Project work

OSMANIA COLLGE, KURNOOL

(AUTONOMOUS)
ACCREDITED WITH ‘A’ GRADE NAAC (CYCLE-2)

PROJECT NAME SOAPS

STUDENT NAME N.RAVI KUAMR

YEAR III RD YEAR

GROUP BSC (MPC)

ROLL NO 70

RIG.NUMBER 4172027

LECTURE SIGNATURE

DATE:-

PLASE:-KURNOOL.

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Soaps
Soaps are cleaning agents that are usually made by reacting alkali (e.g., sodium hydroxide)
with naturally occurring fat or fatty acids. The reaction produces sodium salts of these fatty
acids, which improve the cleaning process by making water better able to lift away greasy
stains from skin, hair, clothes, and just about anything else. As a substance that has helped
clean bodies as well as possessions, soap has been remarkably useful.

History of Soap
The discovery of soap predates recorded history, going back perhaps as far as six thousand
years. Excavations of ancient Babylon uncovered cylinders with inscriptions for making soap
around 2800 B.C.E. Later records from ancient Egypt (c. 1500 B.C.E. ) describe how animal
and vegetable oils were combined with alkaline salts to make soap.
According to Roman legend, soap got its name from Mount Sapo, where animals were
sacrificed. Rain would wash the fat from the sacrificed animals along with alkaline wooden
ashes from the sacrificial fires into the Tiber River, where people found the mixture helped
clean clothes. This recipe for making soap was relatively unchanged for centuries, with
American colonists collecting and cooking down animal tallow (rendered fat) and then
mixing it with an alkali potash solution obtained from the accumulated hardwood ashes of
their winter fires. Similarly, Europeans made something known as castile soap using olive oil.
Only since the mid-nineteenth century has the process become commercialized and soap
become widely available at the local market.

Chemistry of Soap
The basic structure of all soaps is essentially the same, consisting of a long hydrophobic
(water-fearing) hydrocarbon "tail" and a hydrophilic (water loving) anionic "head":
CH 3 CH 2 CH 2 CH 2 CH 2 CH 2 CH 2 CH 2 CH 2 CH 2 CH 2 CH 2 CH 2 CH 2 CH 2 COO − or
CH 3 (CH 2 ) n COO −
The length of the hydrocarbon chain ("n") varies with the type of fat or oil but is usually
quite long. The anionic charge on the carboxylate head is usually balanced by either a
positively charged potassium (K + ) or sodium (Na + ) cation. In making soap, triglycerides in
fat or oils are heated in the presence of a strong alkali base such as sodium hydroxide,
producing three molecules of soap for every molecule of glycerol. This process is called
saponification and is illustrated in Figure 1.
Like synthetic detergents, soaps are "surface active" substances ( surfactants ) and as such
make water better at cleaning surfaces. Water, although a good general solvent, is
unfortunately also a substance with a very high surface tension. Because of this, water
molecules generally prefer to stay together rather than to wet other surfaces. Surfactants
work by reducing the surface tension of water, allowing the water molecules to better wet
the surface and thus increase water's ability to dissolve dirty, oily stains.

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Figure 1.

In studying how soap works, it is useful to consider a general rule of nature: "like dissolves
like." The nonpolar hydrophobic tails of soap are lipophilic ("oil-loving") and so will embed
into the grease and oils that help dirt and stains adhere to surfaces. The hydrophilic heads,
however, remain surrounded by the water molecules to which they are attracted. As more
and more soap molecules embed into a greasy stain, they eventually surround and isolate
little particles of the grease and form structures called micelles that are lifted into solution.
In a micelle, the tails of the soap molecules are oriented toward and into the grease, while
the heads face outward into the water, resulting in an emulsion of soapy grease particles
suspended in the water.
With agitation, the micelles are dispersed into the water and removed from the previously
dirty surface. In essence, soap molecules partially dissolve the greasy stain to form the
emulsion that is kept suspended in water until it can be rinsed away (see Figure 2).
As good as soaps are, they are not perfect. For example, they do not work well in hard water
containing calcium and magnesium ions, because the calcium and magnesium salts of soap
are insoluble; they tend to bind to the calcium and magnesium ions, eventually precipitating
and falling out of solution. In doing so, soaps actually dirty the surfaces they were designed
to clean. Thus soaps have been largely replaced in modern cleaning solutions by synthetic
detergents that have a sulfonate (R-SO 3 − ) group instead of the carboxylate head (R-COO − ).
Sulfonate detergents tend not to precipitate with calcium or magnesium ions and are
generally more soluble in water.

