Directional and Non-directional Tests, Rejection Region, Critical Values, and Level

of Significance

Directional and Non-directional Tests

A non-directional test is also called a two-tailed test
When the alternative hypothesis utilizes the ≠ symbol, the test is said to be non-
directional.

In a two-tailed test, the rejection region is on both sides of the curve. If the
alternative hypothesis contains the inequality (≠) symbol, then the test is two-tailed. Alpha
α which corresponds to the rejection region is divided equally between the two tails.

A directional test may either be left-tailed or right-tailed

When the alternative hypothesis utilizes the > or the < symbol, the test is said to
be directional.
In problems that involve hypothesis testing, there are words like greater, efficient,
improves, effective, increases, and so on that suggest a right-tailed direction in the
formulation of the alternative hypothesis. Words like decrease, less than, smaller, and
the like suggest a left-tailed direction.

In a one-tailed test, the alternative hypothesis if of the form 𝜇 > c, 𝜇< c, p > p, or p
< p. The rejection region is on one side of the curve depending on how the alternative
hypothesis is stated. If the hypothesis contains the greater than symbol (>), then the
rejection region is on the right tail of the curve. If the hypothesis contains the less than
symbol (<), then, the rejection region is on the left tail of the curve. The total area of alpha
α which corresponds to the rejection region is placed on one tail only.

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Two graphical representations of the two-tailed test and the one-tailed test

Non-directional
(Two-tailed)

The probability is found on both

tails of the distribution

Directional
(One-tailed, left tail)

The probability is found at the left

tail of the distribution

Directional
(One-tailed, right tail)

The probability is found at the right

tail of the distribution.

Rejection Region, Critical Values, and Level of Significance

Steps and rules to decide whether or not to reject the null hypothesis
1. Convert the sample mean to a value called test statistic. This will help to make
and draw a conclusion
2. Establish a rejection region.

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Separating the two regions is a point called the critical value which is derived from the
level of significance. If the test statistic or computed value falls in the rejection region, that
is, it falls beyond the critical point, then the null hypothesis is rejected. The level of
significance, alpha, 𝛼, corresponds to the rejection region and the difference of one and
the alpha (1 - ∝) corresponds to the area of the curve occupied by the non-rejection
region. The most commonly used values for alpha are 0.01, 0.05, and 0.10.
If the level of significance used is 5% or 0.05, then there is a 5% chance or 5
chances in 100 that the null hypothesis would be rejected when it should be accepted.
That is whenever the null hypothesis is true, there is a 95% confidence of making the
decision correct.
The level of significance is the probability that the test statistic would fall in the
rejection region when in fact the null hypothesis is actually true.

Types of Errors
1. Type I error
A Type I error is committed when the researcher rejects a null hypothesis
when in fact it is true. The probability of committing Type I error is also called the
level of significance. For a 90% confidence level, the level of significance or the
value of alpha is 0.1. This means that there is a 10% probability that the researcher
will reject a true null hypothesis. For a 99% confidence level, the level of
significance is 0.01. This means that there is a 1% probability that the researcher
will reject null hypothesis that is true. But if the researcher rejects null hypothesis
that is false, then he has reached a correct decision. Alpha ∝ is used to represent
the probability of Type I error.

2. Type II error
A Type II error is committed when the researcher fails to reject a null hypothesis
that is false. But if the researcher fails to reject a true hypothesis, then, there is no
error committed. Beta 𝛽 is used to represent the probability of a Type II error.

Table 1. Four Possible Outcomes in Decision-Making

Decisions about the Ho

Reject Do not Reject Ho
(or Accept Ho)
Ho is true. Type I error Correct decision

Reality H0 is false Correct decision Type II error ,

Table 2. Type or Errors

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 Error in Type Probability Correct Type Probability
Decision Decision
Reject a true I 𝛼 Accept a A 1–𝛼
Ho true Ho
Accept a II 𝛽 Reject a B 1-𝛽
false Ho false Ho

We can control the errors by assigning small probability values to each of them. The most
frequently used probability values for α and β are 0.05 and 0.01. the probability assigned
to each depends on its seriousness. The more serious the errors, the less willing we are
to have it occur. So, a smaller probability is assigned. The symbols α and β are each
probabilities of error, each under separate conditions, and they cannot be combined.
Therefore, there is no single probability for making an incorrect decision. In like manner,
the two correct decisions are distinct and each has its own probability. In table 2, 1 – 𝛼
is the probability of a correct decision when the null hypothesis is true, and 1 - 𝛽 is the
probability of a correct decision when the null hypothesis is false. 1 - 𝛽 is called the power
of the statistical test since it is the measure of the ability of a hypothesis test to reject a
false null hypothesis which is considered very important (Mc Clave & Sincich 2003)

Under the normal curve, the rejection region refers to the region
where the value of the test statistic lies for which we will reject
the null hypothesis. This region is also called the critical region.

