Psychological research

>...Psychological research refers to research that

psychologists conduct for systematic study and for
analysis of the experiences and behaviours of
individuals or groups. Their research can have
educational, occupational and clinical applications.

Characteristics of Research

> it should be objective

> it should be trustworthy
> it should be ethical
> it should be controlable
> it should be empirical

Methods of study
There are some methods of study such as:
> Observational Method
> Experimental Method
> Survey Method
> Day Book Method
> Biographical Method
> Clinical Method Or Case History
> interview Method

1- Observational Methods
Observation (watching what people do) would seem
to be an obvious method of carrying out research in
psychology. However, there are different types of
observational methods and distinctions need to be
made between:
- Introspection
- External Observation
- Naturalistic Observation
- Field study
- Correlational Mthod
-Interospection
Introspection is the examination of one's own
conscious thoughts and feelings.In psychology, the
process of introspection relies exclusively on
observation of one's mental state, while in a spiritual
context it may refer to the examination of one's soul.
Introspection is closely related to human self-
reflection and is contrasted with external
observation.Introspection generally provides a
privileged access to one's own mental states
-External Observation
An exploration of being contained within a limited
space whilst others are observing you and have the
power of moving you around. Being restricted by
space and costume (an extra skin, limits use of
hands, feet, sight and mouth. By sampling different
situations, researchers reduce the chance that the
results they obtain will be particular to a certain set
of circumstances or conditions. For this reason,
situation sampling significantly increases the external
validity of observational findings.
-Naturalistic Observation
Naturalistic observation is a research method
commonly used by psychologists and other social
scientists.This technique involves observing involves
studying the spontaneous behavior of participants in
natural surroundings. The researcher simply records
what they see in whatever way they can.
Compared with controlled observations it is like the
difference between studying wild animals in a zoo
and studying them in their natural habitat.
-Field study
A field study is a general method for collecting data
about users, user needs, and product requirements
that involves observation and interviewing. Data are
collected about task flows, inefficiencies, and the
organizational and physical environments of users.
It is done in two ways:
_Participant Observations
_Non-Participant Observations
 -Correlational method
Correlational studies are a type of research often
used in psychology as a preliminary way to gather
information about a topic or in situations where
performing an experiment is not possible. The
correlational method involves looking at
relationships between two or more variables.
There are three possible results of a correlational
study: a positive correlation, a negative correlation,
and no correlation.
The correlation coefficient is a measure of the
correlation strength and can range from –1.00 to
+1.00.
Here are the definitions of the three results:
Positive correlations: In this type of correlation, both
variables increase or decrease at the same time. A
correlation coefficient close to +1.00 indicates a
strong positive correlation.
Negative correlations: This type of correlation
indicates that as the amount of one variable
increases, the other decreases (and vice versa). A
correlation coefficient close to -1.00 indicates a
strong negative correlation.
No correlation or Zero correlation: This indicates no
relationship between the two variables. A correlation
coefficient of 0 indicates no correlation.

2-Experimental Method
The experimental method involves manipulating one
variable to determine if changes in one variable
cause changes in another variable. This method
relies on controlled methods, random assignment
and the manipulation of variables to test a
hypothesis.
Steps of Experimental Method
-Formulation of problem;Formulation of a research
problem refers to state the problem in a
researchable manner. ... The researcher needs to
refine the topic and clearly state what is intended to
explore about the topic. Formulation of the research
problem basically includes narrowing down the
research area and formulating the objectives.
-Hypothesis;A supposition or proposed explanation
made on the basis of limited evidence as a starting
point for further investigation.A hypothesis is a
proposed explanation for a phenomenon. For a
hypothesis to be a scientific hypothesis, the scientific
method requires that one can test it. Scientists
generally base scientific hypotheses on previous
observations that cannot satisfactorily be explained
with the available scientific theories.
-Variables;A variable is something that can be
changed or varied, such as a characteristic or value.
Variables are generally used in psychology
experiments to determine if changes to one thing
result in changes to another. Variables play a critical
role in the psychological research process.
-Experimental Design;Experimental design refers to
how participants are allocated to the different
conditions (or IV levels) in an experiment. There are
three types: 1. Independent measures / between
groups: Different participants are used in each
condition of the independent variable.
-Experimental & Control Group;An experimental
group is the group in an experiment that receives the
variable being tested. One variable is tested at a
time. The experimental group is compared to a
control group, which does not receive the test
variable. In this way, experimental groups are used to
find answers in an experiment.
-Apparatus;Apparatus broadly refers to the
equipment, machinery, or structure that is necessary
for a particular purpose or activity. In psychology,
this means the equipment or measures that are
necessary for conducting research.
-Controlled conditions;The control condition in an
experimental design lacks any treatment or
manipulation of the independent variable. ...
Everything in a control condition is the same as the
experimental conditions except that the
independent variable is absent or held constant.
-Results; A psychology dictionary defines it as
feedback of information:
"(a) to a subject about the correctness of [their]
responses; (b) a student about success or failure in
mastering material, or (c) a client in psychotherapy
about progress".

3- Day book Method

It is generally a book in which daily transactions are
entered. Day book method is very helpful when we
have to collect the information about individual’s life;
especially when we want to study developmental
behavior or when we have to compare different
stages of development. This technique gives
information about different stages of individual’s life.
usually day book method comprises of the
information collected from individual’s personal
diary. Often people write about their daily routine
and memories in their diaries. They write about their
routine matters, special events, achievements,
failures, liking, disliking and even comments from
others.

