRUCTURAL (i +1st) WEDGE
FIGURE 4-5. GEOMETRY OF TYPICAL i* WEDGE AND

ADJACENT WEDGES
4-13
EC 1110-2-510
31 Aug 83
TOP OF
WEDGE
-TOP OF i + l*t
WEDGE
Pi
M > H
FIOUR'E 4-6. PRESSURES AND FORCES ON TYPICAL WEDGE

4-14
EC 1110-2-510
4-13 31 Aug 83
4-13. Basic Concept, Assumptions and Simplifications.
a. Limit Equilibrium. The sliding equilibrium analysis is based

on a limit equilibrium approach. The shape of the slip surface is assumed
at the start. The forces acting at the ends of the sliding mass have to
be known. The necessary shear stress along the presumed slip surface to
produce equilibrium is found. Sliding is assumed to occur along the
presumed slip surface when the shear stress required for equilibrium
exceeds the shear strength of the slip surface.
b. Safety Against Sliding. The design criteria for the sliding
equilibrium analysis are expressed in terms of a maximum strength
reduction factor (SRF). The inverse of the SRF is the factor of safety
against sliding. The SRF, as defined in paragraph 3-3, represents that
factor by which the shear strength parameters (TAN 0 and C) are
multiplied (reduced) to obtain the shear stress (resistance) needed to
bring the sliding mass into a state of horizontal equilibrium along a
given set of slip planes. Also, since the in situ strength parameters of
rock and soil are never known exactly, one role of the SRF is to
compensate for the latitude that exists in assigning single values to
such important parameters. Or, in other words, the SRF compensates for
the difference between what may be the real shear strength and that
assumed for the analysis.
c. Slip Surface, The slip surface can be a combination of planes
and curved surfaces, but for simplicity, all slip surfaces are assumed to
be planes. These planes form the bases of the wedges. It should be
noted that for the analysis to be realistic, the assumed slip planes have
to be kinematically possible. In rock the slip planes may be
predetermined by discontinuities in the foundation.
d. Two Dimensional Analysis. The sliding equilibrium method

presented is a two dimensional analysis. This method should be extended
to a three-dimensional analysis if unique three-dimensional geometric
features and loads critically affect the sliding stability of a specific
structure.
e. Force Equilibrium Only. Only force equilibrium is satisfied.
Moment equilibrium is not used. The shearing force acting parellel to
the interface of any two wedges is assumed to be negligble. Therefore,
the portion of the slip surface at the bottom of each wedge is only
loaded by the forces directly above or below it. There is no interaction
of vertical effects between the wedges. The resulting wedge forces are
assumed horizontal.
f. Displacements. Considerations regarding displacements are

excluded from the limit equilibrium approach. The relative regidity of
different foundation materials supporting the structure and the concrete
4-15
EC 1110-2-510
31 Aug 83 4-13f
structure itself may influence the results of the sliding stability
analysis. Such complex structure-foundation systems may require a more
intensive sliding investigation than a limit equilibrium approach. The
effects of strain compatibility along the assumed slip surface may be
approximated in the limit equilibrium approach by selecting the shear
strength parameters from in situ or laboratory tests according to the
failure strain selected for the stiffest material.
g. Relationship Between Shearing and Normal Forces. A linear

relationship is assumed between the resisting shearing force and the
normal force acting on the slip plane beneath each wedge. This relation¬
ship is determined by the Coulomb-Mohr failure criterion.
h. Structural Wedge. The general wedge equation is based on the

assumption that shearing forces do not act on the vertical wedge
boundaries, hence there can only be one structural wedge since concrete
structures transmit significant shearing forces across vertical internal
planes. Discontinuities in the slip path beneath the structural wedge
should be modeled by assuming an average slip plane along the base of the
structural wedge.
i. Interface of Other Wedges with Structural Wedge. The interface
between the group of active-type wedges and the structural wedge is
assumed to be a vertical plane located at the heel of the structural
wedge and extending to the base of the structural wedge. The interface
between the group of passive type wedges and the structural wedge is
assumed to be a vertical plane located at the toe of the structural wedge
and extending to the base of the structural wedge.
4-14. Design Considerations.
a. Effects of Cracks in Foundation. Sliding analyses should

consider the effects of cracks on the active side of the structural wedge
in the foundation material due to differential settlement, shrinkage or
joints in the rock mass. The depth of cracking in cohesive foundation
material with a plane ground surface can be estimated with the following
equations.
dc = (2 Cd/ r) TAN (450 + 0d/2) (4-5)
where
c
d = (SRF) C
^= JAN"1 [(SRF)TAN ^]
4-16
EC 1110-2-510
4-14a 31 Aug 83
The value (dc) in a cohesive foundation should not exceed the embedment
of the structural wedge. The depth of cracking in massive strong rock
foundations should be assumed to extend to the base of the structural
wedge. Shearing resistance along the crack should be ignored and full
hydrostatic pressure should be assumed to act at the bottom of the
crack. The hydraulic gradient across the base of the structural wedge
should reflect the presence of a crack at the heel of the structural
wedge.
b. Passive Resistance. When passive resistance is used, special
considerations must be made. Rock or soil that may be subjected to high
velocity water scouring should not be used unless amply protected. Also,
the compressive strength of rock layers must be sufficient to develop the
wedge resistance. In some cases wedge resistance should not be assumed
without resorting to special treatment such as rock anchors.
Section V. Base Pressures
4-15. Computation of Base Pressures. The base of the retaining wall

should be considered as a footing subjected to a horizontal force (F^)
and eccentric vertical load (Fy). The intensity of the bearing pressure
at the toe and heel, assuming a linear pressure distribution, can be
expressed as
q = Fv/B (1 ± 6e/B) (4-6)
where B is the width of the base, Fv is the vertical component of the

resultant force acting on the retaining wall, and e is the eccentricity
of the vertical component from the center of the base. See Figure 4-1.
If the resultant, R, falls outside the middle third of the base, i.e., e
is greater than B/6, the pressure distribution below the base will be
triangular instead of trapezoidal with maximum pressure equal to the
following:
q = 4/3 (Fv/(B - 2e)) (4-7)
4-17
EC 1110-2-510
4-15 31 Aug 83
The base will be in compression over a distance (b) from the toe computed
as follows:
b = 3 (B - 2e) (4-8)
4-16. Allowable Base Pressures.
a. Safety Factor. The bearing capacity analysis discussed in

Chapter 5 considers both the horizontal and vertical components of the
resultant force at the base of the structure. In order to determine the
allowable base pressures, a bearing capacity analysis will be necessary
for the controlling loading cases as determined by the sliding
equilibrium analysis. For each case analyzed the same loadings as
determined by the sliding equilibrium analysis should be used. The
factor of safety against a bearing failure should be computed by dividing
the vertical component of the ultimate bearing capacity by the summation
of the vertical forces for the structural wedge.
b. Inadequate Bearing Capacity. If the factor of safety against

bearing failure is insufficient, consideration should be given to
increasing the width of the base, lowering the base of the wall, or
founding the wall on piles.
4-18
DRAFT EC 1110-2-510
31 Aug 83
CHAPTER 5
FOUNDATION ANALYSES
SECTION I. BEARING CAPACITY OF WALL FOUNDATIONS.
5-1. General.
a. EM 1110-2-1903. A discussion of the principles and methods

involved in analyzing and evaluating bearing capacities is contained in
EM 1110-2-1903, Bearing Capacity of Soils. The manual concludes that
Terzaghi's general bearing capacity equation, q = CNC + wz Nq + WbNw,
is preferred. However, the manual does not address modifying the general
equation for effects of embedment, inclined loads, sloping bases,
passive-type wedges with sloping surfaces, overburden pressure, and
eccentric loads, all of which are needed for computing the bearing
capacity of retaining and flood walls.
b. Shallow Strip Foundations. Only shallow strip foundations will

be considered in this manual, i.e., those whose widths are greater than
their embedment. Problems related to soil compressibility, local shear,
and punching will not be considered in this chapter. However since they
are important factors in some bearing capacity failures, due
consideration should be given to them in any design.
c. Factor of Safety. The factor of safety is calculated as follows:
FS = Q/ZV (5-1)
where
ZV= summation of vertical forces for the structural wedge.
Q= vertical component of the ultimate bearing capacity.
5-2. General Bearing Capacity Equation. The general bearing capacity

equation is:
Q = B [(Ccd^ctCcgC Nc) + (CqaCqiMquQo Nq) + ^^^^^1 (5-2)
where
Q = vertical component of the ultimate bearing capacity of the

foundation.
B = width of the base

Nc, Nq, Ny = bearing capacity factors for a strip load.
5-1
EC 1110-2-510
31 Aug 83 5-2
C = cohesion parameter of the foundation
Qo = effective overburden pressure on the plane passing through

the base of the footing.
y = unit weight of the foundation material.
£ = factors as explained in paragraph 5-4 through 5-8.
Figure 5-1 illustrates the meaning of all the terms required to use the
information given in paragraphs 5-3 through 5-8. The general bearing
capacity equation is taken from Reference 33.
5-3. Bearing Capacity Factors. Bearing capacity factors for a
horizontal strip footing under vertical loading are:
Nq=[e(«TAN*)JTAN2^+^ (5_3a)
Nc = (Nq - l)COT<t> (5-3b)
Ny = (Nq - 1) TAN (1.4+) (5-3C)
5-4. Embedment Factors. Embedment factors take into consideration the

shearing resistance along the foundation slip plane that exists in the
soil above the base of the footing, on the toe side of a wall. These
factors can be computed as:
£cd = 1 + 0.2(D/B)TAN(45o + tyl) (5-4a)
fy - £yd = i <♦ = <>) (5-4b)

V = ^yd = 1 +0.1 (D/B)TAN(450 + +72) (+ > 10°) (5.4c)
When <p lies between 0° and 10° a linear interpolation can be made for
{yd between 1 for <)>= 0°, and 1+0.1 (D/B) TAN(450+ +/2) for + = 10°.
5-5. Inclination Factors. Inclination factors account for the effect of

load inclination for concentrically loaded foundations. They are
= ti=
** V^) (5-5a)
5-2
EC 1110-2-510
31 Aug 83
STRUCTURAL WEDGE
-rrmw wim
I. IF PART OF THE BASE OF STRUCTURAL WEDGE IS NOT

IN COMPRESSION, B SHALL BE THE WIDTH OF THE
PART THAT IS IN COMPRESSION.
2. y USED IN THE BEARING CAPACITY EQUATION SHALL
ALWAYS BE THE EFFECTIVE WEIGHT OF THE FOUNDATION

MATERIAL.
FGURE 5-1. ILLUSTRATION OF BEARING CAPACITY TERMS

5-3
EC 1110-2-510
31 Aug 83 5-5
^=(l-f)2 - (5-5b)
Where d is the angle that the line of action of the load makes with the
vertical. If <J > f , Cyi should be set equal to zero.
5-6. Base Tilt Factors. These factors are used to take into account the
effect of a sloping base. The base tilt factors are computed as:
di =^ = (1 -uTAN*)2 (5-6a)
=1 ( =0O) (5 6b
^ -[^] * . ->
fe-fc--^*;
q (*>0°) (5-60
NcTAN +
where is the angle the slip plane of the structural wedge makes with
the horizontal, measured in radians. The sign of will follow the sign
conventions given in Chapters 3 and 4.
5-7. Ground Slope Factors. Ground slope factors are used to correct for
a sloping ground surface on the toe side of the wall. The factors are
computed as:
4^= ^8= [l -TAN(/J)]2 (5-7a)
4cg = 1 - [T^J (+ = 00) 0? IN RADIANS) ( 5.7b)
Ny = -2SIN/3 (<|> = 0°) (5-7c)
£cg = Sqg--!—^L_ 1 > 0* (5_7d)

T
NCTAN*
whereJB is the angle the ground surface makes with the horizontal. ># is
positive when rotation from the horizontal is clockwise.
5-4
EC 1110-2-510
5-8 31 Aug 83
5-8. Effective Overburden Pressure. q0 is defined as the pressure due

to the soil and/or surface loads above the base of the footing, on the
toe side of the wall, as follows:
qo = y'D (5-8a)
where is the effective unit weight of the overlying soil, and D is the
depth from the soil surface to the base of the structural wedge. For the
special case of a sloping surface, compute q0 as:
qo = y'DCOS[ABS(/*)] (5-8b)
5-9. Example. An example problem using the general bearing capacity

equation is presented in Appendix G.
SECTION II. SETTLEMENT
5-10. General. A discussion on the various factors involved in the

settlement of a structure, on methods for estimating settlements, and on
the limitations in the accuracy of conducting settlement analyses from
laboratory tests is contained in EM 1110-2-1904, Settlement Analysis.
The principles and methods presented are applicable to a large majority
of civil works projects. Additional information for unique or special
projects can be obtained from various texts on soil mechanics.
SECTION III. DEEP SEATED SLIDING

5-11. General. A deep-seated sliding analysis should be performed to
evaluate weak layers which may exist beneath structures. The analysis
should be in accordance with procedures outlined in paragraphs 4-12 b & c.
The active- and passive-type wedges should be located a sufficient
distance apart to allow a rotational slip surface to develop. Generally,
a slip plane inscribed in an arc with a radius equal to the height of the
active wedge will comply with this requirement. (See Figures 5-2 and
5-3).
5-5
> H-
C h-
O
00 I
I
ACTIVE WEDGE VERTICAL FACE AT HEEL
FIGURE 5-2, DEEP SEATED SLIDING ANALYSIS

+
cn
I
ACTIVE WEDGE VERTICAL FACE AT TOE
i—* (—*
o
> i
C ho
OQ I
Un
00 H-•
UJ o
(FIGURE 5-3. DEEP SEATED SLIDING ANALYSIS

DRAFT ECailO-2-510
31 Aug 83
CHAPTER 6
DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION DETAILS
6-1. Foundation Preparation. Earth foundations should be properly

compacted and should be clean and damp before concrete is placed. Rock
foundations should be cleaned and given any other necessary treatment to
insure proper bond of concrete to rock. Some rock foundations, primarily
shales, require a covering to protect them from deterioration after being
exposed and before concrete placement.
6-2. Concrete Mixture Proportions. Consideration should be given to the

materials that are economically available for a particular project.
EM 1110-2-2000 describes several optional compositions for concrete
mixtures; all options which are applicable to the work and which include
available materials should be investigated.
6-3. Constructability. The dimensions of the wall should be such that
reinforcement and concrete can be properly placed. EM 1110-2-2000
provides guidance for concrete placement. Guide specifications CW 03301
and CW 03305 provide detail requirements for concrete placement. The top
thickness of the stem for cantilever concrete walls should be a minimum
of 12 inches to facilitate concrete placement. The wall section should
be designed for simplicity and maximum re-use of forms. Any construction
constraints due to the location of the wall should be included in the
design.
6-4. Joints. Walls are designed with joints to allow for expansion,
contraction and/or to divide the structure into convenient working
units. The locations of all horizontal and vertical joints should be
shown on the drawings.
a. Expansion Joints
(1) General. Expansion joints are designed to prevent the crushing
and distortion (including displacement, buckling, and warping) of the
abutting concrete structural units that might otherwise occur due to the
transmission of compressive forces. Compressive forces may be developed
by expansion, applied loads or differential movements arising from the
configuration of the structure or its settlement. In general, expansion
joints are needed to prevent spalling and sometimes to break continuity.
In relatively thin reinforced concrete walls such joints should be
located where considerable expansion or unequal settlement is
anticipated, as at changes in alinement or grade, at abrupt changes in
section or at intermediate points when needed. In massive reinforced
concrete walls and in gravity walls on rock, expansion joints usually are
not provided unless required at abrupt changes in section or at angle
monoliths to relieve thrust from expected expansion. Otherwise, adequate
6-1
EC 1110-2-510
31 Aug 83 6-4a(l)
chamfers on each side of each contraction joint usually are sufficient to

prevent spalling. Where temperature variations are extreme, modification
of these criteria may be required. Reinforcing steel, corner protection
angles and other fixed metal embedded in or bonded to the surface of the
concrete should not extend through an expansion joint. Where water
tightness is needed, waterstops are provided as outlined in paragraph
6-4d.
(2) Joint Filler. The thickness of joint filler necessary to

provide stress relief at a joint should be determined from the estimated
initial contraction and subsequent expansion from maximum temperature
variation. Premoulded expansion joint filler and adequate chamfers
should be used.
b. Contraction (Monolith) Joints. These are purposely made planes

of weakness designed to regulate cracking that might otherwise occur due
to the unavoidable, often unpredictable, contraction of concrete
structural units. They also divide the structure into convenient working
units and thus serve also as construction joints. Since it is
impracticable and uneconomical to provide sufficient reinforcement to
prevent cracks entirely, it is desirable to control their location,
insofar as is practicable, by vertical contraction joints, across which
reinforcement does not extend. No exact rules for the location of such
joints can be made. Each job must be studied to determine where the
joints should be placed, taking into account the requirements of
structural design, the volume of concrete which can be placed
economically in a single working unit and the economical use of form
units. Typically, contraction joints have been spaced 20 to 30 feet
apart. Usually a contraction joint has a plane surface without a key.
For cantilever concrete walls vertical joints may be located only in the
stem, and the footing may be a continuous placement.
c. Horizontal Construction Joints. These joints are provided to

divide a wall into convenient working units, but they should be kept to a
minimum. Keys are not permitted in horizontal construction joints as
they iterfere with good cleanup of the concrete surface and because a
well-bonded flat surface is more dependable to transfer shear.
(1) Gravity Concrete Walls. For this type of wall the horizontal
construction joint locations are dictated by the height of each lift of
concrete placement. Concrete for gravity walls is usually placed in
lifts up to 10 feet high. The top surface of each lift is cleaned and
roughened by high pressure water jets before placing the next lift.
(2) Cantilever Concrete Walls. For this type of wall a construction

joint between the base and the wall stem should be provided. Additional
horizontal joints in the wall stem should be provided by lifts
approximately 10 feet high. The surface of each joint should be
roughened to obtain as much shear strength across the joint as possible.
6-2
EC 1110-2-510
6-4d 31 Aug 83
d. Joint Details for Flood Walls. For expansion and contraction

joint details for flood walls, see paragraph 7-14.
e. Waterstops. Waterstops are provided across joints where water
tightness is required. Where appreciable differential movement is
possible because of a yielding foundation, non-metallic waterstops, such
as rubber or polyvinyl chloride (PVC) waterstops, should be used in
accordance with EM 1110-2-2102. For special flood wall waterstop
details, see Chapter 7, Section V.
6-5. Backfilling.
a. General. Many types of material can be used for backfill It is
advisable to use locally available material when possible.
b. Materials. Clean sands and gravels are the most suitable
materials. They are rapid draining, not susceptible to frost action, and
remain stable. Silty sands, silts, and coarse grained soils containing
some clay are less desirable as they drain slowly, are subject to
seasonal volume changes, and m^y lose much of their strength with time.
Shrinkage cracks may develop in clay which, when filled with water, can
cause full hydrostatic pressures.to act on the wall During winter
construction the use of frozen backfill material should not be used under
any circumstances. This material mqy appear satisfactory when placed,
but it can be adversely affected when it thaws.
c. Drainage. It is necessary to provide a designed drainage system
that will prevent the accumlation of water behind the wall regardless of
the type of backfill material used. The system should include a gravel
pack, perforated pipe or weep holes. Water from a free draining material
can be removed by horizontal drains or weepholes.
(1) Horizontal Drains. This type of drain consisting of perforated
pipe, surrounded by a filter are preferable. The pipe should be large
enough for cleaning and have outlets accessible for cleaning. Collector
pipes with 1/4 inch perforations are normally used; however, to minimize
clogging due to formation or iron oxides, perforations as large as 3/4-
inch may be used in conjunction with additional protective filters.
(2) Weepholes. Weepholes consist of pipe at least 3 inches in
diameter extending through the stem of the wall; they constitute a
minimum drainage system, Weepholes should be protected against clogging
by pockets of gravel in the backfill. They are commonly spaced not more
than 10 feet apart vertically and horizontally.
6-3
EC 1110-2-510
31 Aug 83 6-5c(3)
(3) Filter Criteria. Drains must be designed so that seepage water

