Nuclear Chemistry

Nuclear Chemistry
Nuclear chemistry is the study of reactions involving changes in the atomic nuclei.

Review . . .
Nuclear Symbol, X
Atomic number (Z) = number of protons in nucleus
Mass number (A) = number of protons + number of neutrons
= atomic number (Z) + number of neutrons

Mass Number → A
Atomic Number → Z X ← Element Symbol

Proton Neutron Electron Positron α particle

𝟎
𝟏
𝟏𝐩 𝐨𝐫 𝟏𝟏𝐇 𝟏
𝟎𝐧
𝟎
−𝟏𝐞 𝐨𝐫 −𝟏𝟎𝛃 +𝟏𝐞 𝐨𝐫 +𝟏𝟎𝛃 𝟒
𝟐𝐇𝐞 𝐨𝐫 𝟒𝟐𝛂

Mass number, A 1 1 0 0 4

Atomic number, Z 1 0 –1 +1 2

Radioactivity
Radioactivity is a phenomenon in which small particles of matter, α (alpha) or β− (beta)
particles, and/or electromagnetic radiation (gamma, γ rays) are emitted by unstable atomic
nucleus.

Why do nuclei undergo radioactive decay?

Elements with atomic numbers greater than 83 are unstable. Smaller elements may
also be unstable because of their neutron to proton ratio. They undergo
radioactive decay to become more stable.
Radioactive decay results in the emission of alpha (α) particles, beta (β− ) particles,
gamma (γ) rays.
➢ Alpha (α) particles are the nuclei of helium-4 atoms, 42𝐻𝑒 2+ , ejected spontaneously from
the nuclei of certain radioactive atoms.
 ➢ Beta (β–) particles are negatively charged particles produced by changes occurring
within the nuclei of radioactive atoms and have the same properties as electrons.
➢ Gamma rays (γ) are a highly penetrating form of radiation that are not affected by
electric or magnetic fields and are not made up of particles.

Nuclear Reactions
A nuclear equation represents the changes that occur during a nuclear process.
The target nucleus and bombarding particle are represented on the left side of the
equation, and the product nucleus and ejected particle on the right side.

Balancing Nuclear Reactions

1. Conservation of mass number (A)
➢ The sum of protons plus neutrons in the products must equal the sum of protons plus
neutrons in the reactants.
235 138 96
92U + 10n → 55Cs + 37Rb + 2 10n U – uranium Cs – cesium
n – neutron Rb - rubidium
𝟐𝟑𝟓 + 𝟏 = 𝟏𝟑𝟖 + 𝟗𝟔 + 𝟐 × 𝟏
2. Conservation of atomic number (Z) or nuclear charge
➢ The sum of nuclear charges in the products must equal the sum of nuclear charges in
the reactants.
235 138 96
92U + 10n → 55Cs + 37Rb + 2 10n
𝟗𝟐 + 𝟎 = 𝟓𝟓 + 𝟑𝟕 + 𝟐 × 𝟎
Another example …
Write the balanced nuclear equation for the decay of 212Po. 212Po decays by alpha
emission (42He or 42α).
alpha particle: 42He or 42α He – helium
α – alpha particle
Po – polonium
Pb – lead
212
84Po → 42He + AZX
212 = 4 + A ∴ A = 208
84 = 2 + Z ∴ Z = 82

Balanced nuclear equation for the decay of 212Po:

𝟐𝟏𝟐
𝟖𝟒𝐏𝐨 → 𝟒𝟐𝐇𝐞 + 𝟐𝟎𝟖
𝟖𝟐𝐏𝐛
 Practice Exercise …

Balance the following nuclear equations (that is, identify the product X):
212 208
(a) 84𝑃𝑜 → 82𝑃𝑏 +𝑋
(b) 137
55𝐶𝑠 →
137
56𝐵𝑎 +𝑋

Comparison of Chemical Reactions and Nuclear Reactions

Chemical Reactions Nuclear Reactions

1. Atoms are rearranged by the breaking and
forming of chemical bonds.
2. Only electrons in atomic or molecular
orbitals are involved in the breaking and
forming of bonds.
3. Reactions are accompanied by absorption
or release of relatively small amounts of
energy.
4. Rates of reaction are influenced by
temperature, pressure, concentration, and
catalysts.
1. Elements (or isotopes of the same
elements) are converted from one to
another.
2. Protons, neutrons, electrons, and other
elementary particles may be involved.
3. Reactions are accompanied by absorption
or release of tremendous amounts of energy.
4. Rates of reaction normally are not affected
by temperature, pressure, and catalysts.