Uses of Soap
Although the popularity of soap has declined due to superior detergents, one of the major
uses of animal tallow is still for making soap, just as it was in years past. Beyond its cleaning
ability, soap has been used in other applications. For example, certain soaps can be mixed
with gasoline to produce gelatinous napalm, a substance that combusts more slowly than
pure gasoline when ignited or exploded in warfare. Soaps are also used in "canned heat," a
commercialized mixture of soap and alcohol that can be ignited and used to cook foods or
provide warmth. Overall, soap is a remarkably useful substance, just as it has been for
thousands of years.
David A. Dobberpuhl

Figure 2. How soap works: The hydrophobic tails

of soap molecules embed in grease and oil,
breaking it up into particles called micelles that

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lift off the surface and disperse into water.

Bibliography
Brady, James E.; Russell, Joel W.; and Holum, John R. (2000). Chemistry:
Matter and Its Changes, 3rd edition. New York: Wiley.
Different Types Of Soaps: Making, Working And Usage:
Do you know what soaps are made of? Have you ever wondered why
detergents are stronger than your bathing soaps? This article helps you
explore what soaps contain, how are they made and the purposes of each type of soap.

1. Toilet Soaps:
Toilet soaps are those that have cosmetic use. Toilet soaps and bathing bars are two terms
that are used interchangeably. There are however differences between them. Toilet soaps
contain TFM or Total Fatty Matter that are fattier, as compared to bathing bars that contain
low TFM. The higher the TFM, the greater is their efficiency to clean. Based on this, they are
classified into three grades.

 Grade 1: They contain about 76% TFM and is a high grade milled or homogenized
soap and sometimes a combination of both. It gives good lather and comes in many
colors. They are scented.
 Grade 2: These contain about 70% TFM. These are plodded soaps that will have a
smooth and firm texture. They are white or colored and also have good lathering
property.
 Grade 3: Grade 3 soaps contain about 60% TFM and have a smooth and firm texture.
They are most often red due to the presence of cresylic acid or can also be white or
colored. They also have good lathering properties.
Toilet soaps are further classified based on the many kinds of it.

Laundry Soap:
Laundry soaps come in the form of detergent or liquid soaps. Most detergents contain
surfactant, which is a common ingredient across all laundry soaps. However, some
ingredients will vary from brand to brand. This might include ingredients for smell. These
surfactants are called surface active agents have a specific property. The one end of
surfactant is strongly attracted to water and the other to the dirt or grease. When many of
these surfactants attach to the dirt in the clothes, they help to raise it towards the water.
The swish of the water, in all its force, will help eliminate the dirt from your fabric.

Guest Soaps:

Guest soaps are those soaps that you get when you check into a hotel. They are small and
come with mild fragrance. They are meant for cleaning and are almost always mild on the
skin. They are colored and since they are small, do not have a long life. They also come in
many pleasing flavors.

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Beauty Soaps:
The other common kind of soap is the beauty soap. Beauty soaps are meant to act
differently keeping in mind your skin type. Therefore, it is always essential that you choose
bars specifically suitable for your face type. Some of them are hydrating and will keep the
moisture packed for a long time, while others help in fighting the acne or reducing the
melanin production. Some of them come in bottles as liquid gel. However, one thing
remains constant, they all fight to remove the bacteria off your skin. Most of them are
scented and come in many colors, brands, price and ingredients.

Dish Soaps:

Dish soaps are undoubtedly hard on skin. Some of them come as thick
concentrates and has to be diluted well in water, while others come
as the regular water. Most of these soaps contain refreshing agents
like mint and lemon, which together with warm water and scrubbing
will help remove oil stain and dirt from your plates. The molecules in
the soap attach to the oil and water, thus lifting the dirt to the warm
water. They work together to remove the stain and dirt from the
plate.

Novelty Soaps:

Novelty soaps are typically used for decoration. Their major attraction
is their form and shape, the color and their smell. Most of these are
handmade and have a very pleasing fragrance. While they may not be
effective enough like others to fight the bacteria, they sure are cute
little stuffs that will come in handy when your travel. Some of these are
also gifted as gifts.

