Tribology International 66 (2013) 165–173

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Tribology International
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/triboint

Dry sliding friction and wear behaviour of hardened AISI D2 tool steel
with different hardness levels
Linhu Tang a,n,1, Chengxiu Gao a, Jianlong Huang b, Hongyan Zhang a, Wenchun Chang a
a
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Lanzhou Institute of Technology, Lanzhou, PR China
b
College of Mechano-Electronic, Lanzhou University of Technology, Lanzhou, PR China

art ic l e i nf o a b s t r a c t

Article history: The influence of the sliding speed and hardness on the friction and wear performance, and their related
Received 6 January 2013 mechanisms of hardened tool steel AISI D2 with different hardness levels were investigated. Friction and
Received in revised form wear tests of the estimated specimens with different hardness levels versus Si3N4 balls were carried out
6 April 2013
under dry sliding friction condition in ball-on-disc tester. The results showed that the influence of the
Accepted 7 May 2013
hardness on the friction coefficient at the sliding speeds of 0.05 and 0.5 m/s is more prominent than that
Available online 22 May 2013
at 0.10 m/s, while the wear rate shows great sensitivity to the sliding speed and hardness.
Keywords: & 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Sliding speed
Hardness
Friction coefficient
Wear rate

1. Introduction
In manufacturing of components, a large number of tool steels are
applied in milling, drilling, sawing and the measuring tool as well as
mold. In their work, they have to undergo great tension-compression
stress and friction-wear, which exert great influence on their service
life. Therefore, the properties of high hardness, strength and wear
resistance are required for tool steel in the manufacturing industry.
In recent years, a considerable number of papers about the wear
performance of the tool steel AISI D2 have been investigated by
many scholars. Bourithis et al. [1] have investigated the wear
properties of two commercial tool steels (AISI D2 and O1) with
the same hardness of 60 HRC by using pin-on-disk tester. They have
obtained the results that the tool steel microstructures play the
most important role in determining the wear properties. The sliding
wear resistances of ZrN and (Zr, 12 wt%Hf) N coating deposited on a
hardened tool steel AISI D2 were studied by Atar et al. [2]. After the
tool steel AISI D2 were subjected to the different heat treatments,
the relationship between the hardened-and-tempered condition of
the tool steel and its abrasive wear resistance were tested and
studied by Gorscak et al. [3]. Besides Omer and Muammer [4], who
have studied and compared the wear performances of seven
different, uncoated die materials (AISI D2, Vanadis 4, Vancron 40,
K340 ISODUR, Caldie, Carmo, 0050A) by using a newly developed
wear testing device, Sen et al. [5] have investigated the tribological
n
Corresponding author. Tel: +86 18919080745.
E-mail addresses: 314364973@qq.com, tanglinhu@126.com (L. Tang).
1
Present address: 1 Gongjiaping East Road, Lanzhou, Gansu Province 730050,
PR China.
behavior of Alumina and AISI 52100 steel in a ball-on- disc tester. In
these tests, the molybdenum boride coated tool steel AISI D2 was
used as the mating sliding surface. The results showed that the
friction coefficient decreases with the increase of sliding speed,
while the wear rate drops. Some researchers [6–9] have also
investigated the wear behavior and resistance of the tool steel AISI
D2 by deep cryogenic and sub-zero treatment under the condition
of different sliding speeds and normal loads. They considered that
the wear behavior can be clearly correlated with the reduction in
the retained austensite content and the increase in the amount of
secondary carbide particles of the microstructure.
Up to now, very few studies have only been reported on the
influences of the hardness and sliding speed on the wear perfor-
mance and mechanism of the hardened tool steel AISI D2. In this
paper, the influences of different hardened levels (5171, 5571,
5871, 6271, and 6571 HRC) of the tool steel AISI D2 and sliding
speeds (0.05, 0.10, and 0.50 m/s) at the normal load of 5 N on the
friction coefficient, wear rate, and related mechanisms were inves-
tigated. Friction-wear tests were conducted on a ball-on-disc tester
at room temperature under dry sliding friction condition.
2. Experimental procedures
2.1. Material
The material chosen in this investigation was a commercial tool
steel AISI D2 (Cr12MoV, China) bar. Its chemical composition is
presented in Table 1.

