1.

2. Introduction

1.1 Limitation of Plain Concrete

Plain concrete is defined as the mixture of cement (including mineral admixtures), water
(including chemical admixtures), fine aggregate and coarse aggregate, which is obtained by
mixing these ingredients in certain proportion in order to achieve required properties in fresh and
hardened state as well as durability requirement.
The strength and deformation characteristics of concrete thus depend on the grade and type of
cement, aggregates, admixtures, environmental conditions and curing.
Plain concrete is brittle material; it is very good in compression but weak in tension. So, its use is
limited in structural and non-structural elements in which high compressive strength is required.
Structural parts include compressive zone of any structural elements, deep foundations, dam,
pavement etc. Non-structural parts are blocks, bricks etc.
Steel is used inside concrete for strengthening and reinforcing the tensile strength of concrete.

1.2 Properties of Reinforcement and Concrete

1.2.1 Definition
Reinforced Cement Concrete is a composite material in which concrete's relatively low tensile
strength and ductility are counteracted by the inclusion of reinforcement having higher tensile
strength and/or ductility. The reinforcement is usually, though not necessarily, steel reinforcing
bars (rebar) and is usually embedded passively in the concrete before it sets. Reinforcing
schemes are generally designed to resist tensile stresses in particular regions of the concrete that
might cause unacceptable cracking and/or structural failure.
In abbreviation form, Reinforced Cement Concrete is called as RCC and only RC in some
countries.

1.2.2 Requirement Properties of Reinforcement

For a strong, ductile and durable construction the reinforcement needs to have the following
properties at least:

 High relative strength

 High toleration of tensile strain
 Good bond to the concrete, irrespective of pH, moisture, and similar factors
 Thermal compatibility, not causing unacceptable stresses in response to changing
temperatures.
 Durability in the concrete environment, irrespective of corrosion or sustained stress for
example.

Many different types of structures and components of structures can be built using reinforced
concrete including slabs, walls, beams, columns, foundations, frames and more. Reinforced
concrete can be classified as precast or cast-in-place concrete.

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Without reinforcement, constructing modern structures with the concrete material would not be
possible.

1.2.3 Mechanism of composite action of reinforcement and concrete

The reinforcement in a RC structure, such as a steel bar, has to undergo the same strain or
deformation as the surrounding concrete in order to prevent discontinuity, slip or separation of
the two materials under load. Maintaining composite action requires transfer of load between the
concrete and steel. The direct stress is transferred from the concrete to the bar interface so as to
change the tensile stress in the reinforcing bar along its length. This load transfer is achieved by
means of bond (anchorage) and is idealized as a continuous stress field that develops in the
vicinity of the steel-concrete interface.

1.2.4 Advantages and disadvantages of reinforced concrete

Reinforced Concrete is a structural material, is widely used in many types of structures. It is
competitive with steel if economically designed and executed.

1.2.4.1 Advantages of RCC

 It has relatively high compressive strength

 It has better resistance to fire than steel
 It has long service life with low maintenance cost
 In some types of structures, such as dams, piers and footings, it is most economical
structural material
 It can be cast to take the shape required , making it widely used in pre-cast structural
components
 It yields rigid members with minimum apparent deflection
 Yield strength of steel is about 15 times the compressive strength of structural concrete
and well over 100 times its tensile strength

By using steel, cross sectional dimensions of structural members can be reduced , e.g in lower
floor columns.

1.2.4.2 Disadvantages of RCC

 It needs mixing, casting and curing, all of which affect the final strength of concrete
 The cost of the forms used to cast concrete is relatively high
 It has low compressive strength as compared to steel (the ratio is about 1:10 depending
on material) which leads to large sections in columns/beams of multistory buildings
Cracks develop in concrete due to shrinkage and the application of live loads

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1.2.4.3Objective of RCC design

The objective of the RCC design can be summarized as follows:

 The structures so designed should have an acceptable probability of performing
satisfactorily during their intended life.
 The designed structure should sustain all loads and deform within limits for construction
and use.
 The designed structures should be durable.
 The designed structures should adequately resist to the effects of misuse and fire.

1.3 Analysis of forces and stresses in Reinforced Concrete Structures

1.3.1 Loads

The following are the different types of loads which are faced by RCC structures.

1.3.1.1 Dead Loads

Dead loads are self weight of any structural member designed. Dead loads are calculated from
the dimensions of members and their unit weights. Unit weights of different types of materials
are specified in codes. Unit weight of RCC is taken as 25 kN/m3 and that of plain concrete as 24
kN/m3.