is admitted freely, but movement of backfill particles is prevented. If
soil moves into the filter, piping may result or the filter may become
clogged and ineffective. A filter properly designed to prevent the
infiltration of base materials into the filter material must satisfy
stability and permeability criteria as follows:
D15 Filter
5
Dgs Base <
and
D50 Filter
25
D50 Base <
To assure that the filter material is much more permeable than the
material being drained, the following condition should be met:
D15 Filter
5
D15 Base >
To prevent clogging of perforated collector pipes or drains, the

following requirement must be satisfied:
Circular Openings
D50 Filter
Hole Diameter ■ 1-0
Slotted Openings
D50 Filter
Slot Width > 1-2
The filter materials may satisfy the criteria for stability and
permeability but may be too fine to meet the criteria for the circular or
slotted pipe openings. If this happens then multilayered or graded
filters are required. The filter material must not become segregated or
contaminated prior to, during, or after installation. Segregation will
result in zones of material too fine te meet the permeability requirements
and other zones too coarse to meet the: stability requirements. Contamina¬
tion of the filter material from muddy water, dust, etc during construc¬
tion may clog the voids in the material and prevent proper drainage. In
the event that filter or drain materials are contaminated, they should be
replaced.
6-4
EC 1110-2-510
6-5d 31 Aug 83
d. Placing and Compacting. The backfill material should be

carefully selected. It should be compacted to prevent large settlements
due to its own weight. The amount of compaction required depends on the
material used and the purpose of the structure. Very strict control of
compaction is required when the fill is a cohesive soil, and even when
granular fill is used the material should be placed in thin lifts with
each lift being compacted before the next lift is placed. However,
precautions should be taken to prevent overcompaction which will cause
excessive lateral forces to be applied on the structure. If heavy
compaction rollers are used within the soil wedge boundary used for
computing lateral earth pressures, their effect on the wall should be
considered in the design. It is good practice to place impervious soil
in the upper lift of the backfill to reduce infiltration of rain water.
Backfill should be brought up equally on both sides until the lower-side
finished grade is reached.
6-5
OR EC 1110-2-510
31 Aug 83
CHAPTER 7
SPECIAL CONSIDERATIONS FOR FLOOD WALLS
Section I. General
7-1. Introduction. This chapter discusses flood walls. The principal

function of a flood wall is to prevent flooding (inundation) of adjacent
land. It is subject to hydraulic loading on one side which is resisted by
little or no earth loading on the other side. There are two principal types
of flood walls, inland and coastal. Inland flood walls typically are
installed along a river bank and are subjected to design loadings (pool to
freeboard line) for periods of hours or days (long term). Coastal flood walls
are primarily subjected to short term loadings (waves from hurricanes along
with wind/tide high water surges). The wave loadings are dynamic in nature
and only act upon the structure for a few seconds each.
7-2. Background Behind Loading Cases.
a. How Design Water Surface is Determined. The hydraulic data required

for flood wall design should be listed in the hydrologic/hydraulic appendix of
the pertinent planning document for the project. The flow characteristics
noted in historical records and indicated from detailed observation of
existing conditions will usually be basic to the design of inland flood
walls. Coastal flood walls will frequently require hurricane surge simulation
studies and wave setup estimates.
b. Freeboard. The freeboard of a channel is the vertical distance
measured from the design water surface to the top of the wall. Freeboard is
provided to ensure that the desired degree of protection will not be reduced
by unaccounted factors. These might include erratic hydrologic phenomena;
future development of urban areas; unforeseen wall settlement; the
accumulation of silt, trash and debris; aquatic or other growth in the
channels; and variation of resistance or other coefficients from those assumed
in design. Local regions where water-surface elevations are difficult to
determine may require special considerations. Some examples are locations in
or near channel curves, hydraulic jumps, bridge piers, transitions and drop
structures, major junctions, local storm inflow structures, and coastal areas.
As these regions are subject to wave-action uncertainties in water-surface
computations, and possible overtopping of walls, especially for rapid flow,
conservative freeboard allowances should be used. The backwater effect at
bridge piers may be especially critical if debris accumulation is a problem.
The amount of freeboard cannot be fixed by a single, widely applicable
formula. It depends in large part on the size and shape of channel, type of
channel lining, consequence of damage resulting from over-topping, and
velocity and depth of flow. A freeboard allowance of two feet for rectangular
sections of channel (with flood walls) is generally considered satisfactory.
When large non-breaking waves are incident normal to the stem of the flood
7-1
EC 1110-2-510
31 Aug 83
wall, the amount of freeboard will be determined by the amount of overtopping

allowed, remembering that such overtopping can cause significant scour on the
protected (toe) side of the wall. This potential for scour can require rigid
paving within the area 20 to 30 feet of the wall. It is usually economical to
vary concrete wall heights by 0.5 foot increments so that the forms can be
reused.
c. Loading Cases. For determining water and soil loads acting on flood
walls, see Chapter 3. For the loading cases, see Section I of Chapter 4.
Section II. Seepage Control
7-3. General. The first consideration of a flood wall design should be

seepage control requirements. All water-retaining structures are subject to
seepage through, under and around. Inadequate control of the seepage, as
shown by one example in Figure 7-1, may affect the stability of a flood wall
from uplift or loss of support resulting from erosion. Properly controlled
seepage, even if quantities of flow remain large, presents little or no
hazard. In flood walls, control of through seepage is provided for by
waterstops (see Figures 7-2A through 7-2C). Seepage around the wall is
controlled by carefully designed and constructed levee wrap-around sections.
Provisions to control underseepage vary between projects because flood walls
are usually founded on alluvium that consists of layers or lenses of materials
with largely varying permeabilities. Flood walls are usually provided with a
toe drain, which must be carefully designed, especially when the foundation
has a stratum of pervious materials at or near the ground surface. Pervious
strata are frequently connected directly to the riverbed and therefore allow
rapid transmission of flood heads. Also both natural deposits and constructed
fills have stratified permeability properties. The horizontal permeability,
Kh, may be many times as great as the vertical permeability, Kv.
7-4. Underseepage Control. Two approximate methods for evaluating
underseepage are presented in Chapter 3. They are the line of seepage method
and the method of fragments. These methods are appropriate for the analysis
of most flood walls, with the method of fragments being preferred. In some
instances, where complex problems of geometry, anisotropy, and foundation
layering exist, flow nets will have to be constructed for proper analysis.
Water pressures obtained form the seepage analysis are used in evaluating the
stability of the wall in sliding, overturning and bearing. The uplift
pressures and critical exit gradient should be determined. If boils are not a
problem, no seepage control measures may be necessary. Where boils are of
concern, the underseepage must be controlled. The seepage control measures
described in the following paragraphs are all designed to control underseepage
by reducing uplift head at the toe and/or to reduce or control the volume of
water necessary to control piping.
a. Cutoffs. A cutoff beneath the wall to block seepage through a

pervious foundation stratum is the most positive means of eliminating seepage
7-2
EC 1110-2-510
31 Aug 83
EXPLODED VIEW OF FLOW OF WATER

AROUND WATERSTOP IN JOINT BETWEEN
PROTOTYPE FLOOD WALL MONOLITHS-
WATERSTOP BURIED IN INTERIOR OF
CONCRETE
PATH OF FLOWING WATER
FIGURE 7-1 FLOW AROUND INTERIOR EMBEDDED

WATERSTOP IN THE BASE.
7-3
EC 1110-2-510
31 Aug 83
SEE DETAIL "A
RIYER FACE OF HALL CIRCULAR OPENING OF WATER

STOP AT TOP TO BE PLUGGED
WITH SOFT RUBBER FOR A MIN¬
IMUM DEPTH OF i INCHES.
7>-r CHAMFER
BOND BREAKER
RIVER FACE OF WALL
AS REQUIRED (SEE SECTION
A-A AND B-B) TYPE "Y" WATER STOP
/^GROUND SURFACE
DETAIL "A"
TRANSITION-SEE DETAIL- CONST JT
TYPE "U" WATER STOP
TYPICAL SEtmON
r-^RIVER FACE RIVER FACE

fT, OF WALL OF WALL
STOP
jr PREMOULDED EXPANSION JOINT

CONTRACTION JOINTS, v MATERIAL.CMAKE JOiNT lM THICK
BOND BREAKER ;'• x: '-?1 AT CHANGE OF DIRECTION STEMS)
MWOLITH JOINT TYPE A

MONOLITH JOINT TYPE B
SECTION A-A
CONTRACTION JOINTS,
BOND BREAKER ? PREMOULDED EXPANSION
JOINT MATERIAL
TYPE MU" WATER

STOPS
JIONOLITH JOINT TYPE A MONOLITH JOINT TYPEy

SECTION B-B
MONOLITH JOINT DETAIL

NOTES:
1. DETAILS ARE CONTINUED ON FIGURES 7-2B ft C.
2. EXTREME CARE SHOULD BE EXERCISED IN PLACING
TYPEVWATER STOP TO INSURE FIRM CONTACT WITH
THE PREPARED SUBGRADE THROUGHOUT ITS ENTIRE
CONTACT AREA.
9. TYPE V JOINT USED IN STRAIGHT RUNS OF WALL.
4. TYPE "B" JOINT USED AT JUNCTURES OF WALL WITH
GATE WELLS, PUMP STATIONS AND GATE ABUTMENTS,
AND IN CHANGE OF DIRECTION MONOLITHS.
FIGURE 7-2A. TYPICAL JOINT AND WATERSTOP DETAILS

7-4
EC 1110-2-510
31 Aug 83
I -6
♦<e)
1-6,1-6
TYPE U VyATER STOP
LOW BASE
■VARIES FOR EAOI HEIGHT

PER LOW BASE WALL
LOW BASE WALL • 'A'.'
RIVER FACE OF WALL '♦2(3 12'

JL1
TYPE Y WATER STOI» SKTtPW P-P
—'
X I I'-6"
*2 /3 12" *2(ai2"
;b.- .VD;
* HIGH
BASE
VARIES -
TYPE "U" WATER STOP- : A . I / »-'

r;*.:
LOW BASE
PLAN
K ^ TYPEV
WATERSTOP
SECTION E-E
*4^ 12"
• 0 •- • '.* '.
TYPE "U"
WATERSTOP
STOP 86CTI9H F- F
S6CTIQN
/ARIES
TRANSITIONS AT CHANGES IN WALL HEIGHT
FIGURE 7-2B. TYPICAL JOINT AND WATERSTOP DETAILS (CONT'D)

7^-5
EC 1110-2-510
31 Aug 83
TYPE Y
BASE*
TYPE "Y"
TYPE^"
TRANSITION BETWEEN STEM AND BASE

ISOMETRIC SKETCH
TYPE'V
WATER STOP DETAILS
FIGURE 7-2C TYPICAL JOINT AND WATERSTOP

DETAILS (CONCLUDED)
7-6
EC 1110-2-510
7-4a 31 Aug 83
problems. A cutoff can consist of an excavated trench backfilled with

impervious compacted earth, a slurry trench, an extension of a concrete shear
key or a sheet pile wall. A cutoff is usually located at the end of the wall
footing on the unprotected (heel) side. A cutoff must penetrate approximately
95 percent or more of the pervious strata before reductions in the quanity of
flow can be realized. The decision as to the type and depth of a cutoff
should be based on an underseepage analysis using actual site conditions. A
steel sheet pile cutoff is not entirely watertight due to leakage at the
interlocks but can significantly reduce the possibility of piping of coarse
grained material in the foundation. The effectiveness of a steel sheet pile
cutoff through a coarse grained stratum in reducing the seepage head (uplift)
should generally be assumed to be 25 to 50 percent, if interlock between the |
piling is maintained. A steel sheet pile cutoff is less effective in fine
grain material than in coarse grain material. Bearing value of a steel sheet
pile cutoff should be neglected, as should its effect on uplift for stability
purposes if an underseepage analysis has not been performed.
b. Drainage Systems.
(1) Toe Drains. All flood walls should be provided with a landside
toe drain similar to the one shown in Figure 7-3. The toe drain which runs
parallel to the wall at the landside edge of the footing provides a positive
outlet for underseepage and a check for controlling piping. The toe drain
should never be located under the wall footing. A typical toe drain design
will consist of a 6-inch to 8-inch diameter pipe perforated on the bottom half
and surrounded in all directions with 6 to 10 inches of filter material
designed by the filter criteria in paragraph 6-5c(3). The collected water is
usually disposed of by gravity outlets into ditches, ponding areas or pump
stations. A well designed toe drain system will provide inspection or
maintenance access at changes in the toe drain alignment or at intervals not
to exceed 500 feet. Discharge pipes should be provided with gate traps that
will prevent surface water from entering the toe drain. A seepage analysis
should assume tailwater elevation at the elevation of the discharge pipe
outlets. For flood walls on bearing piles, the toe drain must protect against
"roofing." For an impervious foundation, a toe drain is usually all that is
necessary to accommodate the small quantity of seepage. When the foundation
contains pervious material, seepage control measures in addition to a toe
drain are required.
(2) Trench Drains. When pervious material is near the ground

surface, a trench drain may be used to control seepage. A trench drain is an
enlarged variation of a toe drain. A trench drain is usually two to four feet *
wide. It extends from the ground surface through shallow pervious layers or
into a pervious layer underlying a shallow surface blanket. The practical
depth for construction of a trench drain will depend on available excavation
equipment and site dewatering requirements. The excavation, pipe placement
and backfilling of the trench should always be performed in an unwatered
construction site. To assure adequate pipe capacity, the collector pipe
7-7
EC 1110-2-510
31 Aug 83
WATER SIDE LAND SIDE
GROUND LINE
///0M/ }?M/Mf
i
i
HEEL
"TOE
DRAIN
BASE WIDTH
-SHEET PILE
CUTOFF (OPTIONAL)
2-6
SAND 8 GRAVEL
O
-1
6"0 PIPE PERFORATED

ON BOTTOM HALF
TOE DRAIN DETAIL
FIGURE 7-3. T-TYPE FLOOD WALL-HORIZONTAL BASE

7-8
EC 1110-2-510
7-4b(2) 31 Aug 83
(perforated on the bottom half) and the outlet pipes should be sized
considerably larger than computations indicate to be necessary. Backfill in a
trench drain shall conform to filter criteria in paragraph 6-5c(3). A trench
drain should be provided with inspection and maintenance access and back flow
protection as described for toe drains. The seepage analysis should assume
the tailwater elevation equal to the discharge elevation of the trench drain.
c. Relief Wells. Pressure relief wells are used to relieve artesion

pressures in pervious layers, usually found at some depth under a surface
blanket, which might otherwise cause piping. The depth of penetration is one
of the advantages of wells. Another advantage of relief wells is the ease
with which they can be constructed after the flood wall has been completed if
piezometric pressures indicate the need for additional wells. They are
particularly useful in controlling large quantities of seepage in strata of
pervious material having direct connections with the river. Because the
efficiency of relief wells deteriorates with time, considerable monitoring and
maintenance may be required to assure the relief well system provides seepage
control for the project life. Design of relief well systems is described in
EM 1110-2-1905 and EM 1110-2-1901. The performance of relief wells depends on
selection of proper sizes of pipe, gravel filter and well screen, and on
careful installation which includes "development" of the well. Relief wells
should be pump tested when installed. When the well is pump tested later as
part of the evaluation of performance program, the initial pump test results
are compared to determine the reduction in well efficiency and to determine
when the well needs maintenance and cleaning. A seepage analysis should
assume the plane of the line of relief wells as an equal potential surface.
The tailwater elevation should be the discharge elevation of the wells. The
well spacing is selected to provide the design safety factor at the mid-well
pressure head.
d. Riverside Impervious Blankets. Impervious riverside blankets

overlying a pervious foundation are effective in reducing the quantity of
seepage and to some extent are effective in reducing uplift pressures and
gradients landside of the flood wall. They may be constructed over thin
natural impervious blankets to improve the effects of the natural blankets or
they may be constructed directly on pervious material. In some instances, it
may be desirable to remove pervious materials and replace with impervious
blanket material. The steepness of the river bank may mean blankets are not
feasible to construct. Also, it may not be possible to construct blankets
over the portions of the pervious layer under water. A noncontinuous blanket
has serious drawbacks inasmuch as only a small area of pervious stratum left
exposed to the flood heads may defeat the purpose of the impervious blanket.
Riverside impervious blankets need to overlap the riverside base of the flood
wall so that potential rupture of the blanket by landward deflection of the
flood wall when loaded is minimized. Riverside impervious blankets may be
subject to the scouring action of high river stages at the time they would be
most needed. To prevent such detrimental action, blankets should be protected
immediately after construction. Ordinarily, a well designed and planted
7-9
EC 1110-2-510
31 Aug 83
vegetative cover on straight runs is sufficient. Along outside curves of the

river, the blankets should be protected with riprap or other positive
protection.
e. Landside Berms. Landside berms can be used to control seepage. They

serve to reinforce the natural landside blanket. The design is based on the
effective weight of the blanket necessary to resist the uplift head. The berm
also extends the seepage path by forcing the seepage exit landward. Proce¬
dures for design are presented in TM 3-424, "Investigation of Underseepage and
Its Control" (Reference 35). Landside berms should be constructed of
materials more permeable than the natural blanket, otherwise the berm will
create a new thin blanket rather than add to the thickness of the natural
blanket. All blanketing expected to be used in the construction for the flood
wall should be considered in the seepage control design for the wall.
f. Grouting of Open Rock Joints. In cases where rock is high enough that
flood walls can be placed directly on the rock, close examination of the rock
surface is necessary to determine if open joints are present. Such joints can
be detrimental to underseepage control. Open joints should be cleaned out and
filled with grout before the concrete base is placed. If the possibility
exists for seepage flow through porous or cavernous rock in the foundation,
consideration should be given for installing a grout curtain.
7-5. Choice of Seepage Control Measure. Selection of a type of seepage

control measure depends first on the critical gradient safety factor that is
provided and second on economics if a choice remains after safety considera¬
tions. The need for control is determined by a thorough analysis of the
foundation, including permeability studies, and an estimate of the uplift
heads and quantities of seepage by use of a proper seepage analysis. Further
description and discussion of seepage control measures are included in EM
1110-2-1901.
Section III. Foundation Considerations
7-6. Base Types. The T-wall is the most widely used flood wall type.
T-walls are normally constructed with either horizontal or sloped bases. The
advantages of each type of base are as follows:
a. Horizontal Base. (Figure 7-3)
(1) The volume of foundation excavation is usually less for a

horizontal base and it is simpler to construct.
(2) Bearing values and base pressures for the two base,types are not
directly comparable. However, for equal heights, base pressures of the
horizontal base generally are smaller because of its reduced earth load and
slightly wider base.
7-10
EC 1110-2-510
7.6b 31 Aug 83
b. Sloped Base. (Figure 7-4)