0301-679X/$ - see front matter & 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.triboint.2013.05.006
166 L. Tang et al. / Tribology International 66 (2013) 165–173

Table 1
Chemical composition of the tool steel AISI D2 (wt%).

C Cr Mo Mn Si P S V

1.55 11.25 0.45 0. 35 0.35 0.025 0.025 0.20

2.2. Heat treatment

Earlier results showed that the tool steel AISI D2 could get fine-
needle martensite, high-diffusion, and uniform distribution fine-
grain carbide by using the quenching temperatures of 1000–
1040 1C[10]. According to the methods of heat treatment in the
literature [11], the specimens were inserted into an electrical
resistance furnace at 1000–1040 1C, then quenched in oil, and finally
tempered at various low temperatures.

2.3. Hardness measurement

Fig. 1. Finished specimens.
The hardness values of the differently treated specimens were
estimated by Rockwell hardness tester. At least three readings have
been taken to estimate the average hardness value of hardness of
every specimen. The obtained hardened specimens were in different
hardness levels of 5171, 5571, 5871, 6271, and 6571 HRC.

2.4. Microstructure of the hardened tool steel AISI D2 with different

hardness levels

After mounting, grinding, polishing, and etching (etchant used:

4% Nitric acid alcohol solution for 40 s), microstructure examina-
tion of the hardened specimens were carried out utilizing a
scanning electron microscope (SEM).
The polishing has been carried using a semi-automatic grinding
and polishing machine from Buehler. The processes are as follows:
Fig. 2. THT friction-wear testing machine.
1. Grinding: using Ultra prep (9 μm) Metal-bonded disc at a
normal load of 20 N and rotate speed of 120 rev/min (Rotating
direction is the same.) for 5 min.
2. Polishing: using surface of preparation with the TriDent polish- Table 2
Experimental details.
ing cloth (3 μm) and MetaDi polishing liquid at a normal load of
25 N and rotate speed of 120 rev/min (Rotating direction is the Condition Method Sliding
same.) for 10 min. Fig. 1 is the finished specimens. Relative Normal
of of Temperature distance
humidity load (N)
experiment contact (m)

Ball-on- Room temperature

2.5. Dry sliding wear tests 40% 5 100
disc (22 1C)
Mating Hardness of estimated
Sliding speeds (m/s)
2.5.1. Testing systems material specimens ( 7 1 HRC)

Dry sliding wear testing systems are made up of THT friction-

51 0.05 0.10 0.50
wear tester and 2206 surface roughometer. THT friction-wear Scheme of 55 0.05 0.10 0.50
Si3N4
tester made in CSM in Switzerland shown in Fig. 2 was utilized the wear 58 0.05 0.10 0.50
ball
to measure the friction coefficient and wear rate of the hardened test 62 0.05 0.10 0.50
65 0.05 0.10 0.50
specimens and a 2206 surface roughometer was utilized to
measure the cross-section profile of the worn surface.

