Chapter 3

Capacitance and Capacitors

3.1 A single conductor

If an isolated conductor is raised to the potential V , the potential everywhere inside the
conductor is Φ(x) = V φ(x), where φ(x) = 1 on the conductor and vanishes at infinity. The
charge on the conductor, as given by Gauss’s law, is
Z
∂φ
Q/0 = −V da, (3.1)
S ∂n
where S is (conveniently) the surface of the conductor. We see that Q is proportional to V .
By definition, the capacitance is
Z
Q ∂φ
C= = −0 da. (3.2)
V S ∂n

The energy of the charged conductor is

1 Q2
W = CV 2 = . (3.3)
2 2C
Another expression for W is the usual
0 Z
W = (V ∇φ)2 d3 x, (3.4)
2 V
where V is the volume external to the conductor. Comparing these two expressions for W ,
we get another formula for C, Z
C = 0 (∇φ)2 d3 x. (3.5)
V

This is equivalent to Eq. (3.2), which can be seen by using the identity (∇φ)2 = ∇ · (φ∇φ) −
φ∇2 φ, Laplace’s equation ∇2 φ = 0, and the divergence theorem. We see that C is always
positive. This follows also from the fact that φ(x) has its maximum, φ = 1, on the surface
S, so that ∂φ/∂n is negative on S.

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 In the SI system, the unit of capacitance is the Farad,
Coulomb
1 Farad = 1 . (3.6)
Volt
The Farad is a huge capacitance. In more common use is the picofarad, 1 pF = 10−12 F. In
the Gaussian system of units, it turns out that capacitance has the dimensions of a length.
For a simple body, C is of the order of 0 times the linear size of the body. For a
sphere of radius a, we have the basic result C = 4π0 a. If body A can be inscribed in body
B, it can be shown that CA < CB (Jackson’s Problem 1.20). Thus the radii of the inscribed
and circumscribed sphere give simple bounds on C. For a convex body without sharp edges,
corners, or points, C is almost the same as the capacitance of a sphere having the same
surface area S.

3.2 Many conductors

For two bodies, the relation between charges and voltages is

Q1 = C11 V1 + C12 V2 ,
Q2 = C21 V1 + C22 V2 , (3.7)

with C21 = C12 . It can be shown that C11 and C22 are positive, C12 is negative, and C11 ≥
|C12 | as well as C22 ≥ |C12 |.
To obtain these results, start from the two basic configurations where V1 = 1, V2 = 0
and V1 = 0, V2 = 1. Call the corresponding potentials φ1 (x) and φ2 (x). In the general
configuration the potential is Φ(x) = V1 φ1 (x) + V2 φ2 (x) and Gauss’s theorem gives
Z Z
∂φ1 ∂φ2
Q1 /0 = −V1 da − V2 da, (3.8)
S1 ∂n S1 ∂n

Z Z
∂φ1 ∂φ2
Q2 /0 = −V1 da − V2 da. (3.9)
S2 ∂n S2 ∂n

This argument clearly can be generalized to any number of conductors.

3.2.1 Capacitors
Of practical interest is the configuration with zero net charge, Q1 = Q and Q2 = −Q.

• In an ideal capacitor C12 = −C11 (so that no flux escapes): then Eq. (3.7) gives
Q = C11 ∆V , where ∆V = V1 − V2 (note that C11 is not the same as the capacitance
of the isolated conductor 1).

• In the case of a symmetrical capacitor, V1 = ∆V /2 and V2 = −∆V /2.

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• Quite generally we can solve for V1 and V2 to obtain ∆V = Q/C, with the internal
capacitance now given by
C11 C22 − C12 C21
C= (3.10)
C11 + C22 + C12 + C21

Here is a list of C for various capacitors.

• Two closely spaced parallel plates of area A, separation d (A >> d2 ):

0 A
C= (3.11)
d

• Two concentric cylinders, radii a and b with a > b, length L >> (a − b):

2π0 L
C= (3.12)
ln(a/b)

• Two parallel cylinders, both of radius a, separation D > 2a, length L >> D :
π0 L
C=  q  (3.13)
ln (D/2a) + (D/2a)2 − 1

– for D >> a, this reduces to

π0 L
C= (3.14)
ln(D/a)

• Any two parallel cylinders, radii a, b, separation D, length L :

2π0 L
C=  √  (3.15)
ln x + x2 − 1

where  
 D 2 − a2 − b 2 
 
x =  

(3.16)
2ab
This formula applies when the cylinders are external to each other (D > a + b) and
L >> D, as well as when they are inside each other (D < |a − b|) and L >> |a − b| .
The case of two intersecting cylinders is different, since they must be at the same
potential.

• Two concentric spheres, radii a and b, with a > b :

ab
C = 4π0 . (3.17)
a−b

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3.2.2 Forces on charged conductors
Forces can be obtained simply by differentiating at constant Qi the energy formula
1X 1 X  −1 
W = Vi Qi = C Qi Qj , (3.18)
2 i 2 ij ij

where C −1 is the inverse of the capacitance matrix. The force in the general direction of the
parameter ξ is !
∂W 1X ∂  −1 
Fξ = − =− Qi Qj C . (3.19)
∂ξ Q 2 ij ∂ξ ij

• For a single conductor

Q2
W =
, (3.20)
2C
and the force in the general direction of the parameter ξ is
!
∂W Q2 ∂(1/C) Q2 ∂C
Fξ = − =− = . (3.21)
∂ξ Q
2 ∂ξ 2C 2 ∂ξ

For example, a charged sphere of radius r experiences a radial force

∂W 1 Q2
Fr = − = . (3.22)
∂r 4π0 2r2
As expected, this force pushes outward, expanding the sphere.

• For a capacitor the force between the plates is also given by Eq. (3.21) where C is now
the internal capacitance. For example, the mutual force between the plates of a thin
capacitor (C = 0 A/x) is
 
∂ 1 x
2 Q2
Fx = −Q =− . (3.23)
∂x 2 0 A 20 A
As expected, this force is attractive and its magnitude per unit area is σ 2 /20 , where
σ = Q/A is the surface charge density.

If we want to obtain the forces by differentiating at constant V , we must use the

formula (with the seemingly “wrong” sign)
!  
∂W ∂ 1 V 2 ∂C
Fx = = CV 2 = . (3.24)
∂x V
∂x 2 2 ∂x

The reason for the “wrong” sign is that the virtual work at constant V is δW − V δQ,
where the extra term is the work (typically done by batteries) to restore the charge. Since
δW = 12 V δQ, we find that δW − V δQ = −δW .

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