1.3.1.2 Super Imposed Loads

Super imposed loads, also called as Live loads, consist of all loads other than dead (self) loads of
structural membranes to be designed. The values of the imposed loads depend on the functional
requirement of the structure. Residential buildings will have comparatively lower values of the
imposed loads than those of school or office buildings. Different required super imposed loads
are specified in codes.

1.3.1.3 Wind Loads

Wind loads depend upon the velocity of wind at the location of structure as well as permeability
and dimensions (i.e. height) of structure. Depending upon the angle of inclination of the
structures, wind loads either be horizontal or inclined. They can even be suction type of forces
depending on the angle of inclination of the roof or geometry of the buildings. Wind loads are
specified in codes.

1.3.1.4 Snow Loads

Such types of loads are critically important in such parts which may be highly affected with big
snow falls during winter seasons. Accumulation of slow loads in different parts of structure

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depends upon the projections, height, slope etc. of the structure. Snow loads are specified in
codes.

1.3.1.5 Seismic Loads

Earthquake generates waves which move from the origin of its location (epicenter) with
velocities depending on the intensity and magnitude of the earthquake. The impact of earthquake
on structures depends on the stiffness of the structure, stiffness of the soil media, height and
location of the structure etc. Accordingly, the country has been divided into several zones
depending on the magnitude of the earthquake. The earthquake forces are specified in codes.

1.3.1.6 Shrinkage, Creep and Temperature Effects

Shrinkage, creep and temperature (high or low) may produce stresses and cause deformations
like other loads and forces. These effects are time dependent and also considered as parts of
loads. Safety and serviceability of structures should be checked considering these parameters.

1.3.1.7 Other Loads and Effects

 Foundation movement
 Elastic axial shortening
 Soil and fluid pressures
 Vibration
 Fatigue
 Impact
 Erection loads
 Stress concentration effect due to point of application of load and the like.

1.3.2 Stresses
The followings are different types of stress developed in RCC structures:

1.3.2.1 Compressive Stress

Compressive stress is defined as the compressive force per unit area.

Fig.1 Compressive stress test of cube

As in the Fig. 1, a concrete cube is tested in UTM (Universal Testing Machine) for its
compressive strength. Load is applied to the upper surface of cube through loading source
simultaneously until the cube collapses. Let, P is the applied load at any stage and A is the
surface area of the cube (Note that the surface area of cube of each side is equal and the surface
area is the square of any sides since all sides are equal). Then, the compressive stress at that

moment can be defined as P divided by A, as:

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Where, fc = compressive stress, P = compressive force and A= surface area

If a be the length of any side of the cube, then fc becomes:

Unit of P is expressed either in kN (kilo-Newton) or N (Newton), A is in mm2and fc or any type
of stress described below is either N/mm2 or MPa.
The maximum compressive stress which the cube can bear before it collapses is called as the
compressive strength. Compressive strength test can be carried out either by cube test method or
cylinder test method. A detail of testing method is skipped since it is already taught in Concrete
Technology.
In RCC structure, compressive stress is generally applied in column, footing, shear wall etc.

Fig.2 Axial load on column

1.3.2.2 Shear Stress

Shear can be defined as the action of equal & opposite parallel force acting in plane short
distance apart.

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 Fig. 3 Illustration of Loading Condition and Forces in beam/slab

As shown in Fig. 2 (a), Let AB be the beam (or slab) supporting on CD (wall or beam). The
combination of dead load and live load is uniformly distributed along the span and one point load
(it may be two or three) concentrated on mid-span (position may be altered).
Fig. 2 (b) shows the free body of X-Y part of the beam (or slab) with its length of lXY. Shear
forces and bending moment, acting at each edges of free body, are shown in the figure with their
direction.
Fig. 2 (c) shows the cross-section of the beam, where b is defined as the width (breadth), D is
depth of section, called overall depth in RCC design.d is defined as the effective depth. The
upper part of the section bears compression and lower part bears tension. Since the concrete is
very weak in tension, reinforcement bars are embedded to bear the tension. Three black points
shown in cross-section are the position of longitudinal reinforcement bars. In the figure, d’ is
defined as the effective clear of the section, which is the distance from centroid of the
reinforcement bar to the bottom fiber. In RCC design, the concrete part beyond centroid of the
reinforcement is not considered as the structural part and only considered as the usage for the
covering of reinforcement bars. So, if the beam itself is plain beam, i.e. without reinforcement
bars, effective area of the section is b×D and if the beam is reinforced effective area would be
b×d.
Then with the definition, shear stress,τv, at the cross-section X-X of the beam becomes

(For plane beam without reinforcement), and

(For RCC beam)

Where,
VX = Shear force at X-X cross section
A = Gross (Total) area of cross-section

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 Aeff = Effctive area of cross-section
Check of shear stress is very important part of the safe design of any structural component. The
capacity of any component to bear the optimum shear stress applied is called as the shear
strength.
In RCC structure, shear stress is applied in slab, beam, footing and in column while dealing with
horizontal load, i.e. wind and seismic load.
Direct determination of shear strength is difficult, can be taken as 12% of compressive strength if
test data is not available. In beam shear failure can be seen as combine bending & shear,
normally acting at 450 to shear.