So, if your computed statistic is found in the rejection region, then you reject Ho. If it is
found outside the rejection region, you accept Ho.
Note also that the line that separates the rejection region from the non-rejection region (1
– 𝛼). This line passes through the confidence coefficients, which are also called critical
values. The critical values can be obtained from the critical values of table of the test
statistic. For example, if the test statistic is a z, the critical values can be obtained from
the z-table. So, for a 95% confidence level, the critical values for a non-directional test
are -1.96 and + 1.96. When the confidence level is 99%, for a non-directional test, the
critical values are -2.58 and + 2.58.

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Examples

A. Directional or Non-Directional
1. Bottled Fruit Juice Content
The owner of a factory that sells a particular bottled fruit juice claims that the
average capacity of a bottle of their product is 250 ml. Is the claim true?
To test the claim, the members of a consumer group did the following
a. Get a sample of 100 such bottles.
b. Calculate the capacity of each bottle.
c. Compare the sample mean and the claim.
The observed mean capacity X of the 100 bottles is 243 ml. The sample
standard deviation is 10 ml. State the null and the alternative hypotheses in
words and in symbols.
Answer:
The consumer group has a purpose, it is directional

2. Music and Studies

A teacher wants to know if listening to popular music affects the performance of
students. A class of 45 Grade 11 students was used in the experiment. The
mean score was 83 and the standard deviation is 5. A previous study revealed
that 𝜇 = 82 and the standard deviation 𝜎 = 10. State the null and the alternative
hypotheses in words and in symbols.
Answer:
There is no clue as to the direction of the investigation. The phrase affects
performance implies either an increase or a decrease in performance. So, the test
is non-directional.

3. Organic Fertilizers
A farmer believes that using organic fertilizers on his plants will yield greater
income. His average income from the past was P200, 000.00 per year. State the
hypotheses in symbols.
Answer:
The phrase greater income is associated with the greater than direction.

B. Study the following examples carefully and the notes that follow. Identify the Type
of error committed.

1. Maria’s Age
Maria insists that she is 30 years when, in fact, she is 32 years old. What error is
Mary committing?

Solution: Mary is rejecting the truth. She is committing a Type I error.

2. Stephen’s Hairline

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 Stephen says that he is not bald. His hairline is just receding. Is he committing an
error? If so, what type of error?

Solution: Yes. A receding hairline indicates balding. This is a Type I error. Stephen
action may be to find remedial measures to stop falling hair.

3. Monkey-Eating Eagle Hunt

A man plans to go hunting the Philippine monkey-eating eagle believing that it is a
proof of his mettle. What type of error is this?

Solution: Hunting the Philippine eagle is prohibited by law. Thus, it is not good
sport. It is a type II error. Since hunting the Philippine monkey-eating eagle is
against the law, the man may find himself in jail if he goes out of his way hunting
endangered species.

Finding the Critical Values

Recall that the critical values are the z-values associated with the probabilities at the tails
of the normal curve.

For a 95% confidence level:

0.95
= 0.4750 (expressed up to four decimal places so that we can identify an area in the
2
normal curve table as close as possible to this value).
In the normal curve table, the area .4750 corresponds to z = 1.96
Thus, the critical value for the 95% confidence level are -1.96 and + 1.96.

Figure

For a 99% confidence level:

0.99
Nn 2 = 0.4950 (expressed up to four decimal places so that we can identify an area in
the normal curve tables as close as possible to this value.
In the normal curve table, there are two areas close to this value: 0.4949 that corresponds
to z = 2.57 and .4951 that corresponds to z = 2.58. then, we get the average of the z-
values. This results to z = 575. In practice we use the z-values ± 2.58.
Thus, for a 99%
Confidence, the critical values -2.58 and + 2.58.

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