Medicated soaps
Medicated soaps have a specific purpose. They are mostly
recommended by doctors and are used for treating skin related issues
or allergies. They ward of bacteria or virus in the skin on regular use.
The many medicated herbs or medicinal properties in them come as
very useful in the long run. They are made with anti-bacterial agents.

Non-toilet soap
The next kind of soap is the non-toilet soap. These are called non-toilet
because they are used for cleaning heavy dirt like hard grease and stains.
They are high performance soaps and are hard. They are also known as
lithium soaps. Sometimes these soaps are also used as lubricating agents
in greases and thickeners. These when used as thickeners will help
increase the viscosity of the oil

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Different Forms Of Soaps That Are Popular:

Each type of soap is made with the motive to meet the needs. Some
branded soaps exactly encounter the requirements while the other
brands fail in doing so. Here are some more terms that are
commonly used and those that you hear every day.

Handmade Soaps:
are a bit costlier as they are made not with ease but with some difficulties. These soaps are
not rich with chemicals and are little harmful to the skin when compared to the rest. They
are unique, in the sense that they are handmade and thus come with a lot of effort.

Bath Soaps:
is an umbrella term for all the kind of soaps that are used for the skin. Say, they could be
used to clean the entire body. Some of the bath soaps are specifically used for face and
there are yet others for the body. Like we said, bath soaps come in the form of gel too and
are refreshing.

Bar Soap:
is simply a term that is given to soaps that are shaped as a bar. They can be
a beauty soap, a laundry soap or even novelty soap. They are just a term
classified with respect to the shape.

Liquid Soaps:
are manufactured for both the body and hands. Liquid soap is an umbrella
term and comes as soaps meant for laundry, dishes and body. All of these
have different cleaning agents, that work differently on the object to which it
is put to use. The best part about them is that they can be readily carried and
will last a very long time.

Another soap kind is based on the ingredients they are made with. Milk soap
is one such. They nourish and pamper the skin; most milk soaps are slippery
to use and leave a smooth look after usage. Goat milk soaps are used for
infants. The tender skin of the baby is more likely to get affected by the
usage of harsh soaps. Goat milk soaps are mild and wouldn’t cause react bad
on baby skin.

Soaps like vanilla soap, peppermint soap, tea tree soap, lemon grass soap, sea weed soap,
etc. has the oils of those herbs or plants. These are flavored soaps and
they impart good fragrance, coupled with some nice refreshing feel. These
soaps give better results when used for specific purposes. Similarly animal
soaps are made with animal fat as raw material.

Likewise, there are also soaps made with luxurious ingredients. Sandal
wood soap has the sandal wood oil in it and it can help fixing the problems in the skin. Same

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is with almond soaps; it has the oil of almond in it. Almond oil is known to nourish the skin
and impart a young look.Chocolate soaps are made with the extracts from cocoa and help in
keeping your skin moisture locked, thus preventing dryness.

Here is another uncommon kind; the Vegetarian soap, one that is made of vegetable oil or
fat. For some skin types, soaps with animal fat or some other oil in the soap can harm the
skin. People with those skin types can use these soaps.

When these soaps are put to proper use, the result is a fine positive outcome. Most of them
differ by brands and as such, each of them comes with various exotic ingredients, specific to
the country of manufacture.

How Do Soaps Work And How To Choose Them?

Soap when used with some water breaks the oil into smaller bits that is capable of dissolving
in the water. The molecules of the soaps have two ends, where one
end is called hydrophilic and that love water; the other end is called
hydrophobic and that hate water.

 Soaps can be chosen based on the requirements. For a

person with sensitive skin, milk soaps are a better choice as
they are mild and soft. Brands matter a lot in choosing the
soaps, using soaps of some brands can end with side effects.
 Soaps can also be chosen with the aspect of pH levels. The pH level of the skin
should be maintained well to have a good skin, so the soaps that maintain the
proper pH level should be chosen.
 Perfumed soaps give good smell on usage, but it is not the perfume that matters but
the quality of the soap.
Choosing is a very importing thing because it works on the skin, being wise can protect the
skin from unwanted side effects.