IS456:2000 relates Maximum Shear strength to compressive strength as:

Compressive Strength M15 M20 M25 M30 M35 M40
Shear Strength Working 1.6 1.8 1.9 2.2 2.3 2.5
(MPa) Limit 2.8 3.1 3.5 3.7 4.0

1.3.2.3 Flexural Stress

Flexural stress sometimes is called as flexural tensile stress, rupture stress, bending stress or
fracture stress. It is developed due to the bending of the structural component.
Flexural stress,fb, of the section X-X, can be defined as the bending moment, MX, divided by the
modulus of section ZX, as

Also, it can be expresses with the classical formula as,

Where, IX is the moment of inertia of the section X-X and y is the position along the section area
(i.e. distance from neutral axis to the point) in which the flexural stress, fb, isto be calculated.

For the rectangular section of RCC beam, at extreme fibre, thenZX and IX become:

and .

In RCC structure, flexural stress is applied in slab, beam, slender column and footing. And, it is
also applied in column and walls when dealing with horizontal load.

IS456:2000 relates modulus of rupture (Flexural tension) to compressive strength as:

Flexural tensile strength

Flexural strength test of concrete is carried out using generally150 × 150 × 750 mm beam for
maximum size of aggregate larger than 25 mm, and for the maximum size of aggregate smaller
than 25 mm the recommended size of the beam is 100 × 100 × 500 mm. Testing method is either
center point loading or third-point loading as shown in Fig.3.

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 Fig. 4 Flexural strength test method of beam
The flexural strength of specimen is determined as modulus of rupture fb (= бmax) at ultimate
loading.
Test result shows that center pt. loading gives slightly high value than 3rd point loading;
following empirical relation is given by center of road research,

, where fb= flexural strength (in

2
N/mm or Mpa)

1.3.2.4 Tensile Stress

Tensile stress can be defined as the tensile force per unit area.

Fig. 5 Illustration of Tensile Force and Tensile Stress

Concrete is very weak to bear tensile stress, largely because of the ease with which cracks can
propagate under tensile loads. Its tensile strength normally is taken as 10% of the
compressive strength.

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 The tensile strength of concrete is measured in three ways: direct tension, splitting tension,
and flexural tension
Tensile strength of the same concrete tested in:
Direct tension < splitting tension < flexural tension
 It is difficult to test concrete in direct (uniaxial) tension because of the problem of
gripping the specimen satisfactorily and because there must be no eccentricity of the
applied load
Therefore, direct tensile test is not standardized and rarely usedModulus of rupture test,
as described above, and splitting test are commonly used to determine the tensile strength
of concrete

Splitting Tension:
This is one of the popular indirect tensile test method also known as Brazilian test. The test is
carried out in cylinder specimen, placing it horizontally between loading surface. Even the load
applied is compressive; almost 5/6th of depth is subjected to uniform tensile stress. Splitting
tensile test gives slightly higher value than direct tension.

P = Compressive Load (N)

L= Length of Specimen (mm)
D= Diameter of Specimen (mm)
Vertical compressive Stress on cylinder =

Fig.6 Tensile Test and Stress Distribution

1.3.2.4. Bond Stress

Bond stress can simply be defined as the force of adhesion per unit area of contact between two
bonded surfaces.
There are two types of bond stress in RCC structure. One is bond stress in between aggregate and
hydrated cement which governs overall mechanical properties. When the load is applied to one
side/surface of the concrete structure, the load is transferred to another side through internal bond
stresses. The capacity of bearing such stress, i.e. bond strength between aggregate and hydrated

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cement governs the mechanical properties of concrete, i.e. various types of strength, modulus of
elasticity, durability etc.
The another type of the bond stress is the bond stress in between concrete and reinforcement
bars, which is commonly called as bond stress of concrete. Generally, the stress transferring from
compressive zone of the section towards tensile zone, the stress is transferred from concrete
phase to reinforcement. This mechanism is illustrated in the following figure.