Nuclear Stability
The stability of a nuclide depends on the ratio of n/p, on whether the numbers of neutrons and
protons are odd or even, and whether either is a magic number arising from nuclear shell
theory.

neutron-to-proton ratio (n/p)

• the principal factor that determines whether a nucleus is stable or not

➢ Nuclei that contain magic numbers of neutrons and protons are extra stable
n or p = 2, 8, 20, 28, 50, 82, 126
Extra stable numbers of electrons in noble gases, e- = 2, 10, 18, 36, 54 and 86
➢ Nuclei with even numbers of both protons and neutrons are generally more stable than
those with odd numbers of neutrons and protons (see table below).
➢ All isotopes of the elements with atomic numbers higher than 83 are radioactive.
➢ All isotopes of Tc (technetium) and Pm (promethium) are radioactive.
 Number of Stable Isotopes with Even and Odd Numbers of Protons and Neutrons

Protons Neutrons Number of Stable Isotopes

Odd Odd 4

Odd Even 50

Even Odd 53

Even Even 164

Belt of Stability
Belt of stability is the region in the plot where stable nuclei are located.
• The belt of stability can be seen on the plot of the number of neutrons versus the
number of protons for various isotopes, represented by dots (see figure below). It starts
near the line where the number of neutrons is approximately the same as the number
of protons (i.e., 𝑛 = 𝑝). The shaded area represents the belt of stability.
• Radioactive nuclei mostly lie outside this belt. For the radioactive nuclei to enter the
belt of stability, the nuclei must undergo nuclear decay.
 Practice Exercise …

In each pair of isotopes shown, indicate which one you would expect to be radioactive:
20
(a) 10𝑁𝑒 and 17
10𝑁𝑒
40
(b) 20𝐶𝑎 and 45
20𝐶𝑎
95 92
(c) 42𝑀𝑜 and 43𝑇𝑐
195
(d) 80𝐻𝑔 and 196
80𝐻𝑔
209
(e) 83𝐵𝑖 and 242
96𝐶𝑚

Nuclear Binding Energy

➢ the energy required to break up a nucleus into its component protons and neutrons
➢ a quantitative measure of nuclear stability
This quantity represents the conversion of mass to energy that occurs during an exothermic
nuclear reaction.
Mass defect
➢ the difference between the mass of an atom and the sum of the masses of its
protons, neutrons, and electrons
Einstein’s mass-energy equivalence relationship:
E = mc2
where E = energy
m = mass
c = speed of light
∆E = (∆m) c2
where ∆E = energy of product – energy of reactants
∆m = mass of product – mass of reactants
Example …
19
9 11p + 10 10n → 9F + Nuclear binding energy
∆E = (∆m)c 2
19
∆m = 𝐹𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 − [9 × (pmass ) + 10 × (nmass )]
∆m = 18.9984 − [9 × 1.007825 + 10 × 1.008665]
 ∆m = 18.9984 amu − 19.15708 amu
∆m = −0.1587 amu

𝑚2
∆E = (−0.1587 amu) × (3.00 × 108 m/s)2 = −1.43 × 1016 amu ∙ 𝑠2
m
where 3.00 × 108 = speed of light
s
➢
𝐑𝐞𝐜𝐚𝐥𝐥: 1 kg = 6.022 × 1026 amu
➢ m2
1 J = 1 kg ∙ s2

16
𝑚2 1 𝑘𝑔 1𝐽
∆E = (−1.43 × 10 amu ∙ 2 ) x ( ) x ( )
𝑠 6.022 × 1026 amu m2
1 kg ∙ 2
s
∆E = −2.37 × 10−11 J
∆E = (−2.37 × 10−11 J) × (6.022 × 1023 /mol)
∆E = −1.43 × 1013 J/mol
∆E = −1.43 × 1010 kJ/mol
𝐍𝐮𝐜𝐥𝐞𝐚𝐫 𝐛𝐢𝐧𝐝𝐢𝐧𝐠 𝐞𝐧𝐞𝐫𝐠𝐲 = 𝟏. 𝟒𝟑 × 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟎 𝐤𝐉/𝐦𝐨𝐥
binding energy 2.37 × 10−11 J
Binding energy per nucleon = =
number of nucleons 19 nucleons
𝐁𝐢𝐧𝐝𝐢𝐧𝐠 𝐞𝐧𝐞𝐫𝐠𝐲 𝐩𝐞𝐫 𝐧𝐮𝐜𝐥𝐞𝐨𝐧 = 𝟏. 𝟐𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟐 𝐉/𝐧𝐮𝐜𝐥𝐞𝐨𝐧

Sample Problem …

The atomic mass of 127

53𝐼 is 126.9004 amu. Calculate the nuclear binding energy of this nucleus
and the corresponding nuclear binding energy per nucleon.