2.5.2. Experimental details

The experimental details are described in Table 2. Schematic
diagram of the ball-on-disc wear test rig is shown in Fig. 3. Dry sliding
friction and wear tests were conducted on a ball-on-disc tester at a
room temperature of about 22 1C, and relative humidity of about 40%.
The hardened tool steel AISI D2 (5171, 5571, 5871, 6271, and
6571 HRC) discs of 28 mm diameter, 8 mm length, and a surface
roughness of 0.336 μm Ra were tested against the N3Si4 balls with a
diameter of 3.0 mm. The friction and wear tests were carried out
at a normal load of 5 N and different sliding speeds of 0.05, 0.1, and
0.5 m/s. The wear volumes were obtained from track cross-section Fig. 3. Schematic diagram of the wear test rig.
 L. Tang et al. / Tribology International 66 (2013) 165–173
measurements after running a sliding distance of 100 m. Furthermore,
the wear rates were calculated from Eqs. (1) and (2). The averaged
values of the friction coefficient within steady-state were given.
2.6. Dealing with the results
As shown in Fig. 3, the N3Si4 ball at accurately controlled
normal load is contacted vertically on the mating surface of the
estimated specimens. The ball is connected with the elastic lever
by using a clamp. In the friction and wear tests, friction coefficient
values were given automatically by a conduction system after the
friction forces were transformed into the friction coefficient by the
deformation of the elastic lever.
The wear rates W are calculated from equations
W ¼ V=LD
V ¼ AG ð2Þ
where V is the volume of the specimen wear track in mm3, L is the
normal load in N, D is the total sliding distance in m, A is the wear
Fig. 4. Microstructure of the estimated specimens. (a) 51±1 HRC, (b) 55±1 HRC, (c) 58±1 HRC, (d) 62±1 HRC and (e) 65±1 HRC.
167
track cross-section in mm2 determined by its profile and G is
perimeter of the wear track in mm (in cases of 0.05, 0.10, and
0.50 m/s, the perimeters of the worn surfaces are 12.56, 25.12, and
37.68 mm, respectively).
2.7. Analysis of wear mechanisms
The worn surface and wear debris of estimated specimens were
examined in a SEM. Furthermore, elemental mapping of the worn
surface was conducted in a SEM equipped with Energy dispersive
X-ray spectroscopy (EDS) detector.
3. Results and discussion
ð1Þ 3.1. Microstructure of the estimated specimens
Fig. 4a–e presents the SEM micrographs of the microstructure
of the hardened tool steel AISI D2 with different hardness levels of
168 L. Tang et al. / Tribology International 66 (2013) 165–173

517 1, 5571, 6271, 58 71, and 65 71 HRC, respectively. It can be of the tempered martensite+carbide+retained austenite when the
seen from this figure, the lower the hardness the more is the hardness reaches the value as high as 6271 HRC.
retained austenite and the microstructures are mainly comprised
3.2. Dry sliding friction performance

3.2.1. Influence of the sliding speed

Fig. 5 shows the variation of the friction coefficient with sliding
distance in the case of a 62 71 HRC hardness.
As can be seen explicitly in Fig. 5, the sliding speed is of great
importance on the sliding distance of reaching steady-state. At
beginning of dry sliding, the friction coefficient sharply increases
with the extension of the sliding distance, and it fluctuates at a
certain range after attaining steady-state. In general, various
interface temperatures, surface films with different properties,
and friction performances at different contact states appear in the
worn surface. As shown in Fig. 5a, b and c, the slower the sliding
speed the more rapid is the rise in the friction coefficient. In
addition, their fluctuant amplitudes grow larger and larger gradu-
ally with increments of the sliding speed, which indicates that the
sliding speed exerts great influence on the amplitudes of the
friction coefficient values.
Fig. 6 describes the variation of the friction coefficient with the
hardness and sliding speed at a load of 5 N. It can be seen from this
figure that there are different changing laws for the friction
coefficient of the specimens with different hardness levels. The
two specimens with 51 and 58 71 HRC hardness have the lower
friction coefficient, whereas the higher friction coefficient is
obtained in the cases of 55, 62, and 65 71HRC at a sliding speed
of 0.05 m/s. It is also obvious that the influence of the hardness on
the friction coefficient of the specimens at a sliding speed of
0.10 m/s is less than that at 0.05 and 0.50 m/s. In the cases of 51
and 587 1 HRC hardness, the friction coefficient gradually
increases with increments of the sliding speed; while it gradually
decreases in the cases of 55, 62 and 657 1 HRC hardness. There-
fore, it is evident that the sliding speed and hardness only exert
slight influence on the friction coefficient. The literature [12]
showed that the friction coefficient evidently increases with the
increase of the sliding speed as the Si4N3 ball is tested against the
stainless steel, which is not in agreement with the results obtained
in this paper.

3.2.2. Influence of the quenching hardness

Fig. 7 presents the variation of the friction coefficient of five
hardened specimens with the sliding distance at a sliding speed of
0.05 m/s. As shown in Fig. 7, the higher the hardness the longer is
the sliding distance of reaching steady-state.
The possible reasons inducing this phenomenon are as follows:
firstly, the hardened specimens with lower hardness levels com-
prise of more retained austenite content (Fig. 4a–c) than those
with higher hardness, which can produce lubricious metal film on
the worn surface, and result in the decrease of the friction
coefficient; while those specimens with higher hardness levels
comprise of less retained austenite and more martensite content
(Fig. 4d and e) which is difficult to produce lubricious metal film,
and the harder martensite leads to the larger vibration, compare

