1.

Annotate a diagram of the human

digestive system.

2. Describe the electrical conducting

system of the heart
- The sino-atrial node is the starting
point of the heart beat
- It sends the message to the atro-
venticular node and the atriums to
contract
- Then the message travels down in
between the ventricles
- When the message travels down, it
does NOT contract
- When it goes back up to the walls of
the ventricle, it contracts.

3. Describe the different methods of

membrane transport required to
absorb different nutrients
- Simple diffusion allows hydrophobic
nutrients (ex. lipids) to freely pass
through the membrane
- Facilitated diffusion allows
hydrophilic nutrients (ex. Glucose) to
pass through with proteins channels
- Active transport goes against the
concentration gradient (low —> high)
and requires ATP (ex. Glucose)
- Endocytosis (entering) Out to in and
an example if molecules like
cholesterol

4. Explain why concentration

gradients are necessary in the
respiratory system
- The air we breathe in has a higher
concentration of oxygen than in our
blood
- The higher CO2 concentration in
capillary than in the alveoli allows it to
travel towards the concentration
gradient of high to low (CO2 goes to
the alveoli)
- The higher O2 concentration in the
alveoli than in the capillary allows it to
move towards the capillary.

5. Outline why antibiotics are effective

against bacterial diseases but not
against viral diseases.
- antibiotics are substances that
destroys the growth of bacteria by
targeting the metabolic pathways in
prokaryotes and bacteria is a
prokaryote
- The features in the prokaryote such
as 70S ribosome, cell wall, and its
specific metabolism is able to be
defeated by the antibiotic killing it
without killing other human’s cells
- Unlike bacteria, viruses are neither a
prokaryote nor a eukaryote. They do
not have the metabolic pathways that
antibiotics target in prokaryotes.
6. Describe the process of expiration
- Expiration is when we breathe out
- When we breathe out, the internal
intercostal muscle contracts which
pushes our ribs backwards into place
- The abdominal muscle helps the
diaphragm to push our lungs back up
which reduces the volume of the lungs
- The pressure in our lungs in greater
than the atmosphere which allows air
to get out of our lungs

7. Describe the process of inspiration

- inspiration is when we breathe in
also known has inhalation
- when we breathe in our thorax
expands and the external intercostal
contracts stretching the ribs outwards
- The diaphragm also contracts pulling
the ribs down which increases the
volume of the lungs
- The pressure in the atmosphere is
greater than in the lungs allowing air
to get into the lungs

8. Outline two named digestive

enzymes produced by the pancreas.
- Digestive enzymes help with
breaking down macromolecules into
monomers which help for absorption
in the body.
- Lipase breaks down lipids into
glycerol and fatty acids
- Endopeptidase breaks down proteins
into amino acids
- Amylase breaks down carbohydrates
into monosaccharides

9. Explain how the heart rate can be

increased or decreased.
- The heart is myogenic which means
it is able to beat by itself
- The medulla in the brain is
responsible for controlling breathing,
swallowing, heart rate and much more
- It sends a message to the atrio-
venticular node in the heart (which is
where the heart beat begins) whether
to beat fast which is the accelerator
nerve or slower which is the
decelerator nerve

10. Describe the process of blood

clotting
- Platelets in blood releases proteins
that are required in creating a seal
from blood vessels breaking
- The clotting factors causes
Prothrombin to convert into thrombin
- The thrombin then causes the
fibrinogen which is soluble to convert
into fibrin which is insoluble and can’t
dissolve in blood
- The fibrin creates these protein
fibres that are able to seal the cut.
11. Outline Florey and Chain’s
experiment with mice and Penicillin.
- Florey and Chain wanted to
investigate if Penicillin (antibiotic) can
create pathogenic bacteria
- They began by injecting 8 mines with
a pathogenic bacteria
- Then they treated only half of the
mice with the penicillin and the other
half without (the controlled group)
- Results: Mice with penicillin survived
and the others without died

12. Outline the causes and

consequences of lung cancer.
- The main causes are smoking,
asbestos, toxic fumes, pollution
- The effect of this is trouble breathing
and possible death
- The main consequence is that the
alveoli is damaged which means it will
lack the efficiency to exchange gas

13. Outline the causes and

consequences of emphysema.
- Emphysema is a disease that creates
damage to the lung tissue specifically
thinning out the alveoli
- The main causes are smoking,
asbestos, toxic fumes
- The effect of this is trouble breathing
and possible death
- The main consequence is that the
alveoli is damaged which means it will
lack the efficiency to exchange gas

14. Describe the process of antibody

production.
- Antibodies have the ability to destroy
antigen which is anything that is
foreign to our body
- The phagocytic white blood cell
which gives non-specific immunity
engulfs this antigen and destroys it
- Then it puts parts of it into its
membrane
- The message is then passed onto
another white blood cell called helper
T-cell which is then incharge of
sending the same message to an
activated B-cell. These who white
blood cell are called lympocytes
which gives us specific immunity
- The B-cell has the ability to make
clones of itself and differentiate into
different cells such as plasma cells
- The plasma cells are the ones who
are able to produce antibodies
- Some of the clones of the B-cell
transforms into a memory B-cell which
won’t react to the antigen first time
around. However if the same antigen
comes back, it will quick fight it off
and destroy it.
15. Outline the effects of HIV on the
human immune system and methods
of transmission.
- HIV stands for human
immunodeficiency virus
- HIV destroys the helper T-cells and
creates more of its own
- Destroying the helper T-cells means
the transferring of message to the B-
cell in order to create the antibodies
are damaged
- The main methods of transmission is
through drug usage of sharing needles
as well as sexual intercourse with
someone who has HIV