Fig. 7 Illustration of Bond Stress between concrete and reinforcement bars

Figure shows that if the embedded reinforcement bar is greased or lubricated, the bar easily slips
on both sides due to external load. Due to cohesiveness and adhesive character of concrete,
reinforcement bar is not allowed to slip and due to this reason bond stress is developed in
between concrete phase and reinforcement bar. In RCC, since covering part of the concrete is not
taken into account, only the bond stress between upper part of the concrete and reinforcement bar
is taken into account for the design.
Bond strength for different grades of concrete is given in the table.

IS456:2000 has given the bond strength of plain bar in tension as:
Compressive Strength M15 M20 M25 M30 M35 M40
Shear Strength Working 0.6 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.1 1.2
(MPa) Limit 1.2 1.4 1.5 1.7 1.9
For deformed bar above value can be increased by 60% Further increase in above value for bar
in compression by 25%

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1.3.2.5. Bearing Stress
Bearing stress can simply defined as the contact pressure between two bodies. It can be obtained
by dividing the total load divided the contacted area.

Fig. 8 Illustration of bearing stress on footing

As

Concentrated loading on concrete surface tends to punch the surface inside, resistance to which
can be termed as bearing strength. Normally, bearing stress is significant at the base of the
steel/concrete column in foundation & in anchored area of tendon in pre-stressed concrete. IS
456:2000 recommends, fbr is
For Working Stress Design Method, and
For Limit State Design Method

1.3.2.6. Torsional Stress

Torsional stress arises due to direct or indirect twisting effect of any structural member. It is less
common type of stress in building structure, but still often occurs especially in spandrel (i.e.
exterior) beams. It is also aroused from direct twisting like in rotating shaft.

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 Fig. 9 Torsional Effect in Spandrel and Cantilever Beam

1.3.2.7. Thermal Stress

Thermal stress is developed in the structure due to the change if temperature. All types of
materials have tendency of expanding in higher temperature and contracting in lower
temperature (freezing and thawing). Materials subjected to exterior exposure can have significant
changes in length if rather long (i.e. walls, beams, facades etc.). If materials are restrained to
change their size from this effect, then stress internally will be developed. The significant source
of thermal stress in an interior condition is the fire.

1.3.2.8. Fatigue Stresses

Fatigue stresses are due to cyclic application of a stress. The stresses could be due to vibration
or thermal cycling.

The importance of all stresses is increased when the materials supporting them are flawed.
Flaws tend to add additional stress to a material. Also, when loadings are cyclic or unsteady,
stresses can effect a material more severely. The additional stresses associated with flaws and
cyclic loading may exceed the stress necessary for a material to fail.

2. Design Methods

The design of a structure may be regarded as the process of selecting proper materials and
proportioned elements of the structure, according to the art, engineering science and technology.
In order to fulfill its purpose, the structure must meet its conditions of safety, serviceability,
economy and functionality.

Serviceability:No excessive deflection, no excessive deformation and no cracking or vibrations

No excessive reinforcement. Must be able to perform the function, it is built for.

Design Steps:

 Idealization of Structure for analysis

 Estimation of Loads
 Analysis of structure to determine axial compression, shears, bending moments and
deflection

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  Design of structural elements
 Check for strength and serviceability
 Detail structural drawings and schedule of reinforcement bars

Three philosophies for the design of RCC, pre-stressed and steel structures

 The working stress method

 The ultimate load method
 The Limit State Method
 Performance Based Design Method

2.1 The Working Stress Method for Design of RCC

This design concept is based on elastic theory, assuming a straight line stress distribution along
the depth of the concrete. The actual loads or working loads acting on the structure are estimated
and members are proportioned on the basis of certain allowable stresses in concrete and steel.

The allowable stresses are fractions of the crushing strength of concrete (fc') and the yield
strength (fy). Because of the differences in realism and reliability over the past several decades,
the strength design method has displaced the older stress design method. In this method:

 The Stresses in an element is obtained from the working loads and compared with
permissible stresses.

 The method follows linear stress-strain behavior of both the materials.

 Modular ratio can be used to determine allowable stresses.

 Material capabilities are under estimated to large extent. Factor of safety are used in
working stress method.

 The member is considered as working stress.

 Ultimate load carrying capacity cannot be predicted accurately.

 The main drawback of this method is that it results in an uneconomical section.

Assumptions for Working Method

 A section which is plane bending remains plain after bending….referred as bernoulli’s

assumptions
 Bond between steel and concrete is perfect within the elastic limit of steel

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  Tensile strength of concrete is ignored
 Concrete is elastic, i.e. stress in concrete varies linearly from zero at the neutral axis to a
maximum at the extreme fibre.
 The modular ratio m has the value (280/3 fcb) where fcb is the permissible compressive
stress in bending in N/mm2 or MPa.