There are 53 protons and 74 neutrons in the iodine nucleus

mass of 53 11𝐻 atom = 53 × 1.007825 = 53.41473 𝑎𝑚𝑢

mass of 74 neutrons = 74 × 1.008665 = 74.64121 𝑎𝑚𝑢

mass for 127

53I = 53.41473 + 74.64121 = 128.05594 𝑎𝑚𝑢

∆𝑚 = 126.9004 − 128.05594
= −1.1555 𝑎𝑚𝑢
 Energy released:

∆𝐸 = (∆𝑚)𝑐 2

= (−1.1555 𝑎𝑚𝑢)(3.00 × 108 𝑚/𝑠)2

𝑎𝑚𝑢∙𝑚2 1.00 𝑔 1 𝑘𝑔
∆𝐸 = −1.04 × 1017 × 6.022×1023 𝑎𝑚𝑢 × 100 𝑔
𝑠2
𝑘𝑔 ∙ 𝑚2
= −1.73 × 10−10 = −1.73 × 10−10 J
𝑠2

Nuclear binding energy = 1.73 × 10−10 J

1.73×10−10 J
Nuclear binding energy per nucleon = = 1.36 × 10−12 J/nucleon
127 nucleons

The figure below shows the variation of nuclear binding energy per nucleon plotted
against mass number. The curve rises rather steeply. The highest binding energies per nucleon
belong to elements with intermediate mass numbers between 40 and 100 and are greatest for
elements in the iron, cobalt and nickel region (Group 8B) of the periodic table.

Nuclear binding energy per nucleon vs Mass number

nuclear binding energy

nucleon
↑ nuclear stability ↑
 Practice Exercises …

1. Calculate the nuclear binding energy (in J) and the binding energy per nucleon of the
following isotopes:
(a) 42𝐻𝑒 (4.0026 𝑎𝑚𝑢)
184
(b) 74𝑊 (183.9510 𝑎𝑚𝑢)
2. The atomic mass of 127
53𝐼 is 126.9004 amu. Calculate the nuclear binding energy of this
nucleus and the corresponding nuclear binding energy per nucleon.
3. Calculate the nuclear binding energy (in J) and the nuclear binding energy per nucleon of
209
83Bi (208.9804 amu).

Radioactivity
Main Types of Radioactive Decay
Alpha Decay
➢ involves the emission of an alpha particle from the nucleus of an atom
An alpha particle contains 2 protons and 2 neutrons. It has an atomic number of 2 and a
mass number of 4. It is identical to a helium nucleus because a helium nucleus also
contains 2 protons and 2 neutrons.
212 4 208
84Po → 2He + 82Pb Decrease number of neutrons by 2
Po – polonium
Decrease number of protons by 2 He – helium
Pb – lead
Other examples …
Alpha decay of Ra-226
226 222 4 Ra – radium He – helium
88𝑅𝑎 → 86𝑅𝑛 + 2𝐻𝑒 Rn – radon

Alpha decay of Rn-222

222 218 4 Rn – radon He – helium
86𝑅𝑛 → 84𝑃𝑜 + 2𝐻𝑒 Po – polonium

Alpha decay of Po-218

218 214 4 Po – polonium He – helium
84𝑃𝑜 → 82𝑃𝑏 + 2𝐻𝑒 Pb – lead

Alpha decay of U-234

234 230 4 U – uranium He – helium
92𝑈 → 90𝑇ℎ + 2𝐻𝑒 Th – thorium

Alpha decay of Th-230

230 226 4 Th – thorium He – helium
90𝑇ℎ → 88𝑅𝑎 + 2𝐻𝑒 Ra – radium
 Practice Exercise …

The nuclide 230 226 230

90𝑇ℎ decays to 88𝑅𝑎 by 𝛼 emission. The mass of 90𝑇ℎ is 230.033131 amu, of
226 4
88𝑅𝑎 is 226.025406 amu, and of 2𝐻𝑒 is 4.002603 amu. Calculate the energy released in this
process.