(1) A sloped base may allow shortening or complete elimination of a
key, which reduces excavation difficulties. Also, a shorter key will generate
less moment in the heel adjacent to the key and will generally allow for a
shorter base width to maintain overturning equilibrium.
(2) The deep cover or blanket over the heel of a sloped base lessens
the chance of rupturing the cover-as the wall moves under load.
(3) The resultant of applied forces is more nearly normal to a sloped
base, thereby reducing the tendency of the structure to slide along that
plane.
(4) A full size flood wall test performed by the Ohio River Division
(1948-1956) indicated that the sloped base wall moved consistently less than
the horizontal base wall of comparable design.
c. Selection, Both base types have their advantages and disadvantages.
Final selection will depend upon the specific site condition at the project
Under consideration.
7-7. Unsuitable Foundation Material and Overbank Fills, Foundation material

found to be unsuitable may be avoided by a change in alignment or may be
removed and replaced with suitable earth fill (see Figure 7-5). The wall may
also be founded on piles through the unsuitable material. In some cases the
removal of unsuitable foundation material involves the removal of or cutting
into the existing river bank on which the flood wall is to be placed. In
other cases the right-of-way may be so restricted and confining that the flood
wall may have to be placed near the top edge of the bank or even riverward of
the bank. In those cases overbank fill is permitted, if proper precautionary
measures are taken. Careful attention must be paid to the outlining of and
removal of unsatisfactory material and to the selection of suitable replace¬
ment material. New material must be obtained, placed and compacted to provide
adequate support for the flood wall. Replacement material should undergo the
same types of laboratory testing as that which similar existing foundation
material is subjected. Placement and compaction techniques should approximate
earth dam and levee requirements. Slopes steeper than 1.0V on 1.5H and areas
that require hand compaction should be minimized. Slopes on which there is
evidence of past instability, or in which fill is a component, should be
investigated for stability. All overbank slopes should be investigated for
sudden drawdown from top of bank.
7-8. Scour Protection. Occasionally a flood wall is exposed to scouring

because of the direction, curvature and velocity of current or waves,
characteristics of the soil, topography, etc. Scouring at the wall footing
should be considered, and where anticipated, protected with riprap.
7-11
EC 1110-2-510
31 Aug 83
WATER SIDE LAND SIDE
GROUND LINE
i/WWPt/ "1 "HW/W
BASE WIDTH
SHEET PILE
CUTOFF (OPTIONAL)
hGURE 7-4. T-TYPE FLOOD WALL-SLOPED BASE

7-12
EC 1110-2-5L0
31 Aug 83
SLOPE NO STEEPER THAN I j TO I

EXCEPT WHERE IMPOSSIBLE BE¬
CAUSE OF SPACE RESTRICTIONS
REMOVAL LIMIT REMOVAL LIMIT
ZONE I ZONE
UNSUITABLE MATERIAU-
POROUS,FILL,CINDERS,BTC, TOP OF SUITABLE
REPLACE WITH SUITABLE
MATERIAL ' MATERIAL'
^ SHEET PILE
CUTOFF (OPTIONAL)
ZONE 2 - SUITABLE FOUNDATION MATERIAL
hGURE 7-5. REMOVAL LIMITS OF UNSUITABLE

FOUNDATION MATERIAL
7-13
EC 1110-2-510
31 Aug 83
Section IV. Types of Monoliths
7-9. Change-of-Alignment Monoliths. Changes in alignment require special

monoliths (see Figure 7-6). Monoliths with less than a 10 degree change
(horizontal) do not need to be analyzed as special monoliths. Monoliths of
short length or abrupt alignment changes may require very wide bases. A 90-
degree corner monolith is an indeterminant structure. Adjacent monoliths
should not be considered to provide resistance in the stability analysis.
7-10. Closure and Abutment Monoliths. A number of openings must be provided

in many flood walls. The openings provide access for commerce, safety and
recreation during periods of low river stages. The number and size of
openings depend on local requirements. Each opening must be provided with a
moveable closure structure. During flood periods, the closure structure is
installed on base and abutment monoliths (this combination is a special
monolith). These special monoliths must be designed both for the design water
load at high water and traffic loads during low water periods.
7-11. Drainage Structure Monoliths. When topography, foundation conditions

and economics permit, it is preferable that structures housing gates and pumps
be designed as integral parts of the flood wall. These special monoliths must
be designed to minimize differential settlement across a monolith or between
adjacent monoliths. For closure gate type requirements and the need for
secondary closure gates for drainage outlets, see EM 1110-2-1410.
7-12. Transition Sections Between Flood Walls and Levees.

a. Junctures. A junction between a T-wall and levee is not made directly
or abruptly, but with a short transition concrete-capped sheet piling I-wall
between the two (see Figures 7-7 and 7-8). One of the primary concepts in the
development of this transition is to arrange details so there will be a
minimum amount of differential movement of joints of monoliths in the transi¬
tion. The levee end of the transition will usually settle a considerable
amount, due primarily to foundation consolidation under the added weight of
the levee. The T-wall monolith immediately adjacent to the beginning of the
levee adds far less superimposed weight on the foundation. Hence, there is
much less settlement at this end of the transition. The I-wall can be
satisfactorily adopted as a transition section between levee and T-wall
because this type of construction can, and in fact must, be done after
completion of the levee. A delay in inserting the i-wall allows for settling
of the levee, thus lessening the differential settlement between the levee end
of the transition and the T-wall.
b. I-wall. The I-wall portion of the transition is begun where the levee
slope (parallel to the protection) becomes 10 feet below top of wall. In
cases in which protection is already 10 feet or less near the levee, an I-
wall, if used, is merely continued into the levee as shown on Figure 7-7.
7-14
EC 1110-2-510
31 Aug 83
WATER SIDE
RE-ENTRANT
MONOLITHS
LAND SIDE
PLAN
WATERSIDE
vv
KEYS <<^J-
STEM-^
RE-ENTRANT MONOLITH LAND SIDE
PLAN
FIGURE 7-6. RETURN KEYS ON RE-ENTRANT MONOLITH

7-15
hiC 1110-2-510
31 Aug 83
LEVEE
T-WALL
TOP OF START I-WALL WHERE h

EMBANKMENT^ BECOMES 10'
/ "2
EE FIGURE 7-8 ^ A
FOR SECTION A-A
MAX. ELEVATION OF
L GROUND LINE
■7/7/7™
LOWER END OF PILING

KEY TURNED BACK TO STEM
/
FIRST 1-6 OF CONCRETE CAP BOTTOM OF ADJACENT KEY
CONTINUED TO BOTTOM OF PILE
ELEVATION
T WALL - I WALL-LEVEE TRANSITION
SHEET PILING ONLY

LEVEE
n I-WALL (CONCRETE CAP AND SHEET PILING)

TOP OF
EMB
TOP OF EMBANKMENT
2
GROUND LINE
Jf VM
-BOTTOM OF
CONCRETE
"77777
BOTTOM OF PILING
MAX ELEVATION OF LOWER END OF SHEET PILING;

DETERMINED BY STRUCTURAL REQUIREMENTS OR
SEEPAGE PROTECTION (SEEP PATH) REQUIREMENTS,
WHICHEVER IS LOWER .UP TO POINT "a", THEN
LINE abc DETERMINES THIS ELEVATION.
ELEVATION
I WALl-lEVEE TRANSITION
hGURE 7-7. FLOOD WALL-LEVEE TRANSITIONS

7-16
EC 1110-2-510
31 Aug 83
RIVER FACE OF WALL
1^ HOLES TO
BURNED IN FIELD -^
TYPE Y WATER
STOP TO MAKE
SNUG FIT WITH
SHEET PILE
WALL STEM
OR RETURN
KEY
= 2-r CL
JV
PREMOULDED EXP
JOINT MATERIAL
CONCRETE CAP TO
TERMINATE AT BOTTOM
OF ADJACENT WALL KEY
SECTION A-A
NOTE:
FOR LOCATION OF SECTION A-A
SEE FIGURE 7-7
FIGURE 7-8. TYPICAL DETAIL OF JOINT BETWEEN

I-WALL AND T-WALL
7-17
EC 1110-2-510
31 Aug 83
c. Sheet Piling. It should be noted in Figure 7-7 that the sheet piling
is continued into the levee beyond the last concrete cap a specified distance.
Section V. Waterstops and Joints
7-13. Waterstops. As shown on Figure 7-2, for yielding foundations a

U-shaped (Type "u") waterstop should enclose almost the entire base and a
center bulb (Type "y") waterstop, located in the stem, is- joined to the
U-shaped waterstop at the bottom of the stem. Experience has shown that a
center bulb or dumb-bell waterstop located within the base section is likely
to allow excessive seepage. Between monoliths on a foundation requiring a
cutoff, the type-'V waterstop in the stem should be extended to tie into the
cutoff, and the type-'V waterstop around the base deleted. The earth surface
on which a type "u" waterstop is installed must be firm and smooth, with no
chips, sags, humps, clods, or loose debris that would prevent intimate contact
between the waterstop and soil. See Chapter 6 for general guidance on
waterstops.
7-14. Contraction and Expansion Joints. Contraction and expansion joint

details are illustrated in Figures 7-2A through 7-2C. Contraction joints
(Type "A") should contain a bond-breaker. Expansion joints (Type "B") should
contain 1/2-inch preformed expansion joint filler in:
a. All protruding (convex on waterside) monolith bases, and in

selected reentrant monolith bases and stems as shown in Figure 7-6.
b. In bases and stems of alternate monolith joints in straight-line

runs, if warranted by previous experience with similar foundation conditions.
c. In bases and stems of junctures of walls with gate wells, pump

stations, gate abutments and similar structures. Nonflexible material in a
protruding angle joint is particularly dangerous.
d. See Chapter 6 for general guidance on joints.
Section VI. Site Considerations
7-15. Adjacent Structures and Rights-of-Way. Flood walls are usually built
because only a narrow right-of-way is available. The presence of existing
buildings or other structures is usually the reason for a narrow right-of-
way. Sewer pipes with open joints, structures with basements and excavations
close to the wall may create a hazard to the safety of a flood wall. Also,
new structures that are built close to existing flood walls can create the
same hazards. Present rights-of-way acquisition policies do not permit legal
restrictions to be placed on future construction; however, local interests
should be advised in writing of the potential hazards, required design and
construction measures, and requested to closely supervise new construction
close to the flood wall. Potential hazards can be avoided by proper design
7-18
EC 1110-2-510
7-15 31 Aug 83
and construction measures. One hazard that should be considered is seepage.

A basement or other excavation on the landside of the flood wall may result in
shortened seepage paths. A basement or excavation on the riverside may also
create a safety hazard if it penetrates the impervious blanket or shortens the
seepage path. When feasible, the basement or excavation should be backfilled
with the same type of material existing in the foundation of the flood wall.
If relief wells are selected to control seepage they should be located, if at
all possible, between the flood wall toe and the adjacent structure.
Discharge elevations may need to be lowered to protect the wall if the
basement area is to be protected. The location of relief wells within a
basement area is not prohibited, but it leads to problems of construction,
maintenance and discharge collection. If the seepage problem is only one of
quantity, sump pumping may be used during periods of high water. A second
hazard that landside basements and excavations create, is to lessen the
resistance to sliding along a foundation failure plane. Potential planes of
sliding into basements or excavations should be studied. If backfilling is
not possible, other measures include the addition of fill between the stem and
the building or strengthening the basement to provide the needed resistance.
Riverside excavations which contribute to riverward foundation instability
should be backfilled, at least to the extent that stability requirements will
be satisfied.
7-16. Architectural and Landscaping Considerations. Aesthetics should be

considered in the design of floodwalls, from the standpoint of blending the
project with the surroundings. Whenever possible, the wall should appear to
be a natural extension of the local topography. The basic design of these
structures should be a coordinated effort between the design engineer, the
architect, and the landscape architect. While it is seldom feasible to
preserve the natural setting intact, design techniques and careful
construction methods can be used to protect or even enhance the aesthetic
value of the immediate project area. Landscape planting design for project
structures should consider the entire area affected by the contemplated
construction. Further details may be found in EM 1110-2-39, "Architectural
Concrete" and EM 1110-2-301, "Landscape Planting at Floodwalls, Levees and
Embankment Dams".
Section VII. Instrumentation
7-17. General. Flood wall instrumentation should be considered so that
performance can be monitored, particularly during periods of high water.
Specifically, areas with high walls, low embedment ratios, replaced foundation
materials, overbank fills, pervious materials in the foundation and changes in
direction should be considered for instrumentation. When founding a flood
wall on earth, the distance between monoliths with piezometers should not
exceed 1000 feet. Properly installed, maintained and observed instrumentation
can forewarn of dangerous conditions that may affect the stability of the
structure. All instruments should be read soon after construction is
complete. Knowing the as-built conditions of the wall is essential to
7-19
EC 1110-2-510
31 Aug 83
accurately determine later behavior. Initial piezometer readings should be

repeated until equalization (steady state) occurs. All instrumentation
readings should be made by trained survey or flood patrol personnel. Ideally,
all instruments will be read frequently during high water stages. During
design floods, this procedure may prove nearly impossible because of the need
for trained personnel to direct flood fights; but readings should be made at
certain, previously selected critical locations during design flood stages.
During normal water stages, instruments should be read prior to District
periodic inspections so that the inspection party has the necessary evaluation
data. It also provides a history of the flood wall reactions over the years
during both high and normal water. Information concerning frequency and
manner of conducting periodic inspections and evaluations, is contained in
ER 1110-2-100.
7-18. Types of Instrumentation. The principal types of flood wall instrumen¬

tation monitor movements, both vertical and horizontal, and hydrostatic
pressures in the foundation. The instruments selected should be simple to
install and observe, and efficient in performance and functional reliability.
The monitoring of the movements provides an indication of possible sliding
instability or possible waterstop rupture. The piezometers provide a record
of hydrostatic pressures in the foundation which can indicate uplift and
possible excessive seepage pressures. Instrumentation systems, installations,
and devices, are discussed in detail in EM 1110-2-4300 "Instrumentation of
Concrete Structures".
a. Movement Monitoring, All reference points to monitor movements should

be tied in to a permanent base line located so that it is unaffected by move¬
ments of the wall. When establishment of a base line is not feasible, the
relative movements observed between monoliths can provide valuable data on
behavior of the wall. Reference points to monitor the wall movements need to
be installed during construction. Noncorrosive metal plugs should be
installed in the top surfaces of the stems within 6-inches of each end of each
monolith. The reference marks in the plugs of four to six successive
monoliths should be placed in a straight line with theodolite or stretched
wire. At changes in alignment, the straight line should be continued until it
intersects the far side of the next monolith and a reference point for
alignment control placed. Each plug's changes in horizontal movement and
elevation should be measured to 0.001 feet. Stations to be read with
electronic optical reading devices need to be established at locations near
the ground surface level on the landside of the stem. Selection of
electronic-optical station locations, for the stem should be based on factors
such as changes of direction, areas of overbank fill, foundation replacement,
high walls, low embedment ratios and junctures of flood walls with drainage
structures. The monitoring system selected should be vandal proof. In many
cases the monitoring system can be tied into the same baselines, established
for the reference markers on top of the wall.
7-20
EC 1110-2-bIO
7-18b 31 Aug 83
b. Foundation Piezometers. Design, installation and observations of

piezometers are described in EM 1110-2-1908, Part I. The simplest, most
reliable method of measuring pore water pressures is the open tube
piezometer. For impervious soils, the Casagrande type of piezometer with 24-
inch long porous stone is recommended. In order to measure the piezometric
pressure at the porous tip, the boring for installation of the Casagrande type
piezometer must be effectively sealed against migration of seepage along the
piezometer riser. For semi-pervious to pervious soils, a driven well-point
type of piezometer is recommended. Where possible, the well-point should be
driven into undersized, pre-bored holes. More piezometers can be added if
foundation conditions warrant.
Section VIII. O&M Manual Requirements
7-19. General. A general coverage of the requirements of local cooperation

is made in EM 1120-2-109 "Federal Participation in Major Drainage Improve¬
ments". As written, the regulations are general in nature and obviously
cannot give detailed instructions for the maintenance and operation of a
specific project; so it is necessary for the District Office having
jurisdiction over the specific project to issue an adequate Operation and
Maintenance Manual for the guidance of local interests.
Section IX. Review of Existing Flood Walls
7-20. Inspection. Flood walls should be inspected during the scheduled

periodic inspections, after major periods of high water, and when special
events warrant an inspection (building or excavating near the wall, etc.).
A determination of areas which may be weak or critical from the standpoint of
leakage and stability should be made. Criteria for this determination are
described below. Areas deficient in any of the criteria will be considered
weak or critical, depending on the degree of deficiency.
a. Horizontal Movement. Areas in which movement of a straight section of
monoliths or differential movement between any two monoliths is greater than
expected will be considered critical.
b. Joint Opening or Spreading. Joints referred to in this paragraph are

those having a waterstop embedded in the interior of the section. Using the
results of the full size flood wall test performed by the Ohio River Divison,
(ORD) in 1955, expected spreading of joints at 90 degree re-entrant corner
monoliths (concave on riverside) will be 42 percent of the expected movement
of the straight run walls. Not only may joints at corner monoliths become
critical upon application of load, but joints below ground which are open
should be considered critical. Any joint can become open through loss of
joint filler or through unequal settlement between adjacent monoliths or
structures such as levees, pump houses, gate wells and gate abutments. Some
joints below ground may need to be excavated to determine the adequacy of
7-21
EC 1110-2-510
31 Aug 83
joint filler. If the expected joint opening is greater than the allowable,
the area should be considered critical.
c. Head Cover. Any areas in which the earth cover over the waterward end
of the heel is less than 5 feet will be considered critical. In addition,
walls over 20 feet above ground having cover less than 0.1H + 3* (H= height of
stem) should be considered critical.
d. Foreign Material in Joints. The presence of inflexible foreign

material, such as grout and pieces of aggregate in expansion joints is
dangerous from two standpoints. Grout, particularly if located within the
fold of the waterstop, destroys the flexibility of the waterstop and, upon the
occurrence of differential movements, allows the waterstop to be torn. Grout
and pieces of aggregate anywhere in the joint prevent the joint from
fulfilling its expansion function. This condition becomes particularly
dangerous at protruding angle locations; i.e. where the wall appears convex
when viewed from the river. Here, the wall may be tilted waterward by a
wedging action upon expansion of adjacent monoliths in hot weather, and
overstress in the stem at its base occurs. The same tilting can occur at re¬
entrant monoliths (Figure 7-6), but there the tilting is landward and the
reinforcing is more nearly adequate to resist the stress. For angle monoliths
protruding toward the river, the landside temperature steel can be quickly
overstressed.
e. Waterstops. Joints with torn or parted waterstops should be

considered critical. Torn waterstops may not be noticed during an inspection,
particularly if the joint has not spread open. If sufficient differential
movement has occurred it should be assumed that the waterstop is torn. The
amount of tearing to be allowed should be based on factors causing piping;
however, this is very difficult to predict. In the above cases, if a total
differential movement (transverse and longitudinal combined) of 1/2 inch or
more has occurred, the waterstop should be considered torn unless shown
otherwise.
f. Foundation Voids. All unequal settlements should be viewed with
suspicion"^ In particular, unequal settlements adjacent to structures such as
pump houses and gate wells should be the subject of rigid examination.
Usually, one or two monoliths, or a portion of one monolith, is constructed on
compacted fill in these areas. Initial unequal settlement may cause the first
monolith to bridge or wedge between the second monolith and the other
structure. Further consolidation of the fill then leaves a dangerous void or
voids under this base. Only undergound examination will reveal the presence
of these voids.
g. Stabilty Analyses. Original seepage assumptions or patterns should be

reviewed for realistic representation of actual foundation conditions.
Particular attention should be paid to foundations having pervious strata
which connect directly with the river. Where indicated, new seepage should be
7-22
EC 1110-2-510
7-20g 31 Aug 83
computed and stability analyses recomputed. In addition to a recomputation of

uplift, the shear strengths used in the original analyses should be re¬
evaluated on the basis of a study of types of soil and their drainage and
consolidation characteristics. In cases where there is a lack of sufficient
foundation information in suspected weak areas, new soil samples should be
obtained as close to the existing wall as is feasible. In areas where heel
cover is less than 5 feet and additional cover is not feasible nor planned,
full flood head should be assumed to act down to the bottom of the base or key
if one is used. Areas found with questionable stability should be closely
observed during high floods.
h. Basements and Other Excavations. The seepage aspects and the

foundation stability of walls which have had basements excavated on either
side of and adjacent to the wall since the original design and construction
were completed should be investigated.
i. Seepage Conditions Landside of Floodwalls. These areas should be

investigated thoroughly and contol or relief provided if needed.
7-21. Repair Measures (emergency and permanent).