Permissible stresses are prescribed by building code to provide suitable factors of safety. IS:456-
2000 uses a factor equal to 3 on the 28-days cube strength to obtain the permissible compressive
stress in bending in concrete; and equal to 1.78 on the yield strength of steel in tension to obtain
the permissible tensile stress in reinforcement.

The working stress method can be expressed as:

Where, μ = inverse of factor of safety which is less than unity

R = resistance of the structural elements

L = working loads on the structural elements

Main draw backs:

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  Concrete is not elastic, since it starts inelastic behavior from very low stress. So, actual
stress distribution cannot be expressed by triangular diagram
 Impossible to determine the actual factor of safety with respect to loads.
 Difficult to account for shrinkage and creep effects

2.2 Ultimate Method for Design of RCC Structures

In this method, loads are increased by suitable factors, called as load factors, to obtain ultimate
load. This method takes account the non-linear stress-strain behavior of concrete. The concept of
load factor is better than factor of safety since it is able to predict the excess load of any
structural member beyond the working load before collapse. Whitney’s theory is the best among
proposed methods among proposed ones. This theory assumes ultimate strain in concrete is 0.3
and the compressive stress at the edge of section corresponds to the strain. He replaced actual
parabolic stress diagram by rectangle stress diagram such that center gravity of both diagram lies
at the same point and their areas are also equal.

Here,

xm = Neutral axis depth

a = depth of rectangular stress block of Whitney’s model. It is taken as 0.537d in accordance

with Whitney and 0.43d in accordance with IS 456-1964.

a = Lever arm

cu= Ultimate strain in concrete

sy= yield strain in steel

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 cu= Ultimate compressive stress of concrete cubes at 28 days

cu= Average stress in concrete. It is taken as 0.85 cu in Whitney model & 0.55 cu in IS 456-
1964

sy= Yield stress in steel

Assumption made for this method (IS:456-1964)

 Section which is plane before bending remains plane after bending

 Stress and strain are not proportional and distribution of compressive stress is non-linear
in a section subjected to bending. It can be simplified to a rectangular, trapezoid, parabola
or other suitable shapes which may give reasonable ultimate strength to agree with test
results
 Maximum fibre strength in concrete does not exceed 0.68fcu. As in Witney’s theory,
actual stress diagram is simplified to rectangle, with its height taken as 0.43d and average
stress is assumed as 0.55 fcu.
 Tensile strength is ignored in the section of bending

Ultimate load design can be expressed as following:

Where, R = Resistance of the structural elements

L = working loads on the structural elements

Λ = Load factor which is more than unity

IS: 456-1964 requirements

(1) For those structures where the effect of wind and earthquake load neglected

(2) Where, wind or earthquake loads considered

Use, whichever is more

Where, U = Ultimate Load

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D = Dead load

L = Live load

W = Wind or earthquake load

Coefficients of D, L and W are load factors.

Advantage compared to working stress method: (1) Total safety factor found nearer to its actual
value, (2) Less reinforcement required than in working stress method

Drawbacks: (1) As load factor is used on working load, not given account for other uncertainties
associated with material stress, (2) Complete Disregard for control against excessive deflection

2.3 Limit State Method (Ultimate Strength Method) for Design of RCC Structures

2.4 Types of Limit State Methods

Limit state design is originated from ultimate or plastic design.

According to limit state design, reinforced concrete members have to be analyzed with regard to
following limit state:

1. Limit State of Collapse

2. Limit State of Serviceability

Limit State of Collapse

It corresponds to maximum load carrying capacity with respect to:

(1) Flexural (2) compression (3) Shear, and (4) torsion

Limit State of Serviceability

It corresponds to development of excessive deformation with respect to

(1) Deflection, (2) cracking, and (3) vibration

No particular theory is identified with the limit state design philosophy. Limit state design
applies to all kinds of failure such as collapse, overturning and vibration, and to all materials and
types of construction. So, Limit state design provides a unified rational basis for design of
building structures of all materials.

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Limit state design concept takes the account of the probabilistic and structural variation in the
material properties, loads and safety factors. Limit state of collapse can be expressed by

Left hand side of the equation represents the resistance or capacity of structure and right hand
side relates the load acting on it. Summation denotes the combination of effects of different
loads, i.e. dead, live, wind or earthquake loads and suffix i denotes the type of load

Safety factor, μ, is applied to fulfill the uncertainties evolved from the variation on material
properties, workmanship and assumption made on the theory underlying the design definition of
member strength. Its value is always less than unity.

The load factor, λi, is applied to reflect the uncertainties associated with different types of load.