Fig. 5. Variation of the friction coefficient with sliding distance (6271 HRC).
(a) Gyration radius of 2 mm, sliding speed of 0.05 m/s, (b) Gyration radius of 4 mm,
sliding speed of 0.10 m/s, and (c) Gyration radius of 6 mm, sliding speed of 0.50 m/s. Fig. 6. v−μ property of different hardness specimens (Normal load:5 N).
 L. Tang et al. / Tribology International 66 (2013) 165–173 169

with those softer austenite. Secondly, although the microstructure
in the hardened specimen with 65 71 HRC hardness is similar to
that of a 62 71 HRC hardness, its friction coefficient is smaller
than that of 62 71 HRC hardness. It is obvious that there are
additional reasons for resulting in the different phenomenon.
Fig. 8a–c shows the SEM micrographs of the fracture specimens
with different hardness levels of 55 71, 62 71, and 65 71 HRC,
respectively. As can be seen from this figure, the amount of the
brittle and hard carbide particles in a specimen of 62 71 HRC is
more than those of 65 71 HRC, which results in the decrease of
the friction coefficient of a specimen with 65 71 HRC.
It can be seen from Fig. 9 that, apart from a specimen with
587 1HRC, the wear rates of the hardened specimens increase
with increments of the sliding speed. For the hardened specimens
with the hardness of 51, 55, and 62 71 HRC, the wear rates
increase non-linearly with increments of the sliding speed. While
in the case of the specimen with 657 1HRC, the wear rates
increase almost linearly with increments of the sliding speed,
which is similar to the results obtained in the literature [12]. The
wear rates of the hardened specimens can be divided into the
following different grades shown in Table 3, according to the
physical interpretation in the literature [13].

3.3. Wear rates

3.3.2. Influence of the quenching hardness
3.3.1. Influence of the sliding speed It can be seen from Fig. 9 that the wear rates decrease with
Fig. 9 presents the variation of the wear rates with the hardness increments of the hardness at the sliding speeds of 0.05, 0.10 and
and sliding speed. 0.50 m/s, which is similar to Archard's wear equation. However, it

Fig. 7. Variation of the friction coefficient with the hardness (Gyration radius of 6 mm，sliding speed of 0.05 m/s). (a) 517 1 HRC, (b) 557 1 HRC, (c) 587 1 HRC, (d) 627 1
HRC, (e) 657 1HRC.
170 L. Tang et al. / Tribology International 66 (2013) 165–173

should be noted that the wear rate of a hardened specimen with
657 1 HRC is the highest at the sliding speeds of 0.10 and 0.5 m/s.
It can be observed from Fig.10 that the same trend of the wear
rates of the hardened specimens is mirrored with their tensile
strength examined in a electronic multipurpose tensile-compress
testing machine (Type:WDW-E200D) controlled by a computer at
a room temperature of about 22 1C. Consequently, it is likely that
brittleness of the specimen with 65 HRC results in strength loss,

Wear rate(10 -6mm3/N·m)

30 51±1HRC 55±1HRC
25 58±1HRC 62±1HRC
20 65±1HRC
15
10
5
0
0.05 0.10 0.50
Sliding speed v (m/s)
Fig. 9. v−w property of various hardness specimens (normal load: 5 N).

Table 3
Wear resistance of the hardened tool steel AISI D2.

Hardness ( 7 1 HRC) Sliding speed (m/s) Grade of wear

51 0.05 Low wear

0.10 Moderate wear
0.50 Moderate wear
55 0.05 Low wear
0.10 Low wear
0.50 Moderate wear
58 0.05 Low wear
0.10 Low wear
0.50 Moderate wear
62 0.05 Low wear
0.10 Low wear
0.50 Moderate wear
65 0.05 Low wear
0.10 Moderate wear
0.50 Moderate wear

2000
Tensile strength (MPa)

1900

1800

1700

1600

1500
51 55 58 62 65
Specimen hardness (±1HRC)