Some Additional Tips:

 Handmade soaps are usually not harsh and harmful, so it is better to use handmade
soaps for highly sensitive skin.
 It is a must that the kitchen soaps are chosen over suggestions from those who have
used it.
 Liquid soaps generate more lather than the hard soaps but it is not advisable for
regular usage.
 Do not use soap more than twice a day, as it can reduce the pH level gradually.
 Cover Soaps Upon Usage.
 It is advisable that each person has their own soap.
 The quality of the soap has to be noted prior to usage.
 Too many people using the same soap can result in skin infections.
 Soaps with more chemical content in it bring down the texture of the skin on regular
usage.
 Separate soaps could be used for face, hand and body.

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Preparation of Soap

Introduction

Soap, from a chemical standpoint, is a salt (or a mixture of salts) of fatty acids. As
with all salts, soap contains a positive ion, usually Na+ or K+, and a negative ion, usually the
anions of long-chained carboxylic acids obtained by the hydrolysis of animal or vegetable
fats. These fatty acids, of which there are about 20 naturally occurring members, are
carboxylic acids containing 14, 16, or 18 carbon atoms in an unbranched chain. The even
numbered chains result from the

fact that fats are synthesized in cells by the polymerization of a 2-carbon acetate unit.

In addition to the normal (straight chain) saturated acids, there occur several with
hydroxyl groups, and/or one or more double bonds in the carbon chain. the presence of
unsaturation (double bonds) in molecules of fatty acids, fats, or soup tend to lower the
melting point of these compounds and to cause them to be in the liquid state at room
temperature. Thus, vegetable fats are relatively unsaturated and liquid under the ordinary
conditions, while animal fats, being relatively more saturated, are solid, or semi-solid, at the
same temperature. For this reason, vegetable fats are commonly refereed to as vegetable
oils. (We say relatively saturated, or unsaturated because both vegetables oils and animal
fats contain saturated and unsaturated chains). The reason why double bonds lower the
melting point of a fatty acid chain, is that the sections of the chain attached to the double
bond are attached cis-wise to each other (probably because the double bond cis
configuration produces a bent chain which does not easily adhere to a neighboring chain by
a Van der Waals attraction hence a lower temperature (lower mobility) is required for these
molecules to adhere in order to form a solid crystal lattice. It is interesting to note, that
straight chained carboxylic acids having an odd number of carbon atoms melt lower than
even chained acids of comparable molecular weights.

The most commonly encountered fatty acids in natural fats are given below:

Saturated Acids

Lauric Acid (Dodecanoic Acid)

CH3-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-COOH

Myristic Acid (tetraderanoic Acids)

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CH3-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-COOH

Palmitic acid (hexadecanoic acid)

CH3-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-COOH

Stearic acid (octadecanoic acid)

CH3-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-COOH

Unsaturated acids:

Oleic acid (octadec-9-enoic acid)

CH3-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH=CH- CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-
COOH

Linoleic acid (octadec-9, 12-dienoic acid)

CH3-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH=CH- CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-COOH

All fats are esters (though, not all esters are necessarily, fat!) of the trihydroxy
alcohol, glycerin, and fatty acids. Since each molecule of fat contains three ester groups, fats
are often referred to as triglycerides to distinguish them from other materials having a fatty
or greasy texture, such as waxes (mono esters of long chain alcohols are carboxylic acids)
mineral oil, and petroleum jelly (long-chain hydrocarbons).

If R-COOH represents a generalized fatty acid (R is a hydrocarbon chain of 13, 15, or 17

carbons) then, the general formula for a fat is

Note that the fatty-acid residues in a typical fat molecule are

usually different! Fats from different sources have different percentages of the common
fatty acids, and can be distinguished from one another by a quantitative analysis of these
constituents.

Soap is prepared by hydrolyzing a fat under alkaline (basic) conditions. The reaction
is called saponification, and produces one molecule of glycerin and three molecules of soap,
for each molecule of fat taken.

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The fats and oils most commonly used in soap preparation are lard and tallow from animal
sources, and coconut, palm and olive oils from vegetable sources.

Tallow and lard are the fats separated from solid beef fat (suet) and hog fat, by the
process of rendering. Rendering consists of boiling the animal fat in a pot with an equal
volume of water until a layer of melted fat collects on top. (when the animal tissue is
heated, the fat in the cells melts, expands, ruptures the cell membrane- and then flows out.
Since the fat is immiscible with water, and has a lower density, it forms a floating layer on
the top of the

water in the pot.) the rendered fat is then drawn off, and allowed to solidify by cooling.