Beta Decay
➢ is the emission of a fast-moving electron / beta particle from the nucleus of an atom
undergoing radioactive decay

Beta decay occurs when a neutron turns into a proton and a beta particle, which is an
electron.
The atomic number, Z, increases by 1 and the mass number, A, stays the same.
Neutron → Proton + Electron

Decrease number of neutrons by 1, Increase number of protons by 1

14 14 0
6C → 7N + −1β
C – carbon N – nitrogen
K – potassium Ca – calcium
40 40 0
19K → 20Ca + −1β n – neutron p – proton
𝛽 – beta

1 0
0n → 11p + −1β

Other examples …
Beta decay of Po-218
218 218 0 Po – polonium 𝛽 – beta
84𝑃𝑜 → 85𝐴𝑡 + −1𝛽 At – astatine

Beta decay of Th-234

234 234 0 Th – thorium 𝛽 – beta
90𝑇ℎ → 91𝑃𝑎 + −1𝛽 Pa – protactinium

Beta decay of Bi-210

210 210 0 Bi – bismuth 𝛽 – beta
83𝐵𝑖 → 84𝑃𝑜 + −1𝛽 Po – polonium

Practice Exercise …

Calculate the disintegration energy released by the 𝛽 − decay of 25

11𝑁𝑎 (atomic mass, 24.98995
25
amu). The atomic mass of the product nuclide, 12𝑀𝑔, is 24.98584 amu.
Positron Decay
➢ In positron emission, the nucleus releases a positron, an anti-electron, which has the mass
of an electron but a positive charge.
8 0
5B → 84Be + +1β

11 11 0
6C → 5B + +1β Increase number of neutrons by 1
38 38 0
19K → 18Ar + +1β Decrease number of protons by 1
1 0
1p → 10n + +1β

Electron Capture Decay

➢ A proton captures an electron and becomes a neutron
The captured electron is usually taken from the innermost orbital of the atom
Opposite of beta decay
59 0 59
28Ni + −1e → 27Co
37 0 37
18Ar + −1e → 17Cl Increase number of neutrons by 1
55 0 55
26Fe + −1e → 25Mn Decrease number of protons by 1
1 0
1p + −1e → 10n

Gamma Decay
➢ is a type of radioactivity wherein an atom releases excess energy by a spontaneous
emission of gamma rays (a type of high energy electromagnetic wave)
The nucleus does not change physically when it undergoes gamma radiation.
Gamma ray photons have energies of ~1 × 10−12 J.

The electromagnetic spectrum consists of all the different wavelengths of

electromagnetic radiation, including light, radio waves, and X-rays.
 Gamma rays have the shortest wavelengths, < 0.01 nanometers (about the size of an
atomic nucleus). This is the highest frequency and most energetic region of the
electromagnetic spectrum. Gamma rays can result from nuclear reactions and from
processes taking place in objects such as pulsars, quasars, and black holes.

Spontaneous Fission Decay

➢ involves the spontaneous splitting of an atom into more than one atom
➢ usually occurs with heavy particles
252
98Cf → 2 125 1
49In + 2 0n

Practice Exercises …

1. Write equations for the following examples of nuclear decay:

a. 𝛼 emission by 193
83𝐵 𝑖
b. 𝛽 − emission by 27
12𝑀 𝑔
c. 𝛽 emission by 68
+
34𝑆𝑒
d. Electron capture by 71
32𝐺𝑒

2. Complete the following nuclear equations and identify X in each case:

26
(a) 12𝑀𝑔 + 11𝑝 → 42𝛼 + 𝑋
59 60
(b) 27𝐶𝑜 + 21𝐻 → 27𝐶𝑜 +𝑋
235 94
(c) 92𝑈 + 10𝑛 → 36𝐾𝑟 + 139
56𝐵𝑎 + 3𝑋
 53
(d) 24𝐶𝑟 + 42𝛼 → 10𝑛 + 𝑋
20 20
(e) 8𝑂 → 9𝐹 +𝑋
3. Complete the following nuclear equations and identify X in each case:
135 135
(a) 53𝐼 → 54𝑋𝑒 +𝑋
40 0
(b) 19𝐾 → −1𝛽 +𝑋
59 56
(c) 27𝐶𝑜 + 10𝑛 → 25𝑀𝑛 +𝑋
235 99
(d) 92𝑈 + 10𝑛 → 40𝑍𝑟 + 135
52𝑇𝑒 + 2𝑋

4. The table here is a summary of different modes of nuclear decay. Fill in the changes in
atomic number (Z, number of neutrons (n), and mass number (A) in each case. Use “+” sign for
increase, “–“ for decrease, and “0” for no change.