In limit state design, μ and λ are called as partial safety factors

Stress- strain curve figure

Limit state of serviceability can be expressed by

Where, δ = deflection

L = length or height or breath of the structural element

= A non-dimensional factor

Service loads are used to determine the deformations. It means load factors are not used.

2.5 Characteristic Loads and Strength of Materials

2.5.1 Normal Distribution Curve

The compressive strength test cubes from random sampling of a mix, exhibit variations, which
are inherent in the various operations involved in the making and testing of concrete. If a number
of cube test results are plotted on histogram, the results are found so follow a bell shaped curve
known as “Normal Distribution Curve”. The result are said to follow a normal distribution curve
if they are equally spaced about the mean value and if the largest number of the cubes have a
strength closer to the mean value, and very few number of results with much greater or less value
18
that the mean value. This deviation in strength value represents the quality control in the field.
The following curve shows how the good quality of concrete can be achieved.

Fig. 3.1 Normal distribution curve with range of quality control

Measure of Center Tendency

The measure of center tendency is defined as an average. It is single value within which the
range of data tends to cluster which represents a groups of individual values in a simple and
concise manner so that the mind can get a quick understanding of the general idea of the
individual in the group. Since the value lies within the range of data, it is as measure of central
tendency.

Arithmetic Mean

Arithmetic mean of set of data may be defined as the sum of observation divided by the total
number of value in the set.

If x1, x2, x3,……………………….., xn-1, xn be the sequence of n numbers of observed values,

then the arithmetic mean, , is given by

19
Example:

If observed compressive strength data of M15 concrete test, f, are 19, 17, 19, 21, 18, 19, 18, 19,
20, 20, 18, 20, 19, 19, 19, 18, 19, 20, 20, 19in MPa.

Then, number of observed values, n = 20 and arithmetic mean, , of observed values is:

(1) First Method

(2) Second Method

Mode

Mode of the values of variable in a series of data is that value of a series which appear most
frequently than any other and around which the other items of the set concentrate densely. It is
denoted by M0.

Median

Median is the value of the variable that divides the ordered set of values in two equal halves, i.e.
50% of values are to the left of median. Median can be calculated as

Where,

l = lower value of median class

f0 = Cumulative frequency of the class just before the median class

f1 = frequency of the median class

w = class interval = upper value – lower value of the median class

n = total frequency

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Measure of Dispersion

The variance, f2, is defined as:

Then, standard deviation, f, is

Alternatively,

Where, w = class interval; di = deviation distribution curve coefficient

Coefficient of Variation, Cv,

In reinforced concrete design, the strength of a given mix of concrete and the imposed load that
is likely to act over a specified area cannot be provided with certainty unless actual
measurements are made. Such variables are specified as random variables in the theory of
probability.

The normal or Gaussian probability distribution is the most commonly used.

The normal distribution function has the form:

21
Where, = arithmetic mean and f = standard deviation

When finding the area by integrating the above equation, 95% of the total area lies between -1.64
and + or - and +1.64. It means only 5% lies beyond this range.

Confidence Level

Limits and are confidence limit and interval and is

confidence interval. Any single value falling outside is expressed in percentage as level
of confidence.

2.5.2 Characteristic Strength

Neutral distribution curve of strength data is shown in Fig 3.2.

Fig. 3.2 Definition of characteristic and mean strength in normal distribution graph of
strength

The characteristic strength, fk, means that value of the strength of material below which not more
than 5% of the result are expected to fall. Same definition is applied for characteristic strength of
both concrete, fck, and reinforced steel, fy. The criteria for the characteristic strength, fk, is:

Where, fm is the mean strength and f is standard deviation.

2.5.3 Characteristic Strength

Concept for the characteristic load, Lk, is just opposite of that used for characteristic strength. It
is shown in Fig. 3.3

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 Fig. 3.3 Definition of characteristic and mean load in normal distribution graph of load

Characteristic load, wk, is

Where, wm is mean load and f is standard deviation.

2.6 Partial Safety Factors and their Consideration in Structural Design

(1) Design Strength

Design strength is obtained by lowering the characteristic strength using partial safety factor.
Characteristic strength is obtained from series of actual strength. The design strength, fck, can be
obtained by dividing the characteristic strength, fk, by certain factor called as partial safety factor.

Where, μm, is partial safety factor and it is always greater than 1.0, i.e. μm>1.0.

(2) Design Load

Design load, wd, can be obtained from characteristic load, wk, by multiplying with certain factor,
as:

Where, λ, is partial safety factor and is greater than 1.0, i.e. λ >1.0.