4-Biographical Method
The biographical method is the collection and
analysis of an intensive account of a whole life or
portion of a life, usually by an in-depth, unstructured
interview. The account may be reinforced by semi-
structured interviewing or personal
documents.Biographical research is a qualitative
research approach aligned to the social interpretive
paradigm of research. The biographical research is
concerned with the reconstruction of life histories
and the constitution of meaning based on
biographical narratives and documents.
/Explore this Article
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 5-Clinical Method Or Case History
The clinical method is also called case study method.
It is used by clinical psychologists, psychiatrists,
psychiatric social works and teachers in child
guidance clinics or mental hygiene centers or in
ordinary school situations. ... This method will be
useful in such conditions.
>Examples of Psychological Tests
1-Intelligence Tests. Intelligence tests are used to
measure a person's overall level of intellectual
functioning. ...
2-Personality Tests. Personality tests are self-
reported inventories that are used to assess personal
traits and behaviors. ...
3-Projective Tests. ...
4-Interest Inventories.
In this method there is minimum 3 people for data
collection
1..Clinical psychologist: First person is byself clinical
psychologist.
2..Psychiatrist: Second person is psychiatrist
,physician & doctor.They examine patient physical
condition.
3..Social Worker: Third is social worker who provide
all exact information about client & his belongings.A
clinical social worker, on the other hand, provides
supports services to clients with emotional, mental
and/or behavioral issues. ... He/she typically utilizes a
multi-faceted therapy approach, with a focus on
helping clients improve their emotional, physical
and/or financial status.

6-Survey Method
A survey is a data collection tool used to gather
information about individuals. Surveys are
commonly used in psychology research to collect
self-report data from study participants. A survey
may focus on factual information about individuals,
or it might aim to obtain the opinions of the survey
takers.Survey research is used to gather the
opinions, beliefs and feelings of selected groups of
individuals, often chosen for demographic sampling.
There are three main types of longitudinal survey:
trend surveys, panel surveys, cohort surveys. Trend
surveys are deployed by researchers to understand
the shift or transformation in the thought process of
respondents over a period of time.
Stages of survey
>Formulation of problem:Formulation of a research
problem refers to state the problem in a
researchable manner. ... The researcher needs to
refine the topic and clearly state what is intended to
explore about the topic. Formulation of the research
problem basically includes narrowing down the
research area and formulating the objectives.
>Population & Sampling:The main difference
between a population and sample has to do with
how observations are assigned to the data set. A
population includes all of the elements from a set of
data. A sample consists one or more observations
drawn from the population.
>Tool of survey:A survey is a data collection tool
used to gather information about individuals.
Surveys are commonly used in psychology research
to collect self-report data from study participants. ...
They offer researchers a way to collect a great deal
of information in a relatively quick and easy way.
>Data collection:A case study in psychology is a
descriptive research approach used to obtain in-
depth information about a person, group, or
phenomenon. ... Case studies use techniques such as
personal interviews, direct observation,
psychometric tests, and archival records to gather
information.Four different data collection techniques
– observation, questionnaire, interview and focus
group discussion – and evaluate their suitability
under different circumstances.
>Data analysis:After psychologists develop a theory,
form a hypothesis, make observations, and collect
data, they end up with a lot of information, usually in
the form of numerical data. The term statistics refers
to the analysis and interpretation of this numerical
data.
>Results:A psychology dictionary defines it as
feedback of information:
"(a) to a subject about the correctness of [their]
responses; (b) a student about success or failure in
mastering material, or (c) a client in psychotherapy
about progress".

7-Interview Method
An interview is generally a qualitative research
technique which involves asking open-ended
questions to converse with respondents and collect
elicit data about a subject.
Types of Interviews
-Structured Interview. ...
-Unstructured Interview. ...
-Stress Interview. ...
-Behavioral Interview. ...
-Problem Solving or Case Interview. ...
-Panel Interview. ...
-Legal vs. Illegal Areas of Inquiry.
- Unstructured,Informal, Conversational interview
An unstructured interview is an interview in which
there is no specific set of predetermined questions,
although the interviewers usually have certain topics
in mind that they wish to cover during the interview.
Unstructured interviews flow like an everyday
conversation and tend to be more informal and
open-ended.No predetermined questions are asked,
in order to remain as open and adaptable as possible
to the interviewee's nature and priorities; during the
interview the interviewer "goes with the flow".It is
judged by body language,conversation
style,confidents etc.
-Structured, formal interview
A structured interview (also known as a standardized
interview or a researcher-administered survey) is a
quantitative research method commonly employed
in survey research. The aim of this approach is to
ensure that each interview is presented with exactly
the same questions in the same order.
Standardized, open-ended interview
The same open-ended questions are asked to all
interviewees; this approach facilitates faster
interviews that can be more easily analyzed and
compared.
Closed, fixed-response interview
All interviewees are asked the same questions and
asked to choose answers from among the same set
of alternatives. This format is useful for those not
practiced in interviewing. This type of interview is
also referred to as structure.
there are 3 types of purposes,
1-Therapeutic Purposes means systematic treatment
of any disease or the measures to improve health
according to any particular method or modality; and.
Therapeutic Purposes means the treatment of any
disease, disorder or condition in humans.
2-The purpose of the investigation is to explore in
detail the allegations, to examine the evidence in
depth, and to determine specifically whether
academic research misconduct has been committed,
and if so, the responsible person and the seriousness
of the misconduct.
3-The purpose of assessment is to gather relevant
information about student performance or progress,
or to determine student interests to make judgments
about their learning process. ... It also encourages
the understanding of teaching as a formative process
that evolves over time with feedback and input from
students.

wish you best of luck

(Syeda Sabeela Hashmi)