Change in
Decay Mode
Z A n
𝛼 decay
0
−1𝛽 decay
0
+1𝛽 decay
𝑒 − capture

5. Write the equations for the following induced nuclear reactions:

35
a. 17𝐶𝑙 (𝑛, 𝛼)
9
b. 4𝐵𝑒 (𝑝, 𝑛)
75
c. 33𝐴𝑠 (𝑑, 2𝑛)
24
d. 12𝑀𝑔 (𝑑, 𝛼)
133
e. 55𝐶𝑠 (𝛼, 4𝑛)
209
f. 83𝐵𝑖 (𝑝, 8𝑛)
65 12
g. 29𝐶𝑢 ( 6𝐶 , 3𝑛)
7 3
h. 3𝐿𝑖 ( 1𝐻 , 𝛼)

Radioactive Decay Series

• a sequence of nuclear reactions from one radioactive isotope to another which
ultimately produces a stable isotope

For each step in the series, the beginning radioactive isotope is called the parent and
the product isotope is called the daughter
Example …

Refer to the table below.

This table shows the uranium decay series of naturally occurring uranium-238. This
decay scheme involves 14 steps and shows the half-lives of all the intermediate products.

The first step in the uranium decay series is the decay of uranium-238 to thorium-234,
with the emission of an α particle.

238 234 4
92𝑈 → 90𝑇ℎ + 2𝛼

The next step is represented by

234 234 4
90𝑇ℎ → 91𝑃𝑎 + 2𝛼

and so on …
 Decay series of Uranium-238 to transform to Lead-206
Uranium-238 Decay Series

Example …
Write a series of nuclear decay equations showing the transmutation of 197
82Pb into
197
79Au.

197 197
82Pb → 81Tl + +10β

197 197
81Tl → 80Hg + +10β

197 197
80Hg → 79Au + +10β (stable)
 Practice Exercise …

In the thorium decay series, thorium-232 loses a total of 6 𝛼 particles and 4 𝛽 particles
in a 10-stage process. What is the final isotope produced?

Kinetics of Radioactive Decay

➢ All radioactive decays obey first-order kinetics.

Radioactive decay law:

The rate of disintegration of a radioactive material or the decay rate is directly
proportional to the number of atoms present.

rate of decay α Nt → rate of decay = −λNt

dNt
= −𝜆Nt
dt

Integrating,
𝐍𝐭
𝐥𝐧 = −𝛌𝐭
𝐍𝟎
where:
Nt = number of radioactive nuclei at time t
N0 = number of radioactive nuclei at time t = 0
λ = first order rate constant

Half-life formula:
𝟎. 𝟔𝟗𝟑
𝒕𝟏⁄ =
𝟐 𝛌

The half-lives of radioactive isotopes vary greatly from nucleus to nucleus.

Practice Exercises …

1. The radioactive nuclide 55 55

27𝐶𝑜 has a half-life of 17.5 hours. What mass of 27𝐶𝑜 remains from
a 0.0100 g sample after 24.0 hours have elapsed?

2. A sample of 45 −
20𝐶𝑎 , a 𝛽 emitter, has an activity of 0.1000 𝜇𝐶𝑖. In 60.0 days, the activity of
the sample has declined to 0.0775 𝜇𝐶𝑖. What is the half-life of 45
20𝐶𝑎 ?
Radioactive Dating

Since radioactive isotopes have constant half-lives, they can be used as “atomic clocks” to
determine the age of different substances and objects.
By measuring the amount of remaining isotope and computing with respect to the half-life of
the isotope, the age of the substance can be computed.

Carbon-14
14
7N + 10n → 14
6C + 11H
14
6C → 14
7N + −10β
𝑡1⁄ = 5730 years
2

Uranium-238
238 206
92U → 82Pb + 8 42α + 6 −10β
𝑡1⁄ = 4.51 𝑥 109 years
2

Potassium-40
40 0 40
19K + −1e → 18Ar

𝑡1⁄ = 1.2 𝑥 109 years

2

The figure shows that after one-half life,

𝑡1⁄ = 4.51 billion years, half of the original uranium-238
2
has decayed to lead-206.