a. General. The following repair measures are suggested only. Their use
is not mandatory if more feasible or economical measures can be devised for
the individual problems involved.
b. Additional Landside Cover. The most obvious and straight-forward
method of reducing anticipated horizontal movement is the addition of landside
cover or fill to the wall (see Figure 7-9). At locations where additional
landside fill is not feasible nor possible due to highways, railroads and
other structures, measures such as those described in paragraph 7-21d below to
reduce seepage pressure will have to be employed to decrease landward
movement.
c. Additional Waterside Cover. In areas where earth cover over the
waterward end of the heel is deficient, the recommended remedy is the addition
of cover.
d. Supplemental Waterstops. The supplemental waterstop scheme shown in
Figures 7-10A and B is a means of correcting for torn waterstops, open joints
and possible earth cracking over the key because of thin heel cover or
excessive movements. The sheet piling shown in the scheme is necessary to
provide additional cut-off to compensate for loss of part or all of the normal
seep path between earth and the waterside face of the key. The pile cap
should be placed at the bottom of the key to limit excessive leakage of water
around the upstream and downstream ends of the pile curtain as the wall moves
landward under load. Another possible method of repair is to seal the opening
below the existing waterstop in the base by injecting cement grout. The
7-23
EC 1110-2-510
31 Aug 83
SAND,OR SAND
AND GRAVEL
PATH OF POSSIBLE LEAKAGE

IN SPREAD JOINTS
NOTE: THE AREA AND DEPTH OF MATERIAL

SHALL BE SUFFICIENT TO PREVENT
LOSS OF FOUNDATION MATERIAL AS
DETERMINED BY OBSERVATION OF THE
OUTFLOW.
FIGURE 7-9. EMERGENCY MEASURES TO CONTROL PIPING

7-24
EC 1110-2-510
31 Aug 83
-^ -^
CONCRETE PILE CAP-
TYPE U
HATER STOP "
2h
S* — HiTER SIDE ©F tf\^
/ EXISTIN© KEY *C#
' ^^îHIET PILIliS-
TYPE-U" j M |
WATER STOPJ !! j4v
/TYPE "Y-
WATER
STOP
5>-
ÊMISTHI© RIVER
I FACE OF WALL
sto*
, '-f
tiCTiew i-> vAme« «»*«
^JfARift J—\c r ^- EMMMMil JOWT-
HCT»tW A-A i-r

ttlVlR met EMISTMM • '#§1^
I WALL,TOP •?■*•• f
TTT
EXIStlNfi IMTEff STOP * .
A CXPAKtlOU JOIMT .
1—i - MmM OF EXISTMt KCY
4î«"T»«iMiMirr SAMOOLAST Oil OUSM
PILt LIFT HOLE OR HAMMER EKISTIIti SURFACE
MOLE MRNIO IN
FIELD
SECTKHi C-C
SECTION A-A a B-B
NOTE;
FOR SECTION D-D, SEE FIOUiE 7-IOS.
FIGURE 7-IOA. PERMANENT WATERSTOP REPAIR MEASURES

7-25
EC 1110-2-510
31 Aug 83
ALL CIRCULAR OPENINGS

AT WATER STOP EXTREMITIES
ARE TO SE PLUOOED WITH . —FILL WITH BITUMINOUS CEMENT
SOFT RUMER FOR A M IN -TOP OF EXISTING WALL
DEPTH OF 2 INCHES —
| DOWEL SOLTS
AST OR BUSH
I CHAMFER-
HAMMER EXIST SURFACE
TYPE"Y"WATER STOP-
^
DRIVER FACE OF EXISTIM
SECTION AT TOP OF WALL

SEE DETAIL "A" FOR CONNECTION OF
TYPEMU"WITH TYPE V WATER STOP
TYPE MU"WATER STOP
TYPE Y RUBBER
WATER STOP
TOP OF SHEET PILE
Ip"*^ SHEET PILING
TYPICAL SECTION AT JOINTS
EXISTING RIVER
FACE OF WALL
JOINT^ i CONTINUOUS WELD
X W-EXISTING
'l
'l
EXPANSION
JOINT /
PETAiL V
PUAH AT TOP y WALl NOTES: (FOR DETAIL V)
I. } X ZjRUm* STRIPS ARE FOR USE ONLY

AT CMAMGCS Ml D4RCCTION WNCRC TVPCMU*
STOP MUST BE CMT ON A BIAS A«B RE¬
JOINED. ON STRAIOMT RUNS THESE STMFS
MSB NOT ME USES.
2. BULM OF TYPEVSTOF ARE SNAWCB

DOWN TO WEB TO PROVIOC A FLAT SUR¬
FACE FOR BOLTING TO INSIOE OF
TYPE'V STOP.
•4^12
3. ALL RUBSER SURFACES IN CONTACT
I DOWEL BOLTS Q 12 TOP OF BASE WITH EACH OTHER ARE COATED
SLA»-^ WITH RUMER CEMENT
TOP OF BASE SLAB .-. I.BMl^î^SANOOLASf 0*i /

.* -■■-*.. '* BUSH HAMMER %
;A'^V|IoiA. EXIST SURMC^7
NOTES:
SANDBLAST OR BUSH EXIST EXPANSION JOINT
HAMMER EXIST SURFACE 1. FOR DET/NLS OF TYPE"YM • TYPEV RWOSER
EXIST WALL BASE^-) '-i
WATER STOPS, SEE FIGURE 7-EC.
2. ALL STEEL IN BLISTERS 2" CLEAR .
3. FOR SECTttM C-C, SEE FIGURE 7-IOA.
4. FOR SECTION D-D LOCATION, SEE

SECTION D-D FIGURE 7- IOA.
FIGURE 7-I0B. PERMANENT WATERSTOP REFttlR MEASURES

(CONCLUDED)
7-26
EC 1110-2-510
7-21d 31 Aug 83
opening above the waterstop in the base could be sealed with an elastic
sealant such as polysulphide elastomer.
e. Other Problem Areas. Foreign incompressible material in the joints

should be removed by the most expedient method. Riverside excavations near
the heel should be back-filled with impervious material if it is suspected
that dangerous seepage conditions may occur during high water.
f. Emergency Repair Measures. Where differential movement has torn the

waterstop above ground, water may squirt through the joint. This presents no
serious structural problem and, depending on the size of the resulting stream,
presents only a psychological problem. A weighted strip of canvas or plywood
dropped over the waterside of the wall may serve to reduce the flow. Exces¬
sive movement or tipping of the wall may indicate potential sliding failure.
On the ORD test wall (1955) the full size wall tended to tip waterward under
loads up to 10 feet. Thereafter, all stems tipped or deflected landward. At
present, the only known repair treatment is to load bulk sand and gravel
landward of the stem. Although the fill has the disadvantage of creating an
overturning force on the wall, the fill will provide considerable passive
resistance to landward movement of the floodwall through its actions on
potential failure surfaces in the foundations under and landward of the
base. Boils and leaks may result from almost any combination of horizontal
movement, opening of joints, shallow heel cover and torn waterstops below
ground. The most feasible solution appears to be to ring the boil area with
sand bags or to cover it with large amounts of sand and gravel to a height and
width sufficient to stop or appreciably slow water flow. In either case,
sufficient hydrostatic back pressure must be built up to reduce the velocity
of flow, thus reducing the scouring and piping action of water. Failure to
detect and stop boils promptly could lead to complete failure of a section of
wall.
g. Overtopping Scour Control. For coastal walls or other walls where
scour has removed landside cover, consideration should be given to placing
concrete slabs over the restored cover within a distance of 20 feet from the
wall stem.
7-27
DRAFT EC 1110-2-510
31 Aug 83
CHAPTER 8
GRAVITY CONCRETE WALLS

8-1. General. Factors favoring concrete gravity type retaining walls
are shallow depth of overburden, a competent foundation, and an adequate
source of fine and coarse aggregate for the required volume of concrete.
See Chapter 2, Section I for additional comments on gravity walls.
8-2. Foundation Investigation. The requirements for the foundation

investigation are discussed in Chapter 2, Section V.
8-3. Materials. Relatively low concrete compressive strengths (2,000 to
2,500 psi) will usually meet the requirements for the gravity type wall.
Where more durability is desirablet as at the outer surface, the exterior
concrete can be of higher strength than the interior mass. The age the
design strength is to be obtained should be decided by the designer
depending on the loading conditions anticipated. Materials and mixture
proportioning should follow guide specification CW 03305 and
EM 1110-2-2000.
8-4. Design.
a. Magnitude and Distribution of Forces.
(1) Dead!oad. The unit weight of concrete is usually assumed to be

150 pounds per cubic foot. Other dead loads considered should be super¬
imposed backfill and the weights of any equipment or other structures
supported by the wall.
(2) External Water Pressure. The pressure exerted by water above

ground and water in the ground should be determined as described in
Section II of Chapter 3.
(3) Internal Water Pressure (Uplift). The uplift on a lift
(horizontal construction joint) within the body of a concrete gravity
wall for long term water levels should be taken as 50 percent of the
value obtained by assuming a straight line variation between the full
hydrostatic pressures acting on each side the wall. Uplift pressures on
the base of the wall should be determined by the methods described in
Section II of Chapter 3.
(4) Lateral Earth Pressures. Lateral earth pressures should be

determined by the methods presented in Section I of Chapter 3.
(5) Wind and Earthquake Forces. These supplemental forces should be

determined by the methods presented in Section III of Chapter 3.
8-1
EC 1110-2-510
31 Aug 83
b. Load Cases. The load cases should be those described in Section

I of Chapter 4.
c. External Stability. Sliding and overturning stability should be

determined by the methods and criteria discussed in Chapter 4.
d. Internal Stability. The resultant of all forces acting on any

horizontal section should fall within the kern or sufficiently close to
the kern of the section to keep the tensile stresses low. See EM 1110-1-
2101 for allowable concrete stresses.
e. Foundation Analyses. Foundation analyses should be performed in

accordance with the methods described in Chapter 5.
8-2
DRAFT EC 1110-2-510
31 Aug 83
CHAPTER 9
CANTILEVER REINFORCED CONCRETE WALLS
9-1. GENERAL. The cantilever reinforced concrete wall is a special type

of a gravity wall in which part of the stabilizing weight is supplied by
the weight of the backfill resting on the base slab. The structural
members are designed for stress due to bending and shear. See Chapter 2,
Section I, for additional general corments on cantilever concrete walls.

9-3. Materials. Concrete materials and mixture proportioning should

follow guide specification CW 03301 and EM 1110-2-2000. Typically, a
concrete compressive strength of 3,000 psi is used for retaining walls.
The age the specified strength is to be obtained should be decided by the
designer depending on the loading conditions anticipated. Steel
reinforcement bars should follow the specifications in the ACI Building
Code,3^ with the exception that for hydraulic structures the grade of
steel will be limited to ASTM Grade 60 without special approval.
9-4. Reinforcement Cover. For hydraulic structures the minimum

reinforcement cover should comply with EM 1110-2-2103. For non-hydraulic
structures the minimum reinforcement cover should comply with the ACI
Building Code34 requirements.
9-5. Load Cases. The load cases should be those described in Section I
of Chapter 4. The magnitude and distribution of the loads should be
determined as described in Chapter 3.
9-6. Structural Stability. Sliding and overturning stability should be

determined by the methods and criteria discussed in Chapter 4.
9-7. Reinforced Concrete Design.
a. General. Reinforced concrete walls should be designed with the

strength design method in accordance with the current ACI Building Code,
34, except as herein specified. Notations used are the same as those
in the ACI Building Code, except those defined herein. (See Appendix J
for a complete list of notation used in Chapter 9.) WES Technical Report
SL-80-43bf contains design aids consistent with the information
presented in this chapter.
9-1
EC 1110-2-510
31 Aug 83
b. Hydraulic Structures - Strength and Serviceability.
(1) Required Strength. Reinforced concrete hydraulic structures

should be designed to have strengths at all sections at least equal to
those calculated for the factored loads and forces in the following
combinations that are applicable;
¥
U =1.50+1.9 (Hw + Hp + Fw + Fp + Fy + S|J (9-1)
U = 0.9D + 1.9 (Hw + Hp + Fw + Fp + Fu) (9-2)
U « 0.9D + 1.9W (9-3)
U = 0.75D.5D + 1.9(HW + Hp + Fw ♦ Fp + Fu + SL + W + FQ)] (9-4)
U = 0.75C1.5D + 1.9(HW + Hp + Fw + Fp + Fu + Si + E)] (9-5)
U » 0.75[1.5(D 4- T) + 1.9(HW ♦ Hp ♦ Fw + Fp + Fy + SL)] (9-6)
where the ACI definition of D is modified as
D = dead load of the concret members only, and the additional symbols
are defined as
Hw =
earth mass or related internal moments and forces.
Hp =
lateral earth pressure or related internal moments and forces.
Fw »
water mass or related moments and forces.
Fp =
lateral water pressure or related internal moments and forces.
Fy =
vertical uplift pressure or related internal moments and
forces.
SL = surcharge loads.
Fp = additional pressure due to wave action.
(2) Design Strength of Reinforcement. The design should be based on
yield strengths of reinforcement of 40,000 psi and 48,000 psi for ASTM
Grade 40 and Grade 60 steels, respectively, except for calculating
development lengths. The development length for Grade 40 and Grade 60
steels should be based on yield strengths of 40,000 psi and 60,000 psi,
respectively. Reinforcement with a yield strength in excess of Grade 60
shall not be used unless a detailed investigation of ductility and
serviceability requirements is conducted in consultation with and
approved by HQ USAGE (DAEN-ECE-D).
9-2
EC 1110-2-510
9-7b(3) 31 Aug 83
(3) Maximum Tension Reinforcement. For flexural members, and for

members subject to combined flexure and compressive axial load when the
design axial load strength ^Pn is less than the smaller of O.lOf'cAg
or <f> Pfo, the ratio of tension reinforcement provided generally should
not exceed 0.25/^ . Reinforcement ratios greater than 0.25/ob but less
than 0.50/ob , may be used if excessive deflections are not predicted
when using the method specified in the ACI Building Code34 or 0ther
methods that predict deformations in substantial agreement with the
results of comprehensive tests. Reinforcement ratios in excess of
0.50/ob should not be used unless a detailed investigation of
serviceability requirements, including computation of deflections, is
conducted in consultation with and approved by HQ USACE (DAEN-ECE-D)
(4) Minimum Reinforcement of Flexural Members. At any section of a

flexural member where reinforcement is required by analysis, the minimum
reinforcement requirements specified in the ACI Building Code34 should
apply, except that fy should be in accordance with paragraph 9-6.b(2).
(5) Control of Deflections and Cracking Cracking and deflections

due to service loads need not be investigated if the limits on design
strength specified in paragraph 9-7b(2)., and a reinforcement ratio of
0.25/Ob are not exceeded. Where these limitations are exceeded,
extensive investigation of deformation and cracking due to service loads
should be made in consultation with higher authority.
(6) Distribution of Flexural Reinforcement. The spacing of flexural

tension reinforcement shall not generally exceed 18 inches for Grade 40
steel, or 12 inches for Grade 60 steel.
c. Hydraulic Structures - Reinforced Concrete Design.
(1) Design Assumptions.
(a) Strain. The assumed maximum useable strain at the extreme

concrete compression fiber should be equal to 0.003. The design strain, S^
at the extreme concrete compression fiber should be limited to 0.5 Em
for hydraulic structures.
(b) Balanced Conditions. Balanced conditions exist at a cross
section when the tension reinforcement reaches the strain corresponding
to its specified yield strength, fy, just as the concrete in
compression reaches its design strain, £^#
(c) Concrete Stress. A concrete stress of O.SSfc1 should be

assumed uniformly distributed over an equivalent compression zone bounded
by the edges of the section and a straight line lying parallel to the
neutral axis at a distance a = Smz from the extreme compression fiber.
The factor ^ should be taken as 0.55 for values of f'c up to 4,000
psi. For values of f'c greater than 4,000 psi, J5>m should be 0.50.
9-3
EC 1110-2-510
31 Aug 83
(d) Eccentricity Ratio. The eccentricity ratio e' is defined as:
e, Mu/Pu + d - h/2
dT*— d (9-7)
where e = eccentricity of axial load measured from the

centroid of the tension reinforcement and Pu is positive
for compression and negative for tension.
(2) Tension Reinforcement Only - Compressive Axial Load. (See
Figure 9-1).
(a) Maximum Design Axial Load. The design axial load strength
of compression members should not be taken greater than:
*Pn(max) " 0.7*[0.85f^(A - pbd) + f pbd] (9-8)

or
♦Pn(niax) =
O-W-85^ " Pbd) +
'^^pbd] (9-8a)
(b) Compression or Tension Control, The eccentricity ratio, e'/d,

for the balanced condition is:
e
2
m 2km
(9-9)
d pf
M
2k
y
m-
where
. 6m E s e m
^ Esem + f (9-10)
9-4
EC 1110-2-510
31 Aug 83
AXIAL COMPRESSION AND FLEXURE-SINGLE REINFORCEMENT
Pu^Pn
0.85 fc ^cu — ^m
FE 0
a = kud
fsu= £suEs
f::-?JrTsAsf^Ji II
^
21 €.uS|j
^
pbd
FREE BODY DIAGRAM STRAIN
Pu = O.esf'cbkyd - Asfsu Mu - Put'sO.SSf'cbkudtd- \ kud)
BALANCED CONDITION
^-~ 0.85fc /am
d "€m +€
fTITCy ± €m
km^ =^[€^-y]
Solve Pu and Mu simultaneously
for e'm with fsu = fyand kg = km
TENSION CONTROL (e' >e,m) Pu r
Solve Py and Mu simultaneously

€cu "^m
for ku with fsu = fy
COMPRESSION CONTROL
0.85 f'c
(e' < e'm and c < d ) Pu
c ^ m _i | t
»- O
d "(€m+€su) V
y?
fsu= Asfsu.
€suEs=^f!D(ySm-ku)
€Su<€y
Solve Pu ond Mu simultaneously
E €m
for kuwith fsu = ?i ()9m-ku)
ku
FIGURfe 9-1. AXIAL COMPRESSION AND FLEXURE

-SINGLE REINFORCEMENT
9-5
EC 1110-2-510
31 Aug 83
If e'/d is equal to or less than em(7d> the strength of the section

is controlled by compression. If e'/d, is greater than em,/c|> the
strength of the section is controlled by tension. Sections controlled by
tension should be designed so:
♦Pn-#[0.85f£ku-pfy3bd (9.11)
and
♦ Mn = « C0.85f;ku - pf JCfl - (1 - ^)]bd2 (9-12)
where
s.v/f-'^^f-tS1- 1) (9-13)
Sections controlled by compression should be designed so:
♦ Pn -♦CO.SSf^ - pfsu3b(l (9-14)
and
*Mn - * [0.85f;ku - pfsu][fl - (1 - JLNbd2 (9-15)
9-6
EC 1110-2-510
9-7c(2)(b) 31 Aug 83
where
E
m ^y - "„) _ (9.15a)
su ku - y
and Ku is determined from the following equation by direct or iterative

methods:
3 2
kk ++ 2f^
Z[ - Ik
Uk + lr^fy^k - Vsy6' . 0 (9-16)
u d u 0.42Sf'd,Ku 0.425f;d u
(3) Tension and Compression Reinforcement - Compressive Axial Load.

(See Figure 9-2).
(a) Maximum Design Axial Load. The design axial load strength ^Pn
of compression members should not be taken greater than:
♦Pn(max)= 0.7 ♦( 0.85f«[Ag - (P + P^bd] .