Fig. 8. SEM micrographs of the fracture specimen at different hardness levels. Fig.10. The effect of specimen hardness on tensile strength. (a) Fractured tensile
(a) 55 71 HRC, (b) 627 1 HRC, (c) 65 71 HRC. specimen in the case of 557 1 HRC, and (b) graph of tensile strength.
 L. Tang et al. / Tribology International 66 (2013) 165–173
Fig. 11. SEM micrographs in the worn surfaces of the specimens with 51, 55, 58, 62 65 7 1 HRC at a fixed sliding speed of 0.10 m/s. (a) 517 1HRC, (b) 557 1HRC,
(c) 58 7 1HRC, and (d) 62 71HRC.
hence its wear resistance drops at elevated specimen hardness
level. For these specimens with lower hardness (e.g. 51 71 and
55 71 HRC), one possible explanation of the observed phenom-
enon is that they show more plastic. Therefore, the wear resistant
is comprehensive embodiment of strength (hardness) and plasti-
city of materials.
3.4. Dry sliding wear mechanism
Fig. 11 illustrates the SEM micrographs in the worn surfaces of
the hardened specimens with 51 71, 557 1, 58 71, 62 71, and
65 71 HRC at a fixed sliding speed of 0.10 m/s. It can be observed
from Fig. 11a that the grooves are deeper, wider and have more
density per unit area in the worn surface of the specimen with
517 1 HRC compared with 58 71 HRC; moreover, the local
adhesive scars do occur in the worn surface as shown in Fig. 11a
marked with ellipse. These result in more material removal of the
171
specimen with 51 71 HRC than that of 58 71 HRC, as shown in
Fig. 9. In the worn surface of the specimen with 58 HRC (Fig. 11c),
other than abrasion marks occurring by micro-plowing with
relatively narrow scars in the direction of sliding and some wear
debris adhering to the worn surfaces, nothing else can be detected
by SEM at a magnification of  1000.
As can be seen from Fig. 11 b and d, the varisized flakes are
visible in the worn surface. The mechanisms resulting in these
flakes are different due to the hardness levels of the specimens.
For the hardened specimen with a hardness of 55 71 HRC,
there are not only varisized flakes of broken adhesion joint, plastic
flow and cracking, but also abrasive dusts resulted from the
breakage of the bonds between the estimated specimen and
mating ball, as shown in Fig.11b. Besides, there are two other
aspects that induce these flakes. On one hand, the dry sliding
between the estimated specimen and mating ball results in heat
generation, hence instantaneous high-temperature happens [14],
172 L. Tang et al. / Tribology International 66 (2013) 165–173
Fig. 12. Analysis of the elements in the mating Si3N4 ball. (a) SEM micrograph in
the worn surfaces of the mating ball, and (b) EDS analysis in the contact zone of the
mating ball.
Fig. 13. SEM micrograph of the worn surfaces in the mating ball.
as leads to the softening effect between the friction and wear
pairs. On the other hand, the number of abrasive dusts adhered to
the worn surface snowballed. Then, these particles with consider-
able sizes are compressed by the contact load and sheared.
Furthermore, the small flakes are conglutinated in the worn
surface.
Although the normal load is only 5 N, the contact stress
between the ball and disc is fairly high. Therefore, the fatigue
Fig. 14. Analysis of the elements in case of the specimen with 55 7 1HRC at a fixed
sliding speed of 0.05 m/s. (a) Zone of the element analysis, and (b) EDS analysis in
the contact zone of the mating ball.
)
35
Element content (wt
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
51 55 58 62 65
Hardness of specimens H (±1 HRC)
Fig. 15. Variation of elements in the worn surface of specimens with different
hardness levels at a sliding speed of 0.05 m/s.
cracks do occur because of highly concentrated stress imposed by
the mating sliding Si3N4 ball. Cracks may initiate in the highly
hardened layer, particularly in the subsurface region. As a result, a
small flake around the crack is removed through delamination in
the form of metallic flakes when cracks grow and get intercon-
nected, this is a combination of adhesive wear and fatigue wear, as
shown in Fig. 11b. While flakes in the specimen with 627 1 HRC is
not detached from the worn surface before crack get intercon-
nected as marked with ellipse in Fig.11d, thereby reducing the
material removal.
As also can be observed in Fig. 11d, a more slight plastic
deformation exists in the worn surface for a specimen with
6271 HRC. According to above discussion, the main wear
mechanism in the cases of 55 and 627 1 HRC hardness is adhesive