Practice Exercise …

The radioactive potassium-40 isotope decays to argon-40 with a half-life of 1.2 × 109 𝑦𝑟.
(a) Write a balanced equation for the reaction.
(b) A sample of moon rock is found to contain 18 percent potassium-40 and 82 percent
argon by mass. Calculate the age of the rock in years.
Nuclear Transmutation
• It is the act of changing an atom into another type of atom through collision of particles.
(e.g., using a particle accelerator)

14
7𝑁 + 42𝛼 → 17
8𝑂 + 11𝑝
27 30
13𝐴𝑙 + 42𝛼 → 15𝑃 + 10𝑛
14
7𝑁 + 11𝑝 → 11
6𝐶 + 42𝛼
Note:

➢ Nuclear transmutation is different from nuclear decay where atoms change

types through the emission of particles.

Particle Accelerator
➢ is a machine which uses electric and magnetic fields to accelerate charged
particles to bombard target atoms/particles

The figure above (left) shows a schematic diagram of a cyclotron particle accelerator.
This is a type of particle accelerator which accelerates positive charges radially before releasing
it to the target. The figure above (right) shows a portion of a linear particle accelerator.

Particle accelerators made it possible to synthesize the so-called transuranium elements.

Transuranium Elements
• are elements with atomic numbers greater than 92
Example …
Neptunium (Z = 93), first prepared in 1940
All isotopes of these elements are radioactive. The table below lists the transuranium
elements up to livermorium (Z = 116) and the reactions through which they were formed.
 Transuranium Elements
Atomic Name Symbol Preparation
Number
238 239
93 Neptunium Np 92U + 10n → 93Np + −10β
239 239
94 Plutonium Pu 93Np → 94Pu + −10β
239 240
95 Americium Am 94Pu + 10𝑛 → 95Am + −10β
239
96 Curium Cm 94Pu + 42α → 242
96Cm + 10n
241 243
97 Berkelium Bk 95Am + 42α → 97Bk + 2 10n
242 245
98 Californium Cf 96Cm + 42α → 98Cf + 10n
238 253
99 Einsteinium Es 92U + 15 10n → 99Es + 7 −10β
238 255
100 Fermium Fm 92U + 17 10n → 100Fm + 8 −10β
253 256
101 Mendelevium Md 99Es + 42α → 101Md + 10n
246 254
102 Nobelium No 96Cm + 126C → 102No + 4 10n
252
103 Lawrencium Lr 98Cf + 105B → 257
103Lr + 5 10n
249 257
104 Rutherfordium Rf 98Cf + 126C → 104Rf + 4 10n
249 260
105 Dubnium Db 98Cf + 157N → 105Db + 4 10n
249
106 Seaborgium Sg 98Cf + 188O → 263
106Sg + 4 10n
209
107 Bohrium Bh 83Bi + 54
24Cr →
262
107Bh + 10n
208
108 Hassium Hs 82Pb + 58
26Fe →
265
108Hs + 10n
209
109 Meitnerium Mt 83Bi + 58
26Fe →
266
109Mt + 10n
208
110 Darmstadtium Ds 82Pb + 62
28Ni →
269
110Ds + 10n
209
111 Roentgenium Rg 83Bi + 64
28Ni →
272
111Rg + 10n
208
112 Copernicium Cn 82Pb + 70
30Zn →
277
112Cn + 10n

114 Flerovium Fl 244

94Pu + 48
20Ca →
289
114Fl + 3 10n
248
116 Livermorium Lv 96Cm + 48
20Ca →
293
116Lv + 3 10n
 Sample Problem …
56 54
Write the balanced equation for the nuclear reaction 26𝐹𝑒 (𝑑, 𝛼) 25𝑀𝑛, where d
represents the deuterium nucleus (that is, 21𝐻 ).

➢ Explanation:
When iron-56 is bombarded with a deuterium nucleus, it produces the manganese-54
nucleus plus an 𝛼 particle.

➢ Balanced equation:
56 54
26𝐹𝑒 + 21𝐻 → 25𝑀𝑛 + 42𝛼

Practice Exercise …

1. Write the balanced nuclear equations for the following reactions and identify X:
80 (𝑑,
(a) 34𝑆𝑒 𝑝)𝑋
(b) 𝑋(𝑑, 2𝑝) 39𝐿𝑖
10 (𝑛,
(c) 5𝐵 𝛼)𝑋

2. A long-cherished dream of alchemists was to produce gold from cheaper and more
abundant elements. This dream finally realized when 198
80𝐻𝑔 was converted into gold by
neutron bombardment. Write a balanced equation for this equation.

3. Astatine, the last member of Group 7A, can be prepared by bombarding bismuth-209 with 𝛼
particles.
(a) Write an equation for the reaction.
(b) Represent the equation in the abbreviated form.