+ fy(p •+ p'Jbd} (9.17)
or
♦^(max)58 0.7*{0.85f;CAg-(p + P,)bd]

+ Es£jp.* P'ibd} (9-17a)
9-7
EC 1110-2-510
31 Aug 83
AXIAL COMPRESSION AND FLEXURE-DOUBLE REINFORCEMENT

PuS$p'nn A'sfsu^
^STIU^ a=$mc
.a
it
b x
As=pbd
T
T"
yA ;3—T «
su^fy/Es
T<Asfy
5
P
As= pbd
L
^
a= ku d
€
su^fy/Es
Pu = 0.85fbbkud + A,sfsu-Asfsu Mu = Pue'=0.85fcbkud(d- -^-J+A'sfsuW-d')
BALANCED CONDITIONS p /"Asf'su

jn
—- .O-SSfc/ €m
gm~|
knr0"?^". :m + €j .E A?
_ /3md' -su
• su = f
kmd
€m
Sdwe Pyand Mu simultontousiy

As
I Asfy L^
for e^ with ky = km, fsu=fy ond
fsu = Eg C'sy
TENSION CONTROL (e'>em) A'sf su

ku-ffrndfr v
/ ku-fim<itJ
/Sm-ku ;**
'SP^^ €cu<em
Solve Py and My simultaneously

for kywith fsu = fy and
f'su = Es ^su
COMPRESSION CONTROL («'< e'm ond csd)
A'sf'su
Q em+esu ku ^ - \0.85fc / m
u
fsuzi^lULt^./Smi') . - r^^ "^—f
a
ku
Ol
Solve Pu and Mu
L^
•■'•../
simultaneously for ku with Asfsu

E €
fsu - s m Q3m.klJ j Qrid :
su
ku ^ As-^
f'Su=ILfi!L(ku-^ml,)
FIGURE 9-2. AXIAL COMPRESSION AND FLEXURE

-DOUBLE REINFORCEMENT
9-8
EC 1110-2-510
9-7c(3)(b) 31 Aug 83
(b) Compression or Tension Control. The eccentricity ratio, e'/d,

for the balanced condition is:
e- "m *m Q.AZSf'
=
r p vr*—
su
(9-1^
2lc_
£lf - -^ r +
m 0.425f^ 0.425^
If e /d is equal to or less than e'm/d, the strength of the section

is controlled by compression. If e /d is greater than e'm/d, the
strength of the section is controlled by tension. Km is given by
equation (9-10) and:
x. . *ku " gm d") c C , , %

f
Su ' Tf^T
U -k T E
Vy5 V i< fTyv (9-19)
where ky = km
Sections controlled by tension should be designed so:
♦P^ - ♦C0.85f^ku + p'f^ - pfy3bd (9-20)
and
♦"„ 3
*&'***& +
P'û - ^T ' <! " Id^bd2 (9-21)
9-9
EC 1110-2-510
31 Aug 83 9-7c(3)(b)
where
(k &
f. . u ' m ^ r f
f
su " (BB - ku) Vy i Ty (9-22)

methods:
Sections controlled by compression should be designed so:
*Pn =*[0.85fMcu ♦ p'f^ - pfsu]bd (9-24)
and
♦Mn =
^0.85f'ku + p'f;u - pfsu]cf - (1 - ^)]bd2 (9-25)
where
9-10
EC 1110-2-510
9-7c(3)(b) 31 Aug 83
E e VP
(B - k )
f = s m m "__>.* (9-26)
f s Esem[ku gm( )]
;« k" ' i fy (9-27)

methods:
P (1 £-)Jku 0#425f. LP (j-)(j-

c
+ £•- 1) ^Pff1)] - 0 (9-28)
(c) Other Considerations. Compression reinforcement is usually not

considered effective when designing retaining walls. Walls designed as
doubly reinforced must be reinforced laterally in accordance with the ACI
Building Code 34.
(4) Flexural and Tension Capacity. (See Figure 9-3)
(a) Tension Reinforcement in Both Faces. For e'/d greater than zero,
reinforcement must be provided in both faces when the eccentricity ratio
e'/d is in the following range:
^-id^fi0 (9 29)
"
9-11
EC 1110-2-510
31 Aug 83
AXIAL TENSION AND FLEXURE

DOUBLE TENSION REINFORCEMENT (d-ê'rO)
?! / I
L-£*»"{£
As= pbd Âs ^~€y-Es

FfrEE BQPY PIA<?RAM STRAIN
Pu = Asfy + A'sf 'su Pue's Asfsu (d-d1)

€y "(C+d)
Q a C = kud
iÔ , At s 0
SINGLE TENSION REINFORCEMENT or
b
o.esf'ci
tm i 1
-
€cu— ^m
u
^; • "*r u
FREE BODY DIAGRAM
kud
Pu = Asfy-0.85fcbkud Pue' =0.85 f'c bkud (d ^- )
TENSION AND COMPRESSION REINFORCEMENT (e'<0. c^d')
bj
■
As A',' SU
"Asf
T
n ^'U €cu < €m
€ =€
^ su y

Pu = Asfy- 0.85 fcbkud - A'sf'su
fsU-Es€y(Kku-/3m
"-^^) d/d
v
Pue'=0.85f£bkud(d- -^ ) - A'sf'su(d-d') Pm- ku '
hGURE 9-3. AXIAL TENSION AND FLEXURE

9-12
EC 1110-2-510
9-7c(4)(a) 31 Aug 83
The design axial load should not be greater than:
♦Pn(max) " 0.8* (p "t p'Jf bd (9-30)
The section should be designed so:
♦pna*(pfy +
P,û)bd (9-31)
and
♦ Mn^(pfy +
h x 6*^2
p'f;u)[(l -^.f-W (9-32)
where
+
». f) (9-33)
and Ku is determined from the following equation:
,d' n d' e\ e'

k . 'T^'T-^yT (9.34)
u e 1 #1 d e
P — - P V 'T'T'
9-13
EC 1110-2-510
31 Aug 83 9-7c(4)(a)
Sections subject to a tension load with an eccentricity ratio e'/d less

than zero should be designed using equations (9-20), (9-21), (9-22) and
(9-23).
(b) Tension Reinforcement in One Face. For sections with tension

reinforcement in one face the eccentricity ratio e'/d must be less than
zero. These sections should be designed using equations (9-11) and
(9-12) where Ku is given by:
=1-V/d l)2+i /d|- (e'/d - 1) (9-35)

\0.425fcj/
(5) Pure Flexural Capacity. The capacity of members in bending,

without axial thrust, with reinforcement in one face only may be
calculated as follows:
efy V
*Mn = + efyi i bdz (9-36)
Equation (9-35) is valid when;
0.85 fc' kmj

e ;< em =;
fv I
where K^ is determined by equation (9-10). Ifp is greater than/^,

the reinforcement stress is less than fy and is given by:
9-14
EC 1110-2-510
9-7c(5) 31 Aug 83
f ._ e
and
+Mn = ihfJi - -S^l bd2i (9.37)
d. Non-Hydraulic Structures - Strength and Serviceability, The

strength and serviceability requirements for non-hydraulic structures
should be in accordance with the current ACI Building Code 34.
e. Non-Hydraulic Structures - Reinforced Concrete Design. Limits on

strain, reinforcement and concrete stress should be in accordance with
the current ACI Building Code 34. Equations (9-7) through (9-34)
should be used to design sections by substituting £c for £m and /3
for
An'
f. Shear Strength. The shear strength Vc provided by concrete
should be computed in accordance with the ACI Building Code 34
requirements. For cantilever retaining walls the maximum factored shear
force should be computed at a distance d from the base of the stem for
stem design, at a distance d from the stem for toe design, at the face of
the stem for heel design, and at the base of the key for key design.
Where an L-shaped wall without a toe is used the shear force should be
computed at the base of the stem for stem design.
9-8. Foundation Analyses. Foundation analyses should be performed in
accordance with the methods described in Chapter 5.
9-15
DRAFT EC 1110-2-510
31 Aug 83
CHAPTER 10
CANTILEVER SHEET PILE WALLS

10-1. General. Cantilever sheet pile walls may be composed of steel,
aluminum or concrete sheet piling. When the driven sheet piles are capped
by a concrete wall, it is called an "I-wall". I-walls are normally used
only for flood walls, rarely for retaining walls.
10-2. Materials. Wood sheet piles are seldom used today, though they
were popular prior to about 1960. Precast concrete is increasing in its
use, and is available throughout the continental United States. Aluminum
sheet piles are rarely used except for low bulkheads exposed to sea water.
Steel is the most common material used for sheet piling. Steel Z-sections
are particularly suited to cantilever and anchored sheet pile wall
construction, in,that they develop a maximum resistance to bending per
unit of weight and the interlock is located where the longitudinal shear
is zero. Also, the section modulus of an individual pile is the same as
an equal length of interlocked pile wall. Aluminum and steel sheet
piling should not be used in highly corrosive foundation areas. Aluminum
sheet piling in contact with some wet clays may be subject to high rates
of corrosion. For information concerning corrosion exposure refer to the
U. S. Army Engineers Construction Engineering Research Laboratory (CERL).
10-3. I-walls.
a. General. I-walls (Figure 2-2) have the disadvantage of more stem
deflection under water loads than other type walls of the same height.
To limit stem deflections the concrete cap and steel sheet piling should
act as one stiff member. This requires that the piling be embedded into
the concrete a sufficient distance that bonding of steel and concrete
make the two elements act as one. As an added feature for the assurance
of an integrated wall the horizontal reinforcing steel for the concrete
cap should be welded to the piling wherever the two are contiguous.
Deflection of the (Type 1) I-wall can be reduced by a small toe on the
landside (Type 2, see Figure 2-2). A five-foot landside toe decreases
stem deflection up to 40 percent. The addition of a batter pile (Type 3)
provides much resistance to deflection.
b. Transitions. The I-wall is ideal as a transition section between
a levee and a T-wall, because its construction after completion of the
levee and T-wall reduces the influences of differential movement. Most
of the settlement under the T-wall will be completed by the time the
I-wall is constructed. Stability of I-Type walls depends on the lateral
earth pressures developed by the depth of embedment. If the embedment
requirement for foundation stability of the I-wall is not as great as the
required seepage control depth for the adjoining T-wall, the embedment of
10-1
EC 1110-2-510
31 Aug 83 10-3b
the I-wall piling should be increased to at least the same elevation as

the bottom of the T-wall. When a key is used in the T-wall, "return"
keys should be provided between the T-wall key and the I-wall. Details
for the design of junctures between levee, I-wall and T-wall are
illustrated in Figure 7-7.
c. Seepage Forces. Seepage forces resulting from the water pressure

acting on the wall, must be considered. These forces affect the
magnitude and distribution of lateral earth pressures as well as the net
water load acting on the wall. Such forces depend on uplift pressures in
underlaying strata, on permeability of the piling and on depth of
cracking, if any, which may occur along the riverside face of the wall.
The permeability of driven sheet piling, and its ability to retard or
prevent water seepage has not been definitely determined. Tests have
been inconclusive and differences of opinion exist. Therefore, sheet
pile flood walls, including I-walls, should be checked for both of the
following conditions:
(1) Sheet piling assumed to have the same permeability as the
surrounding soil (pervious condition).
(2) Sheet piling assumed completely impervious.

The water surface on the landside may be arrived at by the line of
seepage method, the method of fragments, or by constructing a flow net
for both condition "1" and "2". Separate hand computations or computer
runs should be made for each of the two assumptions and the "worst"
condition used for selecting the length and size of piling. Normally the
pervious condition (1) is the most critical.
10-4. Design.
a. Introduction. The design procedure for cantilever sheet pile
walls outlined in this chapter differs from the generalized procedures
for the design of T-walls discussed previously in this manual. This
chapter assumes a sheet pile wall with or without a concrete cap (Type 1,
Figure 2-2). It does not consider I-wall types 2 or 3, which are
actually preferred for those rare instances of broad reaches of I-type
flood walls (over 75 feet in length).
b. Analysis. Hand computations should be performed as outlined in
EM 1110-2-2906 "Design of Pile Structures and Foundations". Solutions
performed by the computer program CSHTWAL ("Design/Analysis of Anchored
or Cantilevered Sheet Pile Walls by Classical Methods") are preferred.
Detailed documentation of the program may be obtained from Reference 38.
10-2
EC 1110-2-510
10-4c 31 Aug 83
c. Stresses. A base stress of 20,000 psi may be used for design of

steel sheet pile walls. For concrete sheet pile, the American Concrete
Institute - Building Code Requirements for Reinforced Concrete (Reference
34) may be used regardless of exposure conditions.

10-3
DRAFT EC 1110-2-510
31 Aug 83
CHAPTER 11
ANCHORED SHEET PILE WALLS
11-1. General. An anchored sheet pile wall resists lateral forces by

the use of tie-back anchors in addition to the passive resistance of the
soil and the bending resistance of the piling. Anchored sheet pile walls
are generally used for retaining walls or bulkheads. One type is used
for flood walls; it consists of an I-wall with batter piles connecting to
the middle of the concrete upper section. It can be built without
dewatering the site; but does not lend itself to a rigorous analysis
(Fig. 2-2).
11-2. Materials. Refer to Chapter 10, (Cantilever Sheet Pile Walls).

11-3. Design:
a. General. As for the cantilevered sheet pile walls discussed in

the previous chapter (Chapter 10), the design procedures for anchored
sheet pile walls differs from the generalized procedures for the design
of T-walls discussed previously in chapters 2 through 5 of the Manual.
b. Analysis. Hand computations should be performed as outlined in

EM 1110-2-2906 "Design of Pile Structures and Foundations". Solutions
performed by the computer program CSHTWAL ("Design/Analysis of Anchored
or Cantilevered Sheet Pile Walls by Classical Methods") are preferred.
Detailed documentation of the program may be obtained from Reference 38.
c. Stress and Foundations Investigation. These items are the same

as discussed in Chapter 10, (Cantilever Sheet Pile Walls).
11-1
DRAFT EC 1110-2-510
31 Aug 83
APPENDIX A
REFERENCES
1. ER 1110-1-803, Constructibility
2. ER 1110-2-100, Periodic Inspection & Continuing Evaluation of

Completed Civil Works Structures
3. ER 1110-2-1806, Earthquake Design and Analysis for Corps of

Engineers Projects
4. EM 1110-1-1801, Geological Investigations
5. EM 1110-1-2101, Working Stresses for Structural Design
6. EM 1110-2-39, Architectural Concrete
7. EM 1110-2-301, Landscape Planting at Floodwalls, Levees & Embankment

Dams
8. EM 1110-2-1410, Interior Drainage of Leveed Urban Areas: Hydrology
9. EM 1110-2-1803, Subsurface Investigations - Soils
10. EM 1110-2-1901, Soil Mechanics Design - Seepage Control
11. EM 1110-2-1902, Stability of Earth and Rock-Fill Dams
12. EM 1110-2-1903, Bearing Capacity of Soils

13. EM 1110-2-1904, Soil Mechanics Design - Settlement Analysis
14. EM 1110-2-1905, Design of Finite Relief Well Systems
15. EM 1110-2-1906, Laboratory Soils Testing
16. EM 1110-2-1907, Soil Sampling
17. EM 1110-2-1908, Instrumentation of Earth and Rock-Fill Dams
(Ground-Water & Pore Pressure Observations) (Part 1)
18. EM 1110-2-2000, Standard Practice for Concrete
19. EM 1110-2-2102, Waterstops and Other Joint Materials
A-l
EC 1110-2-510
31 Aug 83
20. EM 1110-2-2103, Details of Reinforcement - Hydraulic Structures
21. EM 1110-2-2906, Design of Pile Structures and Foundations
22. EM 1110-2-4300, Instrumentation for Concrete Structures
23. EM 1120-2-109, Federal Participation in Major Drainage Improvements
24. CW 03150, Expansion, Contraction and Construction Joints in Concrete
25. CW 03301, Cast-in-Place Structural Concrete
26. CW 03305, Mass Concrete
27. Rock Testing Handbook, "Standard and Recommended Methods."

Available from: U.S. Army Engineer Waterways Experiment Station,
P. 0. Box 631, Vicksburg, MS 39180.
28. International Society for Rock Mechanics, Commission on

Standardization of Laboratory and Field Tests, "Suggested Methods
for Determining Shear Strengths," Document No. 1, February 1974.
Available from: Printing and Publishing Office, National Academy of
Sciences, 2101 Constitution Avenue, N.W., Washington, DC 20418.
29. Casagrande, Leo, "Comments on Conventional Design of Retaining
Structures," Journal of the Soil Mechanics and Foundations Division,
ASCE, Vol. 99 No. SM2, February 1973, pp 181-197. Available from:
ASCE Publication Fulfillment, 345 East 47th Street, New York, NY
10017.
30. Matsuo, Minoru and Kenmochi, Satoru and Yagi, Hideki, "Experimental
Study on Earth Pressure of Retaining Wall by Field Tests", Soils and
Foundations, Vol. 18, No. 3, September 1978, pp 27-41. Available
from: Japanese Society of Soil Mechanics and Foundation
Engineering, Suga-yama Building-4F, Kanda Awaji-cho 2-23 Chiyoda-ku,
Tokyo 101, Japan.
31. Harr, M. E., Mechanics of Particulate Media, McGraw-Hill, New York,
1977. Available from: McGraw-Hill International Book Company, 1221
Avenue of the Americas, New York, NY 10020.
32. Shore Protection Manual, U.S. Army Coastal Engineering Research

Center, Vol. 1 of 3, 1977. Available from: Superintendent of
Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, DC 20402.
33. Mosher, Reed L. and Pace, Michael E., "User's Guide: Computer
Program for Bearing Capacity Analyses of Shallow Foundations
(CBEAR)" Instruction Report K-82-7, June 1982, U.S. Army Engineer
Waterways Experiment Station, P. 0. Box 631, Vicksburg, MS 39180.
A-2
EC 1110-2-510
31 Aug 83
34. "Building Code Requirements for Reinforced Concrete", ACI 318,

American Concrete Institute, P. 0. Box 19150, Redford Station,
Detroit, MI 48219.
35. Waterways Experiment Station, "Investigation of Underseepage and Its
Control," Technical Memorandum 3-424, October 1956, U.S. Army
Engineer Waterways Experiment Station, P. 0. Box 631, Vicksburg, MS
39180.
36. Liu, Tony C. and Gleason, Scott, "Strength Design of Reinforced
Concrete Hydraulic Structures," Technical Report SL-80-4, December
1981, U. S. Amy Engineer Waterways Experiment Station, P. 0. Box
631, Vicksburg, MS 39180.
37. Westergaard, H.M., "Water Pessures on Dams During Earthquakes",
Transaction, ASCE, vol. 98, 1933, pp. 418-433. Available from:
ASCE Publication Fulfillment, 345 East 47th Street, New York, NY
10017.
38. Dawkins, William P., "User's Guide: Computer Program for Design and
Analysis of Sheet Pile Walls by Classical Methods (CSHTOAL),"
Instruction Report K-81-2, February 1981, U. S. Army Engineer
Waterways Experiment Station, P.O. Box 631 Vicksburg, MS 39180.
A-3
APPENUMX B "EC1110-2-510
PERIV/ATJONI OF EQUATION F<yR dc - SE£ PAG£ S-i.
THE. I4OV:I-ZOK\TAU pt- E^LOM; AT "Ti-iti. boTroK Op A COUEStOhj
CRACK.j WITH A DEPTI-I ^C BELOW TWE Top SOP-FA^s^ w