As stated above, partial safety factors are used for both materials strength and applied load. The
reasons for applying such partial safety factors are:
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 (1) Material Strength:

 Possibility of deviation strength of materials

 Deviation on sectional dimensions

 Calculation procedure accuracy

 Risk of life and economic consequences

Material strength is generally considered for the limit state of collapse. For this, partial safety
factor for concrete is taken as 1.5 and for steel as 1.15.

(2) Loads

The reasons for applying partial safety factors to applied load are:

 Unusual increase in load

 Unforeseen stress distribution

 Inaccurate effect of loading

 Consideration for limit state

Clause 36.4 of IS456-2000 (Table 18 page 68) gives the partial safety factors for limit state of
collapse and limit state of serviceability.

Table Partial safety factors of load for limit state of collapse

Load Limit State of Collapse Limit State

Combination
DL LL WL DL LL WL

DD+DL 1.5 1.5 - 1.9 1.9 =

DL+WL 1.5 - 1.5 1.0 - 1.0

* DL+WL 0.9 - 1.5 *Stability against overturning or stress

reversible critical

DL+LL+WL 1.2 1.2 1.2 1.0 0.8 0.8

Note: Substitute EL to WL when considering the earthquake

DD = dead load, LL = super imposed load (live load), WL = wind load, EL = earthquake load

24
Then, using partial safety factors as mentioned in above table, factored load can be calculated as:

Factored load = Partial safety factor × Characteristic load

Factor load is used to calculate bending moment, shear force. Or, these are calculated with
characteristic load and then multiplied by partial safety factors.

3. Limit State Design for Beams and Slabs

3.1 General Design Consideration

3.1.1 Stress-Strain Relation

Concrete

As studied in Concrete Technology, concrete shows the non-linear trend in its stress-strain
relationship from the initial stage of loading. Moreover, it is brittle material. Stress-strain
relationship of concrete generally depends upon:

 Type of aggregate and concrete mix proportion

 Strength of concrete

 Age of concrete

 Shape and size of specimen

 Creep

The tentative stress-strain relationship of concrete can be expressed with following Fig.3.4.
However, such an actual figure, which can be obtained from the experiment, is very complicate
to use for design purpose. In order to make design process simpler, the stress-strain relationship
curve of concrete is idealized as shown in Fig.3.5. Such idealized curve is also called as short
term static design stress-strain curve for concrete.

25
 Fig. 3.4 Stress-strain relationship of concrete

Fig. 3.5 Idealized stress-strain relationship of concrete to be used for design purpose

26
When idealizing the curve, parabolic curve is assumed until the stress of concrete reaches up to
its limit, i.e. fck. The strain of concrete at this level is taken as 0.002. Then it is assumed that the
strain of concrete increases at the constant level of its stress until the state of collapse. The
maximum strain of concrete, before it collapses, is taken as 0.0035.

The idealized curve of the stress-strain relationship of the concrete is multiplied by 0.67 to use
for the design purpose. It means 0.67fck is taken as for the design purpose. As per design
philosophy of state limit method, this curve is still divided by partial safety factor, i.e. μm = 1.5,

to obtain the design curve to be used in limit state design method. It means
is taken as the maximum stress of concrete to be used for the design.

Modulus of Elasticity

Modulus of elasticity is defined as the ratio of normal stress to the corresponding strain for
compressive or tensile stress. It is also known as elastic modulus or Young’s modulus. It can

simply expressed as: , where E is modulus of elasticity, f is the compressive or tensile

stress and ε is the corresponding strain of compressive or tensile stress.

Stress-strain relationship and modulus of elasticity are important factors to be used in design.
Different types of modulus of elasticity in typical type of stress-strain curve in compression of
concrete are shown in Fig. 3.6.

Fig. 3.6 Illustration of different types of Modules of Elasticity

27
Since the stress-strain curve for concrete is nonlinear, following methods for computing the
modulus of elasticity of concrete are used yielding various types of modulus of elasticity for
concrete:

1. The “initial tangent modulus”

It is given by the slope of a line drawn tangent to the stress-strain curve at the origin. This is only
suitable for low stress level. It is denoted by Ec in the figure

2. The “tangent modulus”

It is given by the slope of a line drawn tangent to the stress-strain curve at any point on the curve.
This is only suitable for stress level near to that point. Et is the tangent modulus in the figure.

3. The “secant modulus”

It is given by the slope of a line drawn from the origin to a point on the curve corresponding to a
40% stress of the failure stress. This is one of the widely used methods for determination of E. Es
is the secant modulus in the figure.