Applications of Nuclear Chemistry

Nuclear Fission
➢ is the process in which a heavy nucleus (mass number > 200), usually through
bombardment by a neutron, breaks up into smaller nuclei of intermediate mass
and one or more neutrons

• This atomic breakdown releases a large amount of energy (see figure below).
 This figure shows the nuclear fission of 235U. When a 235U nucleus captures a neutron
(green sphere), it undergoes fission to yield two smaller nuclei. On the average, 2.4 neutrons
are emitted for every 235U nucleus that divides.

➢ Representative fission reaction

235 90
92U + 10n → 38Sr + 143 1
54Xe + 3 0n + Energy

Energy = [mass 235U + mass n – (mass 90Sr + mass 143Xe + 3 x mass n)] x c2
Energy = 3.3 x 10-11 J per 235U
= 2.0 x 1013 J per mole 235U

An extremely exothermic reaction!

Note: Combustion of 1 ton of coal = 5 x 107 J

➢ In this reaction, a uranium-235 atom, bombarded by a neutron, breaks into
strontium-90, xenon-143, and three more neutrons.

This figure shows the relative yields of the products

resulting from the fission of 235U as a function of
mass number.
Nuclear chain reaction
➢ a self-sustaining sequence of nuclear fission reactions

critical mass
➢ the minimum mass of fissionable material required to generate a self-sustaining
nuclear chain reaction

Subcritical mass
➢ nuclear material which is insufficient to start a chain reaction

The figure below shows that if a critical mass is present, many of the neutrons emitted
during the fission process will be captured by other 235U nuclei and a chain reaction will occur.
The reaction produces three neutrons, more than the needed neutrons to start the reaction.
This means that if there are enough uranium-235 atoms, a self-sustaining nuclear chain reaction
will be created.

Nuclear Binding Energies of 𝟐𝟑𝟓𝐔 and Its Fission Products

Nuclear Binding Energy
235 2.82 x 10-10 J
U
90
Sr 1.23 x 10-10 J
143
Xe 1.92 x 10-10 J
 Schematic of an Atomic Bomb

The figure above is the schematic of an atomic bomb. It has two separate uranium
masses which are subcritical. This means that the two elements will not produce a fission chain
reaction unless they are combined. A conventional TNT (trinitrotoluene) explosive is used to
combine the two and give them the initial energy they need to start the chain reaction.

Fission Reactor
Because it releases a lot of energy, nuclear fission can also be used to generate electricity. A
fission reactor converts nuclear energy into electricity. Below is a diagram of a fission reactor.
- The uranium rods contain the nuclear fuel which undergoes fission. This releases energy
and more neutrons which in turn continue the nuclear chain reaction.
- The control rods absorb excess neutrons and can be used to control the speed of the
reaction as well as the amount of energy produced.
- The heat from the reaction is absorbed by fluid pumped into a boiler. The resulting
steam drives a turbine and generates electricity.
Schematic Diagram of a nuclear fission reactor

Refueling of the core of a nuclear reactor

Uranium oxide (U3O8)

 Practice Exercise …

Modern designs of atomic bombs contain, in addition to uranium or plutonium, small amounts
of tritium and deuterium to boost the power of explosion. What is the role of tritium and
deuterium in these bombs?

Nuclear Fusion
➢ is the process in which light nuclei are combined to form heavier nuclei

Nuclear fusion releases little radiation and uses abundant and inexpensive fuels.
An example fusion reaction is shown below. The fuel is deuterium ( 21𝐻 ), and the
products are hydrogen and tritium ( 31𝐻 ).

2
1𝐻 + 21𝐻 → 31𝐻 + 11𝐻

The fuel used for fusion needs extreme temperatures to start the reaction. This fuel is in
the form of plasma due to the high temperatures.

Fusion Reaction Energy Released

2 2 3 1
1H + 1H → 1 H + 1H 6.3 x 10-13 J
2 3 4 1
1𝐻 + 1𝐻 → 2𝐻𝑒 + 0𝑛 2.8 x 10-12 J
6 2 4
3𝐿𝑖 + 1𝐻 → 2 2𝐻𝑒 3.6 x 10-12 J

Hydrogen Bomb
➢ A hydrogen bomb uses nuclear fusion to supply
the energy for the explosion.
Lithium deuterated (LiH or LiD) is the fuel for the fusion
reaction, which releases the majority of energy of the hydrogen
bomb.
To achieve the temperatures needed to start fusion, a primary
(fission) atomic bomb is first started.