~1&V& o THE £<pU4TtoM FCH THE HtfirmiTAL PfiKSCU&EL
AT AN"f l-rt/MT ON TMEi SLIP PLANE. 3F A VV/epa£ IS 'SlVEM
-^w ^ -y^v v t+tbî4> ~fc*icc) &*!aOrtcc+Unfierce
W K! cH ■ ( S OE fc!Ve.D IN Pt Q . C -1 OF-' A PPfc'KS D t >. C.
$t&)ijMpQ*t;<f'' (SIKF)C
0 = )fdc ( +(sRf!)fiM<l)t!lf1<X_ &/r} ordjd (?r f c^r^j <p- Ct^-cc
USING ftcapBR ~<'$n ZonvF-MTioN fcK Ahi Acrivt Type, '/kcî:
Jc \J - (sRf^fartjrtAJflGc] (SUP)
yF/ -i-(s^F)'(A-f,'4> ^^[(sRr-Tfef^^V- ^n^ ^ ^j
B-l
EC 1110-2-510
APPE.NP1Y C 31 Aug 83
Dg.8lVATIQM OF ?OATIOM
EQTTATION TO PF-'T^Ktl IME. TT4E CRITICAL
'/ALU'ts. OF QC Foiz. A WEDOE SUP PL^^ê.
«.
^^(tft^^-toV)^)
^s4
THE UNIT PRESSURE.S -^y AMD -j^ ARE ASSUKED TO t>£ Ti-iE
KA'ÔK AMU MlNCK. pKlMCtV'AL isrrpESCE^ ACTIMG AT A^V PÎMT
^f1 THE. swp PLAK\& (SEfc FIGURE Aeove), -f^ /s Vt)^ To -WE
Wrr'GHT OF hUTE-RlAL JW lUE Vvle-PÊ^PiP-W-CTbY AB6V6 Ti4£- PatKfn
AMD AM^j V^TlCftL-fKESSUPE AT THE- PDlMT PU-E. To EvreRUW-
FdfcCEs AcriyJ6 0M~faE.Wfc-.D6e., WHEN -^ i«, ^nc»)M T^B VALUE
ftF -f:ri MAj tie PB.Te«niHE.D FROtA HOUR'^ -IP-C LS op tm&i
F<5K An^ VALUE, OF CC, -^ /JMO 7^- AKE.J-TW6. sjRzss NO«MAI_TO
Tf-ie. Sup PLAÊ AND THE sue^R STRESS ALOM(5 THE SL\p PLAWEÂT
""Hê. -SAME PoiMT. A MOHfl. ZlfiCLE. DERIVATION F^K -^ fS
SNoWM »H F\GURE. C-l .
C-l
fN= d!k(l-MM2d$+jfyl.(l-6o<.2<x)
EC 1110-2-510
31 Aug 83
(&i%)(-^°o-û
~~K
<VJ
j i OhLZoC = 2 &*£'(£ ' ',- C&4, 2.CC - £ ^-fC^
c
-fi == t,, 1 + -fcvrlbtcuOtf J
FfGUÊ C-1.
C-2
EC 1110-2-510
31 Aug 83
Y (C4^Jc)
WEIGHT OF WHPSI: •=
Z(^f]OC--t23L^lP)
STfi\P SURCHARGE. ~ V
A'JG, VHHTICAL PKECSUKE. ON SLIP H..AWE « ~fv(M(>',
//.'
r
-fvfim) -- z -ft- dc
TOTAL HORIZONTAL PaRce on "SLIP pLAfie - ft
PH = "ft f'**) [" ttf^l <£ -1/M^^ -]- ^yj GTCMdC-ftArf^ -^t "^
y/rir su ;
Stsn or CM (JC-J' -/vri ^ Stys 'ôc
PM =
p^ =
. Ctf-Jc}
C-3
EC 1110-2-510
31 Aug 83
TAKIH^ THE PlKST DfcfclUATlVft OF ft ^ WiTrt RBSPECT TO ^

A ML/ 5eTT\MG \T SÛ/Û TA Zef<i6 A <?UAPÂT!C tLq>'JATi-*>M
IS OBTAIUFLP. THE. VAKSA6LH l»4 "Tm^ eÛATiOK 15 '>»irt-CXlj.
AML "D-IL-: F^'JATJOM M/i'j >ii-- W*.:TTri\ As v-'ou^'/)'-":■ I
-4-- "Z- - tartoC.

yfr+dc)
=s O
4
7™* Vi^dc) *(4SJh
TNJS QonF-F-tctEMT /H FgouT OF tostL cC Mfty He r.AU.cv

CI, AtJU THC ENTiKZL . Thl'.KV T&l'M Cfi:.LB.O C^ #
TH&U :
^/Ki. <sC =
c/ ±l/£?~+4ci
CC , -^ (siM^■+4Ci.
!M OKPCK. PO^. TMt£ S16N1 OaMV/EWTlON To ASKtH Uirm TWE

"Tv. r Or THIS MAHUM. S THE EQUATIONS • FW? AH ACTIVE Type
W&J76H AMP A PfjSSWE TyPE WeP6E. SHflULO fcE w^rm-fj
. G/- y^v-^d AcTVt' tyfji Wetet:

oc = Â-WT'^-
L _, /- C, 4- ]fc^-h4-Cz\ ffisstm ^fPZ Wxv*z
a-A-
EC 1110-2-510
31 Aug 83
|T SHOULD ©^ NOTEP THAT FOR A LtMrr&t? E<?iJiLiBRiUtA

T(fr. ^NAL-YS]S ., THE VALUES Wt^ AMD C> T^ itT.
IJCKU IN) COg.pp1C)KWTS ^1 At)C? C^. SHOU'JD Bf:
(C f. v') tavt 43 AM t) (SR P ) C K£v P?' ■'T1 y e.Ly #
IT SHOULD ALSO BE NOTES? THAT O/C IS AuAjAys 7E;fc'0;

EXCEPT r-:oR ACTIVE. TfplE WE-PQgS )M COHESWE MATTRiAU.
Dg-Rw/A-îon OF E-<?iJATiOM Vn - SEE Â^n c-!!.
THE E<?uATiONi$ FCJR C, AMP C-a. A^-t NOT VALID UM&M

TWL. VAUJli OP V (STRIP ûRCWAKGti-; 1^ Too L-AV.<r,E-#
V\lHGN V 1^ |£<?UA-U TG OR GIK.&ATEP- TMAM A C'EIOTJiM
HAVIMU^ VAuue Viî TI-IE VALUE op ^ Swiouu;

bG SH-T IN ACCORDANT IS" WITH FARAGÂPW 3-5 b.
Tun VALUE OK- Vt-i 1^ FoaND SW SL-TTIH^ TÊI
DE-HÎAIMATOR OF C0FFlCimT«> '-( AnDC^ E<p J AL¬
TO ZL-K,-; AMI? SOL^.TI^ F^^ V# Twis VALJB I^VM,
fl
O = (^F)^^ + y^ê)
C-5
EC 1110-2-510
APPF..ND1X D 31 Aug 83
DET&RKitviATioN OF LIME OF ACTIOM FOR MOisizOtlTAL Fo^m

(SEE FtG'JR.E: 3-7 )
LlM^ OF ACTlOfNi - PwH
_ mJc)cir._,
= \Nci.I !.:'.
THE. MoRl-Z-ONiTAL F<5gCE;Dui TO TWE VOEISHT ©F MATEfc.'AL lM TUCi.

PAKALLB.L 0<5P.M1 ABCE-; ACTS ALOM^ A LiNfc AT DISTAMCG
'&-*<: AlkJVti Fd»MT P As. SH<5WM IN) TMe RaofcE A^V£. TU£
"2.
l-Iof?iZOKTAL. FoRQ.e -j DU£ TO THE WfcKSWT OF MATERIAL. IN
TftiAM^Li: CDt~. i'^ AssoM.Rf To ACT QW ALOK^ A Uue. AT
PlOTAMCE -A™^. AfeovE. Pot^-r D. Twe ToTAvL HopiZOMTAL
F^RCE DLJ& TO TW£ TOTAL W&iaHT <DF THE. Wtf.i--9£ •?;
/<y(^-J'<) ( l< ]*> A cotJS-rAirr

P..
fi-iE HOHEHT op-Tmo ÔRCE- ABOUT fo/frrp IS
D-l
EC 1110-2-510
31 Aug fi3
eAB<e(j^) + g^c^), M WM
KV '-,'? - ^r _; /<-,
'>.*■, JC- /nLP-' ( M?)
3
« Mwi^
J
/k'y (-Ji-Jcfdc 4
K^ (>U.Vc)
•= MWM
2. (~ta>rLtf~iZL4^F>j & (fafi-cC-1Znf)
WM
G (-fcoôC — ~kix^~$r>~j
THE DISTANCE. FRai^ PoiNT D To THS U!NE. JF A^-TWM
■=i
/WH rwt^
^- jey^W)
VwH "
V-2-
EC 1110-2-510
31 Aug 83
tjk s fc
LINE, OF AC TION •- Pv - V
.^.
^*-
) iL* ^^-—-J
1
1
f
^ 6
\f ■—
/k Jl
x
0 \ i
R
i
FROM TUB G&oM&TRy Of- W£

7 &&)}/£. FMUPE *.
c y
X-
//,« ^ , -rf. G-Yfru^-ltn,?,/
D-2
EC 1110-2-510
APPENDIX E 31 Aug 83
MEL
D E p WAT ION OF " TRU CTO RA L VÊPG E. EQ UAT 0 Nj
CUVEN : Geuir-tfAL. NAIEDGE. £c?UA'TlOKi 1 i-t^. 4-4}
-I- (.skF^,Ci. L.;^ ~ [câu - (SR5.)-fo/n t^S^vi^
Se-T PjL-l - Pu AMD f-o » Pi Awp CoLVt F^ ^KF5 FoR TWE

GTRUCTUÂL lAJfJÊ
4-(SR|^)CL
jj- C Pu-Pf? P ML-NRXIM^^ - (m)j)ttilj)<!d40C+ U "Ulfi -CLJC^fi) ■=

~ ( PL - PR T- ML- ft*} G^d oC -P flAi W)QM CC
E-
EC 1110-2-510
APPENDrx F 31 Aug 83
DRAFT
jÊR'VATIONl GENERAL 'AJEDfrE. EQUATION
G\,.JeM: FREEl BOPM DiAQRAK OF ArH ,/JE£?6£.
See Pic 4-4 FOR pepw/TioM opTems.
'■^\
^
4n
/
/
-1——*+*
J-GC
WQlTIL BQUIUBRIUM SÛATIO^JS NoKMAL /MV fAMLELL To $L)P PUWt.
4 £., (> (- ^) - ^ OJ r- ^^
TA = fW/ +V/.y- s^^ 4 QlLt-Hi^c**. **. 4 (fe-TPA.) CVACCJ.
F-l
EC 1110-2-510
31 Aug 83
ACCORPJWG To MoHR- CouL-OMB FAluuRt- ££nEPj.jrl}
VJ/are. THE EQUAT/O^ FOP Tn'e STZBNGW IR£VUCT/OH FACTOX SRF^ t
WH&RS. FSU. ■= FACTOR OF SApery,
Sut-STiTurg E-xptessioNS FoR 71 Aw Hj. !firo "'*& BPufinohi

FoK ZkFM.
SOLVE Fof- ( fe-i - t.j
F-2.
EC 1110-2-510
DRAFT 31 Aug 83
APPENDIX G
CANTILEVER WALL DESIGN EXAMPLE
Analysis Page
Strength Reduction Factor G-2 thru G-7
Bearing Capacity G-7
Strength Design G-8 thru G-20
Working Stress Design Comparison G-21
Earthquake Analysis G-22 thru G-26
G-l
tEC 1110-2-510
31 Aug 83
Der-i-vi WALL. FOR. C'OW-^Û S»QV^M Sv.-...Tri^Ta UAVEL A FACTOR OF >-^-.:r^

AtSAUvf^L'L^'v^ e.v>^"".»r^5"i;F^ SRF EQUAL To VS. ——--^
2.0 Ttf/CK /HfB&VloUS
^ lg.0 (vTSUHArfe) ,
J^-^c
<f>g *-#
^tO'
C i
BL.IZST.O
77777: ST
1: i
(3)
15
EL.I02J51
T ; ^RsA^ ^
r** t
S'i.iP fLA*/^ -
FouNV&moN
±=35° ; ^2=^
KCP
FouftCATlONl XsKruKATBP^ O.I20KCJ Y&icrtUfiW • 0.057$
^=20" /Os= 3.60 ATSA
?A.^ w*
<*&) = f*>?{C'-Vtf + 4£*) ) WML C, = 2{SRF)tt1}J>~ C-KWO
2
«-5 2.. 46'
L -
<^|) .'S NniATivE. W'ilCh' A6f:»L£S Wft-i THE S/^w CoNWrtnoN OFTUE
G-2.
EC 1110-2-510
31 Aug 83
THE. CRITICAL VALUE OF <X(I) my &£■ CALctju\T&.D As
p WilL &B. ASSUHBV Z<?UAL To Zg^ . £(.•:,«£/$& TW£ EFFECT ^F &

iS StftLL CcHpkf-'W To THL EFFECT Cf- THe.~TOTkL M/E/^WT^p TWr:
Wec<SE.
T^F. CtrnCAL VAU;?. OF <*&) ff/0/ BE CAiOOLAT&P As
C2 = (sFF)tiu4> [l ~ £*p)Mfc)] " 0 « /.<W
CALCULATE- UPLIFTS £y ^/A/£ cy- SmtPASZ MnAQP (stte PftRAQMrM 3-ll)
■Oft = ^fcife)/* .r'*^yft«^V./f, /.47 ^
.Q£
PC 1110-2-510
31 Aug 83
CALCULKTE. UJ&I^HT oy \AJ£Î:-.SJAMO SufecÂKGES
'AL I.BO' ^V ^
WEPG£L 0)
Ypr
Wiô* &xo. 12.)(}a.<X>'x!*.**'= zi.ss-*
/
Vd)as 2*0*U5X MM* = 4;!5%T
WEPCJE. (2-)
/.s'x^.sV o./s ~ SJ.CG x 7,75' = B^.ri
It.ox'-z.s* e.is ~ (o.lg X ^.ô' - iv'.Tii"
f
7.tJ ^,i^ 0,120 s ;o.<23 y/5.zb"= /45.5,o
v^ ft
If . Xfc.2f ' = " ''-^ /'/Hfi./iii/K.K.D^
Ha) = ,'?.'::?I^T -4-»'..-5 -f 3t>40g n.49-Y(p^,fr! rê y
$-4-
EC 1110-2-510
31 Aug 83
V%) = y^L (o.'^^.IS) (2.5) = Q.4g^T
_£ALCUL^T£. LATERAL FbfiCES (fcefG.fi. Ta FlG.3-/ AM PAMGMftf 3-6.)
PvO") =-^5lf;<iX 4.15 = -2./5 X /2,45's ~-6.77 j
oxb &#) -&$. f-ytw-b Sen df^.)
Pwa') = -<3,75iw.3y>c 0,SO a - 3.24 * ;Vt3 s - £-.2^

?v(i)= -o.mwx 5.2/ = -4,/5 x: f/Jt" = -?,'3
G-5
EC 1110-2-510
31 Aug 83
WfePQE (4) OCfr) =r 3$./?'

(SRF
SCF
^ 1.0 49&1
JîC tffr) - $RF)w!4 Svrt 'Xft)
= -a. 5?; 4'.'

Co* #(4) - (SHtyitft ZW *(4)
fW4)
Pue*) = -o,-zi\±n QA5-=-o.m 4,%Y,= "OTA
Pel (4.) - \.04W\%o.$t+M= 2.54x l-^S" = 3J&
B.S5-
3.55"
/(<?) = -fag = MY ( eu.l©».0/
OvERTuRWMgr STABILITY
WfeJ=3a.4o^ Jl.4^ = 441.22

Lfo)=r-6.6<? )< 10.2(3 = -6e. ^4
—\l.tfX 1.31 SB -!36.7^

— 3.22/ /.£/= - S.Ô
g.'TSy |.|<f = 5.55
PT PT
/F 7.44= /.56 3.<?6
IS SAT15F!£t>.
^-6
EC 1110-2-510
31 Aug 83
CAICULATTE. SRFW RE(?a\R6.P PQR STRUCTURAL \A)£t7ê^'<St:fe))■

FOR SUPiKJ^ E<pmU5RtOh To SXiST^ (fe/e 7^ F/G. 4-3)
fru-PA + Mu-MR)&J^ - (W&-) 4V®) s^^ oCCs)

SRF5 =
PL = Pco4&)s 14.^ + 3^2= 17.^/ ^r

FR = ffc - 2.^3 ^PT
WL = O ; l-lpj-r^ ) 0C3=O; W(3)rr33.4^^r

KSF PT
L(3>=/3
SRF5 « ^ 17.^1-2,^X0 - 33.40(0

(IT. «* / - £■ «?8)(p) 4 ^8.4d(ol3<>y?7)Q) -G.tffasW?) ioMli)
CALCULATE &BARtu(* Cfyp^ciry (set QiAPTBF Z)
SfMCg S>4, j 'S'yZ W/LU BE T/Vf**»J As ZEK^,
^fi - o.0575x2..5 = ^*/4
F5 = .3. c?^
3/. 7/
^-7
EC 1110-2-510
31 Aug 83
DFTERMmg LftTfLRAt. f^&SSU^. DigrR^T'OM OM gACVT ^ WALL..

P0). ,4.;, â- Ts^s " (to«i»*««»ws-';
P(i)s 3.22 X l'£| = 3.^0 f
t
pgi7. f[^T Ko. $>&> 17.91 = m * y
= 24 av"-J?-y= 24-7.35= Afi.fS
Kf-P
M 2
3r24) '
''L 3 C?.4),t'
^ 1?X>7.«| (-3*16.15 -24) ... r*r
L5205
Ts
" (24)^'
1—
^L. J£4.erv ]
iv
/
/ 1i ~\ao
Hi* ^4f^ JV
>
/ "QD
fvrtJffcr /l.Wi *
,» -...„
—^ k"
14 / KSF"
1 /
î
/.3^/p . ftUOLf i
I.SZosKse
G-8
EC 1110-2-510
31 Aug 83
FACTORED LOADS (see. PARAGRAPH 1-1'£)
EL, 12.4.0%
\<1tir=$.te%T
. 1-
6-?
EC 1110-2-510
31 Aug 83
MOHEKT AWC SUEAft fttAafiAKgFgR. FA<:TOR.£P LflADfi.
5TF.H
&L. 125,0
EL. /24.0
BL.l'r.j
Ztfr-K
FL.IIO.SO
I
/f*n"-K Ijx
t:j:Z3
grt F''-A<r ts*
i-
I
"wx"
L S"7T/ "r-
n
g
ELin...b
(5-/C5
EC 1110-2-510
31 Aug 83
MotAKUT AMP SHEAR f lAQRAHS FOR FACTPRtip LJQAPS
MKEL
__ BACK FACE.
*> <}F STEM
G-l(
fC 1110-2-510
31 Aug 83
Mot-Mrirr AMP SH£AR DiA&teAHSFog. FACTOFLEP LOADS
4 Vu
4>MH
(j-II.
EC 1110-2-510
31 Aug 83
STEM - REiMFQftCEb COKICRLTE DESI^KI
"fc* '*>** y -r^= 40 ^ ^MAjjas O. lOlZ (^jl'KAUUC îHT'JK.Jl^ i - ..5.a
P •= > ; -^- /-yî

AT LL. IOCS'
pHw = 190. ?r' = 1281,72 ) K; = 2544.13
(ALTn'MA-E ^// i #/o 6A/?5 OH&'CTRS. As - 2.*3$)
AT FL. )'05.£S
4MH« 1-5 vrf-^ HaMBMT P/A6PAH)= ::DO ) MM * 10.45.47"IM-VC
w
«47/'Ol
•? ■=
/<;.S6.(5T 3= G.O0&&I5
iî-i^fgy^faftf
As-» .rv.j.L^>'.'. y 12x23.53 - *£
l.%7cr
AT EL. iog.flp
4 MM =.• 75FTf^t.-. noHENT p.A^. ^0'N-^ M^ ^ j O00 .g-K
»=ll%^«3oV;-|^}-'j.«27.d7j cl=Z2*7j J.^re tin 7452.4
As = UC?'^
^-/3
EC 1110-2-510
31 Aug 83
AT EL. 112.OO
iU-i<
<Mf.. » ■33PT"K(pR-ahA M«5KM-.TP(M^=S£?';,M"^ MM = 4-40''
ba "a", ^ .-* 3d- f-l^) 12 = 24.?3"; c/= 1^,^^ «.4fiS-^î/a= 43 77.M-
7
46TK14 — T.
44^ = ^0d23t»; A^ - 0.55, '-^r
T
* - 4.^) - p-o^y^Cmtj
AT K..liS.30
< i, - •<
^MM = jflFT"K^H3«Mowr.»\rx>«^,)e \70IW~^ HM = liM^'"'
b =\t*} 4i « -So"- (^),2= 22^"; d^n.'s] lAW-Ubd^z 4847, C5-
l33.2>3
- o.oooM As = o./^ !*fr
■kJ (( - «l^?Xl2)f,7.^
PLQ-T 'Â^FaR, "STE^

«.!?' EL. Ufe, oo
et.ttc.oG
i<f.¥-
/a.?<?
/
£i../(D7.67
/ /.S?'"1-
£L, j(?2,5r
2,74 w*-
T«JE PLOT SHOWS THAT *!Q6AR5@i?rt ARE ADE^JATE FORFLEVURE AT EL,|O7.67;

!;
'■, •■• * $ BMsGn" ARE.AL'E<?UATE Fbf: r-E-i<MRLi.ATBi..//O.Sioi
11 ll
" ' ^ ^6 BMS&UL" ARG AtEipvAi-E fee P-E-.'.-jm- ArrGL. 1)3,00'
r-»-/-4
EC 1110-2-510
31 Aug 83
TFEttmATlONl OF *ngA,fc5
IN ACC0S1PANCE W»Trt ACT 313-77^ 12.1) ) DETf^KiyjE Rf.^ r- HVTIHS.OH
OF *;\ t-AVf-. AB^VE ^-L,;:'.'.^V.