The length of the hydrocarbon chain and the number of double bonds in the
carbonylic-acid portion of the fat or oil determine the properties of the resulting soap. For
example, a salt of a saturated, long-chain acid makes a harder, more insoluble soap. Chain
length also affects solubility. Tallow is the principal fatty material used in soap making, with
coconut or palm oil blended in, to produce a softer (more soluble) soap which will readily
lather. Soaps made with KOH (caustic potash) instead of NaOH (caustic soda) are liquid
rather than solid, at room temperature. (potassium salts have a lower melting point than
sodium salts.)

Toilet soaps are generally carefully washed free of any remaining alkali used in the
saponification procedure to avoid irritation and drying of the skin. As much glycerine as
possible is usually left in the soap, and perfumes, coloring, and medicinal agents are
sometimes added. Also added, are antioxidants to prevent the soap from turning rancid.
Many soaps are superfatted, i.e. not all of the fat is hydrolysed, in order that the final soap
have some fat remaining to lubricate and smooth dry and sensitive skin.

Besides tallow and coconut oil, there are many other natural fats and oils which can
be economically employed to make soaps of varying degrees of quality. The less pure the
raw material is, the more likely the soap will have an off-color (generally yellow or brown),
and an undesirable odor. (impure fats are sometimes treated with bleaching agents before
saponification, but this adds to their cost.) Examples of such other starting materials in soap
manufacture are: coconut oil, palm oil, olive oil, cottonseed oil, sesame oil, corn oil, Soya

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bean oil, hydrogenated vegetable oils, rosin, naphthelinic acids, and greases made from
animal skins, bones, tankage and garbage. The lower grades of soaps are used as yellow
laundry soap, soap powders, cleansers, and industrial soaps.

Below is a short glossary of terms employed to describe special types of soap:

Castile soap -- a mild soap originally made in Spain with pure olive oil. Today many “castile”
soaps are made with other vegetable oils. Castile is a marvelous cleanser, producing a rich
lather.

Cream soaps – soaps containing cold cream materials, moisturizers and emollients. Cream
soaps are particularly good for dry and delicate skin

Deodorant soaps – soaps to which antibacterial agents have been added to reduce odor-
causing bacteria.

Floating soaps – soaps having air bubbles incorporated to lower the density. This causes the
bar to float.

Hypo-allergenic soaps – Mild formula soaps, low in potential irritants. They usually produce
a poor lather.

Medicated soaps – soaps containing medications such as tar, sulphur, or antibacterial

ingredients, used to treat acne and other skin disorders. Medicated soaps require through
rinsing and are not recommended for sensitive skin.

Milled soaps – these are the most commonly used, mass produced soaps. Milling refers to
the mixing of color, perfume and soap flakes.

Oatmeal soap – A rough –textured soap to which oatmeal has been added as a mild abrasive
and lather. Good for oily, dry, and normal skin.

Procedure

Two procedures for soap making are given, a “cold” and a “hot” process. The cold
process, suitable for homemade soaps, produces soap bars which retain the glycreine by-
product, and if the amount of alkali employed in the saponification is limited, an excess of
fat (superfatted). The hot process, more suitable for laboratory or industrial preparation,
yields a more chemically pure powder; by-products and excess starting materials are
separated.

I. Cold process

You must wear goggles or glasses.

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When using a thermometer in this experiment, never use it to stir liquids. Instead,
use a fire polished glass rod. to properly measure the temperature of a liquid, hold the
thermometer so that its bulb is suspended in the center of the liquid while reading the
mercury level. If the liquid is being heated on a hot plate, do not the thermometer bulb to
rest on the bottom of the container, as it will then be overheated. Remove the
thermometer from the container after each reading. Note: the thermometer supplied does
not require shaking down before or after reading. Plug in a hot plate and set to high.

Weigh a 150 ml beaker on the trip scale and add 8g of NaOH pellets to it. Handle
NaOH with care as NaOH can burn the skin and is especially harmful to the eyes. In the
hood, add 25 ml of cold water to the beaker. Stir the mixture of NaOH pellets and water,
until a clear solution results. Caution: the beaker will become very hot as the NaOH
dissolves.