wear. Further increase in the hardness shows in addition to cracks
more deteriorated surface shown in Fig. 11e, which is
 L. Tang et al. / Tribology International 66 (2013) 165–173
characterized by brittle fracture of the specimen with 65 HRC.
Again this may confirm that it become harder and more brittle,
which in turn leads to cracks and delamination wear as marked
with ellipse in Fig. 11e. These result in its higher wear rates and
lower wear resistance.
The element content in the worn surface of the mating Si3N4
ball was analyzed by EDS as the sliding distance reaches 100 m at a
sliding speed of 0.05 m/s. It can be observed from Fig. 12, there are
a mass of C and a small quantity of additional elements transferred
from the estimated specimen in the contact zone, which indicates
that the transfer of the elements between both of them happened
in these tests.
Furthermore, it is known that sliding between the specimen
and the mating ball results in heat generation in the tests and
believed that C element appears in the carborundum and oxidated
carbide forms. Fig.13 describes the partial enlarged SEM micro-
graph of the worn surface in the contact zone of the mating ball.
Similarly, the elements are also transferred from the mating
ball to the friction-wear disc. Fig.14 presents the SEM micrograph
and elements analysis in the worn surfaces of the specimen with
55 71 HRC at a 0.05 m/s sliding speed. The elements transferred
from the mating ball are also visible in the worn surface (Fig. 14b).
According to above discussion, it is believed that it is the adhesive
wear that induces the elements transfer when the Si4N3 ball is
mated against the hardened tool steel, which is in agreement with
the literature [15].
Fig. 15 describes the variation of the oxygen and nitrogen
elements in the worn surface of the specimens with the hardness
at a 0.05 m/s sliding speed. As can be seen from this figure, the
hardness has great influence on the transfer of the elements in the
tests. And the oxygen and nitrogen elements in the worn surface
of the estimated specimens increase gradually with increments of
the hardness. The reason can be attributed to the rise in high
temperature, as induces some certain chemical reactions between
the friction-wear specimens and consequently leads to a series of
wear effects.
4. Conclusions
In this paper, dry sliding friction and wear performance and
mechanism of the hardened tool steel AISI D2 with different
hardness levels were investigated. The conclusions can be drawn
from the above analysis:
1. The sliding speed exerts more influence on the fluctuant
amplitude of the friction coefficient within steady-state period
compare with the hardness. And the higher the hardness and
sliding speed the longer is the sliding distance of reaching
steady-state.
2. The specimen with 587 1 HRC hardness have the lower friction
coefficient, whereas the higher friction coefficient is obtained
in the cases of 51, 55, 62, and 65 71HRC at a sliding speed of
0.05 m/s. The influence of the hardness on the friction coeffi-
cient of the hardened specimens at a 0.10 m/s sliding speed is
less than that at 0.05 and 0.50 m/s.
3. The wear rates for the hardened specimens with 55, 58 and
627 1 HRC are in the order of 10−6 mm3/N m (low wear) at the
173
sliding speeds of 0.05 and 0.01 m/s, while they are in the order
of 10−5 mm3/N m (moderate wear) at a sliding speed of 0.5 m/s.
In the cases of 51 and 657 1 HRC hardness, the wear rate
values are in the order of 10−6 mm3/N m (low wear) at a
0.05 m/s sliding speed, while they are in the order of
10−5 mm3/N m (moderate wear) at the sliding speeds of 0.10
and 0.5 m/s.
4. The flakes can be attributed to three main mechanisms,
namely, the fatigue cracks induced by the contact stress, the
softening effect due to high temperature and snowballing
effect.
5. Different wear mechanisms are observed. The main wear
mechanism is adhesive wear for the specimens with 55 and
6271 HRC, abrasive wear for 51 and 58 71 HRC. Besides,
delamination wear for the specimen with 6571 HRC due to its
brittleness is the dominated wear mechanism.
Acknowledgments
This investigation was supported by the Youth Science and
Technology Innovation Foundation of Lanzhou Institute of Tech-
nology. The authors wish to thank Prof. J. Huang and the anon-
ymous reviewers for their careful review and insightful comments
that helped us improve this paper.
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