$Ht< (ÊL 107-47- -JtE M0Mb'-rt>IA$li.) = 8'' - 76'?'''" j Mw = I062>.tf7
Las = O.tfWi-lf
b--12'\ ^=22,21- x e =
) ) 'X2'2.'Z4
i". * 4^,-?5 -\R48g.i5)^ 4(SM.n) s i7. t^*'

2-
Acr ?2,M.5 : s^.,:/'. v !2v',4.r^ '^TT , c(-22.2.4*

ACT a.it.4- $ ^ :: 12,2.2 :
YT^~ \J~3AT3
,
USE: 24 '6/TEI-J-SION
TEKMIMATE. *!! BAK-5(S EL. IO<J.^7
lEKHIKJATjOH Or ^[Q bAW£.
|H Acco^pAlice. \/\)irw ACI 318-77' KtH) DETV* K'ut: ELXTLMSIO^
GpÔ^^.- : A^^vf-i 5'L. (IO.?-:'.
6H^4^T^&/6,N-K) MM^VOS"'"*;!;,-'' i-^73rf

e^ i'c./.17
X2°.l3
= a.aosi I
•P- //<7x3.Nir'^ /.7X 3 x 5r7gr33 — •=! a
1^005// "r (oto*sn)'*(n)bo.r$)t
lsTART*-g1rAP:S At EL 110^^ "-LKHÂTE *\Q BfÔ ATI" L.l^.^"
<3-/F
EC 1110-2-510
31 Aug 83
TEfcKUnATloM OF^S BARS (LAP VhTW ^ feAftQ

tfj ACcoftp^ncE. WJ^H ACI 318-77 j/2./6; DETEKHIME. LAP Fo^*2 To
*<£> &ARS ^ ABO'JE. E.L. li'i.O.
^tfu= 20PT^- 24<0!%K HM*: Z^^.^?"7^ U 12^ cZa ;f.4<5'
€ = - Î ^— =^^3 37SS
12x17.4
,s
" U.a»3^35;TS (o,oott<ft5)7tiV)(l1.4)z-
fs2- 1502.87 fs 4 ^!4-?.53=o<, ■£*= !7.GI **'< 4?

USE CLAs-i 6 bfLicE.îs = l.VjU.
K /
Y3CO O
AmrnARSLy -START #Q> eAfe'Q AT *.Lt\il.ooTi:MmTi=. *€ BARS AT fcL.11a.67
C^^JK, SK-HA/2. Fr.-j'W.iJiTseF A^X i^j/.sj,

A'| EL, 1Q"7.C ? .>£> ■
AT EL./IO.STO
^*//* (%)^Vc*(%)fe?5y2VidOoX'3L,l2*73)» I5,442L&
AT EL. H3.0O y ^
^-^
EC 1110-2-510
31 Aug 83
AT t 3F VcfeT^L WALL. I2.£IMF.

^Mu* VlO.^'.-F'l-Z.OZ^J-. )30.50=: .'5^3 ; 4 = 0^ MM = 1740
^ = 12"; ^âo^^gs") ©.445-fc'kJa« ^(W.?
■K=
1 l-VfiT 1740, » 0.o<?5-?45
' V' 7SWr
x
- 4o(i- ^f^:y/#?^ ; ^^ - ' ^ "'
(ALTERNATE ^ 10 4 #7 eAf?£at-.l 0?CTP,0
AT i.5o FROH\ FACE pp STEM
e = 1)73.^3 -^ o.tfo4fl4> As« 1.21 ,Jn

4<J(/- 0td62>tt 2)(ll)(4S)'
AT 3.50 FftoKj FACE "T- ST6-N\
9562.5
Z
e« C&73-33
4o(|.££|^!5)^)(25)
- ^ ^.^235S-; As *
;A/
0.7/ '^T
AT 5.SO Fgort FACE: OF STEM

,/n-lt N-K
^ MH = 2^ "K(Ff?.0M MOMBIT t'l^t ,)= -^' ^ Mi4 = 2.?3t'i3
273.*3 0*015IS*?
-^0.= |-\ I- K
e= _. = 3,000425' As- 0.90''Tr i

*•.*_... FAce OP Sirr^
l-s
'AL f' aT
-4_._Li
4. 0<3 ' ^
6-/7
kc 1110-2-510
31 Aug 83
TEFWlHKTltiN ^tO BARS

#]& tAkS ARE KiCT Ô'D FOR. FL&XURF. AT A ?o\^T 4:00 FKOlATv4Vr. K/.CL
;^: Gu-H. H) ACÔVI AU,:E. WITH ACI 316*77; 12.11; DE-.T-tfMlnfc.
ACZ. il.lt.5": o(*25H^ ;zJb~T2.-/<!/i7 = |5'.f41'

A cr 12, ii.4. îz.z.z:
1.^ = O.X>t>Z3?>
'.l>7X* V , J.7x3*S7S.93 _.. ^^
4sL~ 8^.23-fs +fâs".05 *0 -4^= '£,45^'

>
i^J = g >^4/ |.27y 4qa<a^ _ 37
"TSP #?£ FACTORis \. 4
= 25*
T^KH'.VJATE, *|0 E>A^S 6-1" FOSH BACfiL fACIc. OF STGK,!« ttE-P^L,
TfeV.KlHATE.4 lo BARS (l.4j^fS"s 57>')4'^'Vpg>n B^CK FACE OF ST&H/KJ To&t
Toe- feBINPORCE-P GPKJCftETfc t^'SI^
AT FAee OF STEM
+ MM = 77.06^ #47Z.'N~* M^1=;o^7»47,w"K,

^îz^cl-as" ; 0,425f^J2- 9562.S
1 I 99-<l.2.S
ALTEPIHATE ÎO 4.-*6 BtfcS on C^CTK-S,

)
(S-/.g
EC 1110-2-510
31 Aug 83
AT ^X> rgon ^FCS. OF STE^
P>NP T&RMNATIM P^/MTfag.*io BARS

Xf-fi't*^ V j. /.7x3X4^33-3 ^^
Ê a /fs Yo'<*xl>&X'+aid*^\« 7.75-^ ^ Z5 " « ^tf.
T^-RÎMATE ÎO BARS 4'-|*lFf?oM FACE CF STEM

f
CHECK SHEAR, U* S-T^K AT OVSTA^CU d Ae^yg. gLt\o^.so
Vc* 2.\[3MO /I^X24.<?/= 3^743 >V«
CU^CK. SUBAR \^ VJI-gL AT FACE- ^^ STCM
Cu&c2^ SHE-AR IM Toe. AT g.ag' FPOH PACE, dr- -JSTEM

b=l2.,')d=25rt j 4>VN='ZXK ; VN« ZS.?**
\|<i = ^\|3aGO XI^X25- = 32£63L6;>W/
^Wf
EC 1110-2-510
31 Aug 83
RE-lUFORCCVtertT SutAttARvf
£L.I2S.O
C-#-l
4*CL.
EL 118.67
£1.117.00 _
EL. 113.23
&-■!/<>>$-
H-.W.67 *
Ufcu
*.!&&%
« a 5
W ^-s'L
!i r
I- -I
t
4ti*<&n Zy 5#7 W
#<&@/2"?
/^♦tto^ti"
&L.ioo,6~r *IFST*UMZ
~(*< I'-JI"
Jf STP. ACX HOOK
G-zo
! EC 1110-2-510
j 31 Aug 83
IttVESTlGATlOU OF STRESSES N STEH AT E.L. 102,5 ^ {JSMC, Vjot^C'.U^ STTRES-S

P&Sl^M AMD TKE-' KEltÔRCE-HBUT PSTERHiMgP S'( OTREKI^TK PE^lij! ^
b - 12" } 4 « 30" 3 <,{ = aS1' ) 6=: T^Hr- = AOdff S33
r
-f — ' ^ ' gM
Tu? * }OXO,6&-14w$*s G.oi4233

•** \[$*6i43}£f+iiMM -0.0*4233 <* 0,ZSOlS0
-is J- ?i?JL?!J£i -=0.293284
" ^ t.'Xto-o.44 xl'Z- _ ^/?4 < )t()SK5/

"^ * e.35oi^^fg3'^4xii(25y"
TKE \MM.OT\-IATIOW b^ '^RVÎWG ST«£55 PCS/^N JOF Tffg SECTiOM

r
)f!AWUP t'i STmniiTh wLS'..j!.) iMpICATg^ THAT VÂLLS CfeOKjh^W
i^/ trrHtK.. Me;TW«t WILL, fcu -^f'tf'Ar-Afc'L^.
^-2/
EC 1110-2-510
31 Aug 83
CHECK WALL FOR EARTMQUAKE CONDIT/ON _, MINIMUM FACTO A:
OF SAFBTY ASAlrfST SLWJNG EQUAL To till j SRFEQoALTa /?.?.

KEFFH TO FiGufiE ON F/ide. G-j, (SEE. fifiRAGMfH 3-15.)
Kh =• o.tO
CALCULATE CRlTtCAL VALUIZ. Op OC^y.
C, = zCs^ta^-f, - 2. (at9)(0.700202)^ I.ZC0374

L.^-: —^ C __ _ — a.55Q>bfY
o.Kojoozo*)
CALCULATE cizintAL ÂL.U£. OF <*&) 2

0C& = - 4S'- *«-'t««<-""7n = -54.47'
c AL-cut A -re. UpuF-ro : (t/tm. IF TeepAr, t MmuoD)
J.DtL ~ ^'%-\ - 4.^'

Son CL (4) l l
LEN6TN OF S£BPA<$£ PATH = m+3.*<l Hl + ^Zi* 37.13

MA - a j M0 * Oo- JMpô^zs^ o.4w «SF
y//..^ - (to.zo - M-.zyx/S) s>.ot>zs- - o.53oyKl'F
\ 37./3 / MSF
JX. h
u
-. K(12.56 - 32..27X/0)A o^Zi? - 0.22 SO
'" 37.13 J
TJlzj- (y>.4z<>VA6l$$o<r) x g^/ ../.4^ ^T-

Ub; = 1£<1121±£L±1££» ,%M •= 0-S3%T, JT^ lo.z'(FMM TVL)
"Oc-O - O.Z.'ZSG yc 4tz& ~ 0,49/FF
G-ZZ
EC 1110-2-510
31 Aug 83
tlfi . ZULATE We id NT OP Weu$£$ AHP SufidHAFTjC-S

I4JZ' W' ISO M't-o' Ac
w&tHi& ft):
Wn - ^ o.n* i4. ft. / .7, ^ = /^, g 3 /FT"
l^j-r; -. ^ y^.AJSx 6.zi! x lo.oo— O. IC* fyT
V rr z.'xo,//£)C i4.JZ = 3,25 ^r
WGOGB (z) :
V = (2 x<J.//5^ /,21) + &(<>. 12)(?.& ttsyi.*t) 4 (ojzSjO.Zl/to) ^4.7t %r
WEP4E (3')'. (tee FA4f£ 3G)
W = S2.40%T j X - 11.41 (FmToe) y = /o.97'(AMCBLmo)
W= V%(O.IZO')(3.45)(^S) ^ O.SZ^FT
<i-25
EC 1110-2-510
31 Aug 83
CALCULATE LATBRAL pop PES

WG.P<$E 0) I
(5KF)tA.n4C*4%+&nfr'n _ O.<l(6,'fej(0.S2t4)-0,'WO _
— fepp') fa-r-J' - — 0.572.5
PWM = -0,4854* J*.*? ■= - 2./7 X%/2^ -14.50

fys-H-, -<<>,4854x OJC - - 0,0? X5J3= - OA5
Pv - - 0. 4254 * 3. z5 ~ - 1,52 x/£#43^ -/?.£/
Pu - -O.SIZB * 2.51 = -- /.4f X5;^3 - - 2.67
(B.Q. ) A/A = - o.l(f6.m<i.t&W5}-= -2.02 X /7.ff- -3^3^)
/3f 53
Y- - - ^ /A 4^'
— (SRF)(tivn<t))
- - 0.3<84&
c*j. 0fy-.(sxF)2ow/fi sîecfr,
/V = ~o.n47* 0,17 -:=■ -O.ZJO xo,^^ - o.n

ty' ^ -0,7141* 4.7% •* '-2t<nx\,ZG= -3,41
fa * -0.3W5* 1,4% •* " 0.5*7 X\.20= - 0.<>2
(e. $,'/ A!t= - 0,/ (o,z744.78) rs-o.Sl XI4A0~ -nAT
_ -9.33 g 4^'
EC 1110-2-510
31 Aug 83
VJBDGE (?) -
(£.?.) F/L ~-O.IO (32.40) - -3.<d4%T ) YzJtHl
WeMb (4):
(SRFJIMU^ CM^ + Smcfo __6.1 fasAiXoStf?) + QMS ^ /^y^^
<U4.cr.+ - (^RFyis^4> s** d&j " o. lo77 ^fl(0,s{AXo.9U%)
- (i5RF)tA^4> _ _ CSICZ
.«,,,',> "?4Zd
(SRfS)c ^ 0. ?74S'
pw _ /.3711X ®.52 - O.nZx 0.13 - -0.60

fa - - 0.$?a6x 0,44 —- f'te * 0.^3= - #. 2Z
fcL = o,g74srx 4,2^ - 3.7$ x t.zs = 4.6>6
(F.Q.) \4L = - 0.10 y a.S% = - 0.05* 'U7- - Q-Q?
P(4) = 4./4^r 4.^
TT 4*7& _ / n* FT
QVeKTuRtJins STA 6 jury

W&) = 2>$.4o x 11.41 = 44LZ2
^6)= ~ ^.^^ X ^'2^3 « - 67.67
-/3.34X /^46 = - /3<7.54

— 1.10 / 4,44 =- «7,32
-3.^4 X /^,77- - 42.11
4/4 x /.£<? ^ 4.^7 , ^-
e=
"^ -Z?*1* 3>/2'>-^ =3-*e'
(1$% OF PA SB fN CaMpPKSS/OhJ)
EC 1110-2-510
31 Aug 83
L3 =r 3 *&,#$ ■= |7.64',
CALCULATE SRFS R&V'P £*£ STAucrdAfiLWfS'<r£('i/Jm5£3)
/fe •=• 4,14 ^r j ^-o
ft. - Pp FHL. = /^/4 ^r
y
o&f+yt&M+Q&yM64)(fi - r^M>&.364>A *« r/^4;
6-2^
EC
nmrr "10-2-510
jl M
UKArl ^
APPENDIX H
CAMTILEVEt WAU IMVB8TIGATI0H CXAHPLE
An«lyi» Pay«
Strength Reduction Factor R-2 thru R-9
EarthqiMkn Analysis 8-10 thru H-15
H-l
EC 1110-2-510
31 Aug 83
/Nvksf/<SAT£ EXISTING WALL^gbR^cVNPiTiQM SHOWN ftBLOEK
To PETmM l N> B. FA eToft 0£ SAFETY A<5AiN5T SLrPw<;,

(see. pAJp}<3&Aph/ 4-it.a..)
/7.Q0'
'i.s' #MIM
piANKeTj Y=4//5rK°F
ZTZ^
. I
(3)
«
^z: *:
*, v
f iiil
LA
"^ri;—W^
EL. 166.01 ^ SLjL
FoohJDA~nam
bACKFIi-L*. Ys*T**r*0 & 0,12.5 ^ YHOJST ~ O.KO*'1*

<P = 554 C a<3
FOU.« CAT .10*11. . Y.S.^TM^^^M9rF>-!^^.^f^MM^^-^'Q^75 KCP

=
f^ C. * <3.60 >fap
|5T T<2'AL ASSOKE sRFst
CfiTiCAu VAuue. ^) rAAv &£ CALCULATTEt? A« i C"5*2 0lM4MPfi 3-F.)
~(£KF7t&j\4> *"
ti-2.
EC 1110-2-510
31 Aug 83
CRITICAL VALUE. QF ^fe) MA^_6E. CALCOLATED AS:.
■2.
<%}= r45a~ ^(^Ft^l^))"]^ g^./^
CALCULI T6: MT£* pftg$S0(t&S fH MeTtiOD Of fRAOMEHTS ;
ASOOHZ BerrtW OF AfOlFt&R iS ATgLJSMfafafftwPHZ-n)
(j)® -L-ar =.-£?■*L..A4f
X<$ = ot<?f + 0.6?+af4'?=. i,<ft
KSF
At) = A 04Z5 F/2.T ..... '6(oi79+o.*l')l m Q, 2,077
■Lm
(-44 J
1% = ^ (Q.4Z(440.&267)3.f?az: ).S1 %T
1% * ^ (ot5267+0.-3fi77)t7 - 7.01 ^FT
13(4) * Ufa ^77)4,04 - 0*61 %T
H-3
EC 1110-2-510
31 Aug 83 ."
CALCULATE. WEi&tT OF WZVOBS AM SuRCÂês '.
i v' #&*■>•
TST
Wep6B0) :
Ws -HCQ » /t M. ooe*. % bi * jo, a*. = o.yffcr

TO ) ^ 2'ic o.itSz \%.06 4.l5%r
v<£> = (o.]isxi.mz)Fy/6îwsytji>ti+aj&feoi)(}o)_ =5.31 ^T

W£) + \/&7 = ff.3/ + 0.30 - 5.41 %T
MtBPGZ (3) I W) = 35.^3 ^r
^4-
EC 1110-2-510
31 Aug 83
CALCULf{Tl _LA7eAAL . FbAC&S '
*T
(0
O.6073 +0.W*(6 'inf)
0.61*1- 4a2M&(o.7nfj =-3M Pr
% 44^.242^ 0.'ttU+0.<ltiQ-4.VlUp.GL)i0.4O(4.o$ fO
* 0.7$&l - 0.1426(0,C/21 ) = t.ll'FT
p ■ *9.oa(o-&*Cxi - o) - (io<fxo.i4&)+ (0.4*1-7') _ fay %T
2ND Ik/A-L __j££Urt£ ...SjgfLô.ro

Czrac*'^.VALUC *F_.<fyymyfiiCALSUUfi(L;AS:
„ _ £/_* 2:v-0.7fi_0.70.- oA%
.Q/^Tf^.Ak-yAL'je... 0
F &&) HAy && CAUiuLKftc As;
_ ._^> *..- Us^ .Mik^î] = ^ 52./g*
C«rr/ML I/^LOE op.aCft) Mty && CALCULATE As;
■ ^g [4sa- W&fr***? « 37.^5'
/¥-£■
EC 1110-2-530
31 Aug 83
CALCULATS. WATRR. PRESSURE?. By HETHOO OF FRAGMENTS;
/2 4<; = /7
^- ^55 = - '; J>#=vrm ^^ /c^ -^'
F/?oM PA$E //-3

X^c - 6.5Z&7 ; //-^ - 0.4^t4
JJLAÔ ) M^D = 0.3077
/lit s ^
TJ6) ^ &(oMriOz.**) ~ Z^SPFT
'11^= ^(^,42/4^.W>./r'U (.fofa
TJ(i/~ I/* (o,~ 2Q>74 0,W77) 17 - 7.0? ^T
CALCULATE VJBIGUT OF WGLOOES AND SuucmPGES I
WMO) - &Co.n)(l7.35)(l?.t7)= 20.71 %T

Ws-nG).^J4^)(7A3) 0O.<»± 0./1 %T
VfO= t'CojlS) (17.35) = 3.7?
V^)= ^ (<m)0,<*4)(t,S) = 0.27^r

V(J9 = ^lSyi,9^l)+i(^{9î9,5y/.f^f(0.l2i)ff.fîo)^ 5.!$%-'
'^7 4V(s.,)« SA2^Fr
W&tc (3); W& = 3gt^3 ^'•7'

EC 1110-2-510
31 Aug 83
vJei*5£(4>:
A%) - Vz {0J2)(M2)(Z.$)* 0.4$ fa
CALCULATE LATEEAL FORCES :

/?/7 = 24.2(r*(o>41*0.51&L-o.96ti)- 6AfM _ ./3f93 Vrr
o. 5762. 4 ^ 4f fA 24 27?
6, g.4£ (o.t5StOM36-0.7t%)'' 0'l5S(L5Q)+aJ&J7) =.-3.0S%r
fc
' 6.t,/3& + o.2.B5(o.79%)
p ^ 4<ri(6.lS5*0.'n%46.to2£)-O.zSS(o.63)! +O.4tf4.o7) Jfa
1(4) » o.7F^ - o.issca.tisc^ ■" '
P(i) =. 38.03 fo.gg5^] -o)~ (0.Z5S*7.O9)+ (0&t\i)_ /Ff0§fT

I -o
l^-
*P* P(D +P© +P<D+P^- M!^ >
GKAPHICAU pETg-RnmATtoN roP. EQ^^n&RûM
.(it /.//^t
E(&0ILI16WUM
FblMT
SRF = O.feS
Q. I
FS« S<?P 1.47
tf.60 ^ ^.7<?
5Rt=
>/-7
EC 1110-2-510
31 Aug 83
3gp. TRI/M- (^KF =O.G8>) TO CWECIC QMPMCAL SOLUTIOM POP- SRP.