Weigh a 250ml beaker on the trip-scale and add 58g of fat (Crisco vegetable
shortening works well) to it. Then place the beaker on the hot plate with low heat and with
occasional stirring, melt the fat to melt completely. Warm the melted fat to between 40-50
oC. Remove the fat from the hot plate and add the lye solution to the fat with stirring. Stir

the fat and NaOH mixture continuously and until an emulsion is formed. Your mixture
should look like a thick, light yellow milk shake and should stay emulsified (should not
separate into a fat and NaOH layer). If your emulsion separates, the fat is too hot and needs
to cool. Let the mixture cool on the bench top with occasional stirring until an emulsion,
which does not separate, is formed. You may want to add perfume or other additives at this
point. Pour the emulsion into a plastic cup and place in your drawer for the reaction to run
(it takes about 24 hours for the reaction to be complete). Take the soap home with you and
let age for about two weeks. During this time a powdery layer of NaCO3 (soda ash) will form
on the surface, as residual NaOH reacts with CO2 in the air while the soap is drying. This
powdery layer should be sliced off and the soap is ready to be used.

II. Hot process

You MUST wear goggles or glasses!

Plug in a hot plate and set it on HIGH. Half fill a 400 ml beaker with hot water from
the sink and place on the hot plate. When the water begins to boil, adjust the heat, so that
the water boils gently, but continuously. While waiting for the water to boil, weigh a 250ml
Erlenmeyer flask on a triple beam balance and add 10g of fat (Crisco, spry, or lard) to it. In a
150ml beaker prepare 100 ml of a 50-50 solution of alcohol-water, by mixing 50 ml of water
and 50 ml of 95% ethanol or methanol. Weigh another 150 ml beaker on the triple beam
balance, and add 10g of NaOH pellets to the beaker. Handle NaOH with care as NaOH can
burn the skin and is especially harmful to the eyes. In the hood, mix the NaOH with 36 ml of
the of the 50-50 alcohol-water solution to it. Stir the mixture until a transparent solution is
formed. Caution: the beaker will get very hot as the lye dissolves.

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Pour the lye solution into the Erlenmeyer flask containing the fat and mix well using
a stirring rod or by swirling with a beaker tongs. Clamp the Erlenmeyer in the boiling-water
bath and with occasional stirring, allow it to cook for at least 30 minutes. While the mixture
boils, some foam will form (due to soap formation). Try to minimize excessive foaming, by
adding small adding small portions of your alcohol-water solution. The reaction is complete
when oil globules are no longer visible when the reaction mixture is stirred.

Half fill a 600 ml beaker with 300 ml of clear (filtered) saturated salt (NaC1) solution
and 50 ml of water. Pour the still hot reaction mixture containing soap, glycerine, excess
NaOH, and alcohol into the salt solution. Stir the resulting mixture and allow to stand for 5-
10 minutes. The soap will collect as a white layer on the surface of the salt water in the
beaker.

Prepare a suction trap from the vacuum flask, which will be used later to filter the
soap preparation. Bend a long piece of glass tubing into a right angle (instructor will
demonstrate), and push one leg of the bend through a one-hole rubber stopper fitted for
the mouth of the flask. When inserted, the glass tube should extend to about ½ inch from
the bottom of the flask. The exposed leg of the bend should be cut off at about 3 inches
from the bend, and, by means of a piece of rubber connector tubing, be attached to a 12-
inch length of glass tubing. The side-arm of the vacuum flask is now connected to the
vacuum outlet with pressure tubing. When the suction is turned on, this device will act like
a vacuum cleaner, sucking up liquid instead of dust.

Be sure the suction is OFF, before proceeding. Bring the beaker containing the soap
preparation next to the suction trap, and place the “spout” of the trap into the beaker
having it touch the bottom. Slowly turn on the suction, and watch the bottom (aqueous)
layer being drawn into the vacuum flask. Draw off most, but not all, of the bottom layer. Be
ready to stop the suction instantly, if it appears that some of the soap crystals are being
sucked up. You can stop the suction quickly by pulling the pressure tubing away from the
outlet, then turning off the vacuum. Caution: At no time should the vacuum flask be allowed
to fill more than half-the trap, and pour out its contents.

When most of the aqueous layer in the beaker has been drawn off, filter the
remaining mixture of soap and liquid through a Buchner funnel (with filter paper attached )
to the suction flask. Wash the crystals on the filter with 5 ml portions of ice-cold water.
Press out any remaining moisture from the cake of filtered crystals on the funnel with the
flat end of a clean cork, or the clean bottom of a small beaker. Allow the product to suck dry
for 10-15 minutes.