The figure shows a diagram of a hydrogen bomb. The primary

reaction is from a fission bomb which starts the secondary
reaction (the fusion bomb).
Fusion Reactor
➢ As with nuclear fission, nuclear fusion can also be used to generate electricity.
➢ Nuclear fusion currently powers the sun (figure below, left) where hydrogen
under intense temperatures and pressures undergo nuclear fusion.
➢ Scientists are currently designing nuclear reactors which can contain the very
high temperatures needed to sustain nuclear fusion.

The figure below (left) shows a prototype design for a fusion reactor, the Tokamak,
which is shaped like a toroid and uses magnetism to contain the plasma inside.

Tokamak magnetic
plasma confinement
Nuclear fusion keeps the
temperature in the interior of the
sun at about 15 million °C
Radioactivity in Medicine
temperature in the interior of
Radioisotopes in Medicine
Radioisotope tracers are used for diagnosis in medicine. The tablethe
below shows some examples
sun at about 15 million °C
of isotopes and their corresponding uses in medicine.

Some Radioactive Isotopes Used in Medicine

Isotope Half-life Uses
18F 1.8 h Brain imaging, bone scan
24Na 15 h Monitoring blood circulation
32P 14.3 d Location of ocular, brain, and skin tumors
43K 22.4 h Myocardial scan
47Ca 4.5 d Study of calcium metabolism
51Cr Determination of red blood cell volume, spleen imaging,
27.8 d
placenta localization
60Co 5.3 yr Sterilization of medical equipment, cancer treatment
99mTc 6h Imaging of various organs, bones, placenta location
125I 60 d Study of pancreatic function, thyroid imaging, liver function
131I 8d Brain imaging, liver function, thyroid activity
• Thyroid images with 125I-labeled compound
Normal Enlarged

• Research production of 99Mo

98 1 99
42Mo + 0n → 42Mo

• Commercial production of 99Mo

235 99
92U + 10n → 42Mo + other fission products
99 99m
42Mo → 43Tc + −10β t½ = 66 hours
99m 99
43Tc → 43Tc + γ ray t½ = 66 hours

Bone Scan with 99mTc

Image of a person’s
skeleton
obtained using 99mTc

the sun at about 15 million °C

 Geiger counter
➢ an instrument widely used in scientific work and medical laboratories to
detect radiation
➢ is used to measure the number of rems
Radiation (α or β particles, or γ rays) entering through the window ionized the argon gas
to generate a small current flow between the electrodes. This current is amplified and is used
to flash a light or operate a counter with a clicking sound.

Schematic diagram of a Geiger counter

Biological Effects of Radiation

The intensity of radiation depends on the number of disintegrations as well as on
the energy and type of radiation emitted. The biological effect of radiation also depends on the
part of the body irradiated and the type of radiation.

Radiation can be measured in terms of the units:

• curie (Ci): 1 Ci corresponds to 3.70 × 1010 nuclear disintegrations per second
• rad (radiation absorbed dose): amount of radiation resulting in 1 × 10−2 𝐽 absorbed in
1kg of material
• rems (roentgen equivalent for man):
𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑠 × 𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑏𝑖𝑜𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠 (𝑅𝐵𝐸)
Alpha particles usually have the least penetrating power. Beta particles are more
penetrating than alpha particles, but less so than gamma rays. Since gamma rays carry no
charge, they cannot be stopped by shielding materials as easily as alpha and beta particles.
However, if a beta emitter (Strontium-90) is ingested, it can replace calcium in bones, where it
does the greatest damage.
Chemistry in Action: Food Irradiation
Radioactivity has also been successfully applied to food processing. Below are some of
the example applications.

Food Irradiation Dosages and Their Effects

Dosage Effect

Inhibits sprouting of potatoes, onions, garlics

Inactivates trichinae in pork

Low dose (Up to 100 kilorads)
Kills or prevents insects from reproducing in grains,
fruits and vegetables after harvest

Delays spoilage of meat, poultry and fish by killing

spoilage microorganism

Reduces salmonella and other food-borne pathogens

Medium dose (100 to 1000 kilorads)
in meat, fish and poultry

Extends shelf life by delaying mold growth on

strawberries and some other fruits

Sterilizes meat, poultry, fish and some other foods

High dose (1000 to 10,000 kilorads)
Kill microorganisms and insects in spices and seasoning

• Strawberries irradiated at 200 kilorads (right) are still fresh after 15 days
storage at 4°C; those not irradiated are moldy (left).