*SP
(SRF)rfeu^= 0.4T6 j (SRF')t2^4^j^)- <?. 2475j (S(i.F)C= 0.44S
C^) ; <%) ArtD CC4 MA^ 66 CALCULATH-D By Tue SAME KE.THOD A *
USED U "T|2.\ALS I AM17 2.. TH^SS VALUCS- AE-E. *

0
flC(j) = -se.34
CALCULATE. WATEI<. PaessuRes e-y METWOP OF FRAQH^TS:
FROM PASg I'j Uc= 0.5ZC7 Mfi= 0.42-14 Ajp~0,d077

f
"0(0 = i4 Co.^z/4.X/2,?sr)= 2.64'^"r

Ufe')^ li(o.4U4+o.92GJ)@.l7)ys 1.50 "^T"
IT©)-a ^(o.5^7 +0.3(577)('l7) = 7.^7 4T
U^ = yz(. o.-itri) (4.60 ■= ^^^ ^T
CALCULATE. WIEIGUT OF VOecês AN^ Sop-cÂRqEs,:
WM*) « ^(0.1^67.77)07.?^)= 2'.zf

305 5 d
Vfs-Mtf)-^^- )^' ^ C'**) - .l7
V(0= O.llS (Zô) 07.V7') = 4.o7
25.47 ^r = W^ + Vfc)
Vyi^- 'A(O.IZ.)6.1*)(Z-B) - o.2f^

V^. aji5(2)(i'*k#oj$(ww.s)(i.%)+0je5(/.%)Qd) ^ F./S" ^T
Wfa^vro- 5.47 ^r
WE.P6E (4) N , . yK/

EC 1110-2-510
31 Aug 83
CALCULATS LATtSAU FORCES I
^ * o\«.o4 +0.476 (O.T97^ ; * I*'4* n
g.47 (MMS* O.g'63~ O.'n'£)-6,2#ts(t$O)+0M'6{3.\t) __ - .,%

!&) = 0.€/63 + 0.£475(o.7?75-) ~"
p 0.48ro.2475^0.7g7r40.6/g3)~^.2475(6.g2>tft^g^&) V
^J * 0.7*7.<r- o,t47S(o.6l63) " '^
p 3 8.03 rp.^fSxf-o) - 0.147S(7.o7) +0,408 (17) _ ^
"S-P » ?,> f ^4^)+P^«-O.OS^T =^0
cwecic? GRAPHICAL, ^LUTJON OM PAcie H~7

SR.F s o.&«
Ps- —I— « 1,47
/V-?
EC 1110-2-510
31 Aug 83
iNvzsTiGArre. WALL Fail EAffiJQUAKt. CoNOmoN, MIMMUH FACTOK
OF SAtFETy MfiMSr SuVlNQ EtpUALTo l.tl , SRFâ.9.

RepflK Tn FlGUfiS 0t4 PAOIB IH^ Kh = o.lo
1ST TIÂL : ASSUMB SPF = o. lo

CA-LCULATE CRITSCAL \J'ALUS. FopcC^y'.
C-j = 2 Co. 7)Co.?6) = l,2.&
r 2 - <s' ?(o' 7o)Ef- ** ffo 7oy°' ^B' 0'za - O $545-
-~ A9(0.7O>)_ ""
CALOOLATB. CftmcA't VAtm Fop <%$;;

CCQ=.-4S = - 54. o7
CALCULATE CxtT/CALi/ALim FOZ #&)*.

»
&#) = 45 — 1__ £ s 3SA3
CALcoLftrre WAT£R fftztsufle Am UPLIFTS By Mertioe t*p

FRAGmMTS ; ( SeE fA$e 2h? FoR F£.£ssupj£ CAUlOlATMHO)
JA3^ -Zt44~ UM, lee* ZW7~3'0<?
uo? ^ Yz (o.42i4) )un * 2.4g ^r

,
\J(£) = /z(ot42i4-POA2i7)3.of = 1.4C %T
Ufr) = '^(o.Sza moWjn =■ 7.01 ^FT

Ufa) - /^ (0.3077) 4.ZL - 0.U %r
H-io
EC 1110-2-510
31 Aug 83
CALCULATB. H/ztft/T OF tA/£VGE5> Avp SomtiAR&Es
l.tl' . /.s' 1.0 .

14. IZ ^^ 1'± ^ ») * 5.0
We-ods. (i) ;
WH = lA(o.n)(i4,IZ)(l<t,u)'- M3%r
WI-H» ^ (at609)(C.vC)(io.oo) s o,iQ%r
V =- 2(0,115) (14.11) zz 3.25^-
WB-DGS. (£) :
y = '/z(o.iz)(l.zi)(2.5) = ^2.7 #r
]/ ^ (o.m)@yw)i'M%îtoti)(kiQfaiis^ 4.7$ %r
Wzv6£&) :
IV = (l£)(6'lz)(SA5)(l,5) = 0.5 t%T
ti'tl
EC 1110-2-510
31 Aug 83
CALCULATE. LATEP-AL FORGES ;

fcQ-HiJ)) « 0&'2*+0./&3.ts)[0.f(ai0)(!i.ttg$-0.s4Aol-o.'l(o.'X))(t.4$) __ _ //,2f%
0.5z?4- o.cf(o.70)(-oM7^ " ~
n , 0,52 £oACo.3&4)(Q,t6ll)+OMÔ^(o.%^<lUji.OT(o.<p)(4^)
W-HM= a, 90f7- AfCe-MX*****)
fa-tiL®* ±£lf^
(B,Q) HLQ) --O.IO (/6.23 iO,l<* 43X5)^-2*02^
(E.Q.) Mtb)^ -a.fQ (0.Z7+4.72)= -O./S^FT
(B, $,) UL(3)=-0,/O(3%A'4^ -3,20 %T

(Z$) HL (A-) =-O,l0 (0.52) = -Q.oS ^r
2.P= -lll2f-Z.2& 4173144.07-2,61- 0.fr-3.&-0.05=3#P>'O
H-tZ
EC 1110-2-510
31 Aug 83
ZND TKiAL : ASSUHE 5RP ô.zo

CALCULATE CfimcftL VALUH FOA cq,)'.
C, = 2, (o,l6)(o,7d) * 1*12.
£ _ oXfoMfr- o.'6(0.7o/o.26)}-O.ZO __ ^ssol
0.^(0,70)
OC0?^ ^T'UZ-^f+^2^^ ^S4.74-0
CALCULATE dAmcfit VAWB Fop &&)*
Z ==
CALCULATB CRITICAL VALUE. FOR 00(401

d
CALCULATE UptiFrs :
/** * ~o!Wl * /*-27; ^c * "S^fjy ^ 3 /3,

'
cp * !7; S-PZ - 6f&de>l
U(0 - '4 (0.42/4)(IZ.Z/) "=• 2.57%-

U60» JA(ol42j440.52^7)(B./3)^ I^S7PT
Ufc)^ >£(0.5267 ±0.3*77)07)-= V'tfftT
U(4) , ^ (o.3o77)(4.l7) - 0'i+%T
CALCULATE wctdnrOF mttGEs ANP SURMARG&S:
WM= !£(o,n)(/&.*3)0m) = 11.36 %T.

^ - '/t(o.A>$<7<**)('0) - 0,12 I/FT
yy _ z(a.ii$)0(>Ti-5) = 5.75^7-
EC 1110-2-510
31 Aug 83
Wzostt z:
W - '/2(o,lz)0.M)(2.$)^ 0.18 %T
V = (QM)(Ô.tE)4{^(o,l0.nn^'^^0.1^.^1^ £17%T
WEP4E 4; tf* (&.)(0.te)(3.T5)(t.5l - 0.50 %T
CfiLCuLATe. Lfne-PAL FaPCBS ;

P0)-l-lLO) = (23.e7)C4*(A™fa&44)-0.8/s41-0M7$(k.S7)m- /2.Sf%r
0.5744 — 0>f(O.70X-O<7/$6)
p a fiis- ($• M)[&*(&Z&4)(o.Go)- QtUl-M(o.v64)f.ft) td,%(@&)($.J3)
P(Z-)-HL&)~ -z-tf^r
p z%.63[4Mo.3&4)Q)l-QMzte4Y?.oi)4oMt>yf7)
i(S)-H(&) - j
P6v)-/4e)= n.n%r
P, n ,-i
T/yl 1 "* /"T L f 4L I ^
os6Lo-*(*-MX(Lto)iL0.^ôA(0.*M)(drt+o.ifo)fi.rr)
i ■ iT*. ■ II ■ -■ ■ ii-.r.- ■■ - -i-T. , vv ■ r.ii.ii- i IV-n. ■ Ti- 'i. •-. v. .LUBIVI ■|--r;lli
?£)-&&)= 3.S7%r
HLO) = -o.io(13.27') = -^.33^: * ~~ J

tit£)=-o.i6(5.z€)* - o.S3%r
* * % 9
J 11 "'III-•-'•'• ■ 'I'
H-14
EC 1110-2-510
31 Aug 83
\fs -I2.S1-2.21417.1743.57-2.33-0.53-3.20-0.05 « -0.77l%r
GPAfhilCAL DBTBRMlfJATMN OF SAP FoR BfUlLlBRPJHI
J$7 TfrAL
43.26
KT \j~
ftfCHLlfiRiuM
If SUF-o.ZIS
a) ° ~0.77%T
ZNp TfiiAL
SRF
F5 g
* ~5PF /'g3 >/.;/
H-15
DRAFT EC 1110-2-510
31 Aug 83
APPENDIX I
NOTATION
Chapters 3, 4, and 5
Symbol Term
B Base width of wall or width of base in compression.

C Cohesion on slip plane of wedge.
Cd Developed cohesion on slip plane of wedge.
Cf: Hydrodynamic factor.
D Depth of material in front of wall to base of structural
wedge.
HL Horizontal force, acting to the right, applied to wedge.

HR Horizontal force, acting to the left, applied to wedge.
Hy Height of Py force above bottom of wedge.
Hs Average of highest 1/3 of all waves or depth of saturation
in wedge.
Hi Average of highest 1 percent of all waves.
Hb Height of wave which breaks in water depth d^.

L Length along slip plan of wedge.
N Force normal to slip plane of wedge.
Nc, Nq, N Bearing capacity factors for strip load.
P Lateral (horizontal) force produced by wedge.
PL Absolete value of total horizontal force from

acti ve-type-wedges.
PR Absolete value of total horizontal force from
passi ve-type-wedges.
(Pi-l-P-j) Summation of applied forces acting horizontally on ith
wedge.
Pv Part of lateral wedge force due to surcharge.
P^M Part of lateral wedge force due to moist weight of
material.
PÎS Part of lateral wedge force due to difference in weight

between saturated and moist material.
Py Part of lateral wedge force due to uplift on slip plan.
PCL Part of lateral wedge force due to cohesive resistance
along slip plane.
PE Hydrodynamic force given by Westergaard1s equation.
Q Vertical component of ultimate bearing capacity.
SRF Strength reduction factor.
SRFS Strength reduction factor for structural wedge.
T Force tangential to slip plane of wedge.
U Uplift force normal to slip plane of wedge.
1-1
EC 1110-2-510
31 Aug 83
Symbol Term
V Vertical force applied to wedge.
2 Summation of vertical forces for structural wedge.
VM Maximum value of V for which equations 3-8 and 3-9 are
valid.
W Total weight of material in wedge,
y Height of P force above bottom of wedge.
dc Depth of tension crack in cohesive backfill.
dfo Depth of water at breaking wave occurrence.
e Eccentricity of resultant at base of structual wedge.
hj Head loss through fragment of flow region.
h Total head differential across wall or height of wedge,
q Foundation pressure at base of structural wedge.
q0 Effective overburden pressure.
u Uplift pressure on slip plane of wedge.
" Angle between slip plane of wedge and horizontal.
S Angle between top of wedge and horizontal.
Y1 Unit weight of material.
Y Effective unit weight of material.
♦ Angle of internal friction on slip plane of wedge.
$4 Developed angle of internal friction on slip plane of
wedge.
<J>j Form factor for fragment of flow region,
a Stress normal to slip plane,
x Applied shear stress on slip plane of wedge.
Tp Shear strength of wedge material.
S Bearing capacity factor.
1-2
DRAFT EC 1110-2-510
31 Aug 83
APPENDIX J
NOTATION
Chapter 9
Symbol Term
a Depth of equivalent rectangular stress block.
Ag Gross area of section, sq. in.
Ag Area of tension reinforcement, sq. in.
IV s Area of compression reinforcement, sq. in.
b Width of compression face of member, in.
c Distance from extreme compression fiber to neutral axis, in.
d Distance from extreme compression fiber to centroid of
tension reinforcement, in.
d1 Distance from extreme compression fiber to centroid of
compression reinforcement, in.
D Dead load of the concrete members only.
e1 Eccentricity of axial load measured from the centroid of
the tension reinforcement.
e'm Eccentricity of the nominal axial load strength, at
balanced strain conditions for hydraulic structures,
measured from the centroid of the tension reinforcement.
E Load effects of earthquake, or related internal moments and
forces.
Eo Modulus of elasticity of reinforcement, psi.
f*c Specified compressive strength of concrete, psi.
fsu Calculated stress at centroid
< of tension reinforcement when
compression controls.
f'sy Calculated stress at centroid of compression reinforcement.
fy Specified yield strength of reinforcement, psi.
Fp Additional pressure due to wave action or related internal
moments and forces.
Fp Lateral water pressure or related internal moments and
forces.
Fu Vertical uplift pressure or related internal moments and
forces.
Fw Water mass or related internal moments and forces.
h Total depth of section, in.
Hp Lateral earth pressure or related internal moments and
forces.
Hw Earth mass or related internal moments and forces.
km Ratio of stress block depth (a) to the effective depth (d),
at balanced strain conditions for hydraulic structures.
ku Ratio of stress block depth (a) to the effective depth (d).
J-l
EC 1110-2-510
31 Aug 83
Symbol Term
L Live loads or related internal moments and forces.
Mn Internal moment due to nominal axial load, Pn.
My Internal moment due to factored axial load, Py.
Pb Axial load at given eccentricity at the balanced strain
condition.
Pn Nominal axial load strength at given eccentricity.
Pu Factored axial load at given eccentricity.
SL Surcharge pressure or related internal moments and forces.
T Cumulative effects of temperature, creep, shrinkage, and
differential settlement.
U Required strength to resist factored loads or related
internal moments and forces.
W Wind load or related internal moments and forces.
^ A coefficient which accounts for the difference between the
distribution of actual compression stresses and the assumed
rectangular distribution of stresses,
e^ Design strain at the extreme concrete compression fiber =
e¥ \ Strain at the centroid of the tension reinforcement <
fy/ES.
# \ Strength reduction factor.
p * Ratio of tension reinforcement, As/bd. *
Pb Reinforcement ratio producing balanced strain conditions.
%, Reinforcement ratio corresponding to balanced strain
conditions for hydraulic structures.
p1 Ratio of compression reinforcement, A's/bd.
J-2

Etl 1110-2-510

Hochgeladen von

Dokumentinformationen

Originaltitel

Copyright

Verfügbare Formate

Dieses Dokument teilen

Dokument teilen oder einbetten

Freigabeoptionen

Stufen Sie dieses Dokument als nützlich ein?

Sind diese Inhalte unangemessen?

Copyright:

Verfügbare Formate

Etl 1110-2-510

Hochgeladen von

Copyright:

Verfügbare Formate

-**•

S-29 June 1984

DEPARTMENT OF THE ARMY EC 1110-2-510

EXPIRES 30 JUNE 1984

1. Purpose. This circular is to distribute a draft Engineer Manual

2. Applicability. This circular applies to all field operating

3. Discussion. This draft EM provides guidance for the design and

4. Action Required. A review of the draft EM should be made by all

FOR THE COMMANDER:

DEPARTMENT OF THE ARMY EC 1110-2-510

Subject Paragraph Page

CHAPTER 2. GENERAL DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS

0 Section I. Types of Retaining Walls

Section II Types of Flood Walls

Section III Differences between Retaining and

General. 2-21 2-8

CHAPTER 4. STRUCTURAL STABILITY

Section I. Loading Cases

Section II. Stability Requirements

Section III. Overturning Stability

Section IV. Sliding Equilibrium

CHAPTER 5. FOUNDATION ANALYSES

Section II. Settlement

Section III. Deep Seated Sliding

CHAPTER 6. DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION DETAILS

Foundation Preparation 6-1 6-1

CHAPTER 7. SPECIAL CONSIDERATIONS FOR FLOOD WALLS

Section II. Seepage Control

Section III. Foundation Considerations

Section IV. Types of Monoliths

Section V. Waterstops and Joints

Section VI. Site Considerations

Section VII. Instrumentation

Section VIII. O&M Manual Requirements

Section IX. Review of Existing Flood Walls

CHAPTER 8. GRAVITY CONCRETE WALLS

CHAPTER 9. CANTILEVER REINFORCED CONCRETE WALLS

CHAPTER 10. CANTILEVER SHEET PILE WALLS

CHAPTER 11. ANCHORED SHEET PILE WALLS

APPENDIX B. DERIVATION OF EQUATION FOR DEPTH

-2. Applicability. This manual applies to all HQUSACE/OCE elements and

b. Types of Foundations. This manual describes procedures for the

c. Wedges. Those individual parts of the backfill, structure and

d. Active-type Wedges. Those wedges exerting lateral forces on the

e. Passive-type Wedges. Those wedges exerting lateral forces on the

f. Strength Reduction Factor. The coefficient by which the shear

g. Load Factor. The coefficient by which a load is multiplied to

h. Safety Factor. The factor determined by dividing the total

GENERAL DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS

2-2. Gravity Concrete Wall. A gravity wall (Figure 2-1) consists of

a. Cantilever Sheet Pile Wall. The cantilever type is used where

GRAVITY CONCRETE CANTILEVER

CANTILEVER SHEET PILE ANCHORED SHEET PftE

FIGURE 2-1. TYPES OF RETAINING WALLS

2.7. Cantilever I-TypeWall. I-type flood walls consist of driven sheet

2-8. Other Types of Flood Walls.

Section III. Differences Between Retaining and Flood Walls

HORIZONTAL ftASE KEYED

INVERTED T-TYPE WALLS

TYPE. I TYPE 2 TYPE 3

BRACED SHEET PILE COASTAL FLOOD WALL

FIGURE 2-2. TYPES OF FLOOD WALLS

-TIRnr [I^R 77tif