Turn off the suction, detach the Buchner funnel, and with the help of a clean spatula,
transfer the soap crystals to a large sheet of smooth paper. Pick up the sheet and slide the

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cystals into a clean, dry 150 ml beaker. Leave the beaker stand, uncovered in your drawer
for several days to air-dry the product.

Even Biodegradable Soap Can Pollute Water Sources:-

We really need to clear up some misconceptions about biodegradable soap. There are many
people out there with good intentions who are using biodegradable camp soap or shampoo
when camping or backpacking thinking that it is good for the environment. Biodegradable
soaps are preferred over other soaps but should still be used at least 200 feet from any water
sources.
All soaps, unfortunately even biodegradable ones, can contaminate fresh water sources.
Using a biodegradable soap doesn't reduce its immediate environmental impact...
..it just means that the soap will biodegrade in time.

What does biodegradable mean? Well by definition it means

capable of being decomposed by biological agents like bacteria.
Materials are usually deemed biodegradable if they break down to
at least 90% h2O, CO2 and biomass within 6 months, although
some materials may take years to biodegrade. Keep in mind that
biodegradability doesn't necessarily mean environmentally
friendly.

Biodegradable Camp Soap :

 Biodegradable soap is NOT biodegradable when it ends up in a river or lake because it
requires soil for it to breakdown properly.
 Biodegradable soap is NOT NATURAL.... it is a chemical.
 If you wouldn't want to drink it then keep it out of water sources.

What to use instead of Biodegradable Soap:

 Use a washcloth.
 Hot water and a little scrubbing can clean mostly anything.
 Scrub dirt or grime away with wet sand and/or tiny pebbles.
 Use alcohol based waterless hand sanitizers to kill germs.
 Soap is not 100% necessary for good personal hygiene

If you feel you must use soap :

 Make sure that any brands of biodegradable soap you use are actually biodegradable and
phosphate-free.
 Be sure to use biodegradable soap sparingly.
 Do all washing, bathing, or cleaning at least 200 feet from any water sources.
 Dispose of soapy wash and rinse water in a cathole 6 inches deep to allow bacteria in the
soil to completely biodegrade the soap.I don't use any soap whatsoever when backpacking.

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Washcloths work great. I prefer to keep chemicals out of the backcounty. For me this
includes insect repellents and deodorant. My philosophy is that if I wouldn't want to drink it
then I won't use it. I wouldn't appreciate it if chemicals washed off somebody washing
upstream while I'm filtering water downstream. I swim a lot, so since I don't want to drink
chemicals I wouldn't want to contaminate the water for anyone else.

Guess where I do use biodegradable soap? I use it at home instead of regular detergents. Hey I try to
be "green" and lessen my environmental footprint any way I can.

Conclusion
Conclusion In conclusion, the olive oil soap and detergent one were chosen as the best soap
and detergent. This was due to their outstanding performance in most of the tests. Although
the olive oil was unable to clean the cloth shirt very adequately, it ranked higher in every
other test and was therefore chosen as the best soap. Detergent one also ranked higher in
every test then detergent two, besides in the cleansability on cloth tests. Therefore,
detergent one was chosen as the best detergent. Both the olive oil soap would be cost
efficient and relatively environmentally friendly. However, as the detergent was less acidic
than the olive oil soap was basic, left little to no residue, and proved to clean more
thoroughly on both surfaces it was chosen as our top soap overall. We would recommend
detergent one to the group working to clean off the wildlife involved in the oil spill because
of its cost efficiency, unharmful properties, and lack of left over residue. ConclusionIn
conclusion, the olive oil soap and detergent one were chosen as the best soap and
detergent. This was due to their outstanding performance in most of the tests. Although the
olive oil was unable to clean the cloth shirt very adequately, it ranked higher in every other
test and was therefore chosen as the best soap. Detergent one also ranked higher in every
test then detergent two, besides in the cleansability on cloth tests. Therefore, detergent one
was chosen as the best detergent. Both the olive oil soap would be cost efficient and
relatively environmentally friendly. However, as the detergent was less acidic than the olive
oil soap was basic, left little to no residue, and proved to clean more thoroughly on both
surfaces it was chosen as our top soap overall. We would recommend detergent one to the
group working to clean off the wildlife involved in the oil spill because of its cost efficiency,
unharmful properties, and lack of left over residue.

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