4. The “chord modulus”

It is given by the slope of a line drawn between two points on the stress-strain curve. This is
mainly used for typical research purpose only. It is denoted by Ech in the figure.
Other notations shown in the figure are:
Let A be the any point in the curve of stress-strain relationship of concrete. Since, A is well
below the ultimate stress, i.e. fck, stress and strain with respect to this point are denoted by fc and
εc respectively. As it is clear that strain of this point, εc , consists both of elastic strain, εe , and
inelastic (plastic), εi . It is clearly shown in the figure that how elastic and inelastic strain with
respect to point A are defined. In the figure, εu is the maximum strain of the concrete before the
collapse.

Initial tangent modulus of concrete, Ec, is estimated as , where fck is the

characteristic strength of concrete in 28 days.

IS-456-2000 gives the values of Ec for different grades of concrete:

Grade of Concrete M20 M25 M30 M40 M50 M60

Ec (MPa) 22400 25000 27400 31600 35100 34800

Above values of Ec are for short term static modulus of concrete. For the long term modulus of
elasticity of the concrete, we should include the effect of shrinkage and creep, both of which are
time bound deformation.

28
Effect of Shrinkage:

Shrinkage deformations occur either on loss of moisture from the concrete or cooling of
concrete. It is time bound reduction in the volume, i.e. compressive in nature, of a freshly
hardened concrete exposed to the ambient temperature and humidity. Shrinkage, in concrete, is
caused mainly by loss of water by evaporation or by hydration of cement. However, fall of
temperature and carbonation may also cause the shrinkage. The constituents of concrete, size of
the member and environmental conditions are other factors on which the total shrinkage of
concrete depends.
The approximate value of the total shrinkage strain for design is taken as 0.0003 in the absence
of test data.

Effect of Creep:
Creep is defined as the increase in strain under a sustained constant stress after taking into account other time-
dependent deformations not associated with stress (i.e. shrinkage, swelling and thermal deformations). It is
also time bound deformation. On the release of stress, part of the creep strain recovers, some parts take
immediately and some takes place slowly. The value of rate of creep decreases with age. Fig. 3.7 shows the
relation between creep and age of concrete with the recovery of some creep.

Fig. 3.7 Relation between creep strain and age of concrete (Illustration of Creep recovery)

Creep is influenced by:

 Properties of concrete ingredients
 Water-Cement ratio (W/C)
 Humidity and temperature curing
 Humidity during period of use
 Age of concrete at first loading
 Magnitude of stress and its duration
 Surface-volume ratio of the membrane
The long term deflection will be added to the short term deflection to get the total deflection of
the structure. Accordingly, the long term modulus, i.e. Ece, or the effective modulus of concrete
will be needed to include the effect of creep due to permanent loads.

29
The relation between short term modulus of elasticity of concrete, Ec, and effective modulus of
concrete, Ece, can be established as following:

Short term strain, εc, can be obtained by dividing the stress, fc, with short term Young’ modulus,
Ec, as

In order to include the effect of creep, creep coefficient, θ, is defined as the ratio of ultimate
creep strain, εcr, to short term, εc, as:

Then total strain can be obtained as

Then,

IS 456-2000 clause 6.2.5.1(page 16) gives the values of creep coefficient, θ, for different period
of concrete.

Table Creep coefficient values of Concrete

Age of concrete at loading (days) Creep coefficients (θ)

7 2.2

28 1.6

365 1.1

Stress-Strain Relationship for Reinforcement Bars

Reinforcement Bars Grade

1. Mild Steel (MS) plain rounded bars: Fe250, Grade A, B &C

30
 2. High Yield Strength Deformed (HYSD) bars: Fe415, Fe500, Fe550

Thermal and Mechanically Treated (TMT) bars

3. Corrosion Resistance Steel (CRS-TATA steel)

In order to make design easier, stress-strain curve of reinforcement bar is idealized. Two
different assumptions are made for mild steel bars and deformed bars.

a. Idealized stress- strain curve for Mild Steel bars

Fig. 3.8 Idealized Characteristic and Design curve for MS (Fe250) Bars

As shown in Fig. 3.8, the stress is proportional to strain up to yield point and then strain
increases at constant stress for MS bars. Young’s modulus for MS bar is given as Es = 2.0×105
MPa; and, this value is applied for all types of steel. The change from elastic to plastic condition
in case of MS bar is abrupt. For MS bars, stress is proportional to the strain up to the level of
80% of 0.87fy, (where 0.87fy is design stress), i.e. 0.696fy. This stress value is 0.696fy = 174 MPa.
Strain of this point is taken as 0.00109, which can be obtained from:

For deformed bars, i.e. Fe415 and Fe500, idealized characteristic and design curves are shown in
the Fig.3.9. Characteristic strength, i.e. fy = 415 MPa for Fe415 and fy = 500 MPa for Fe500, is

31
taken as the yield strength of the point where the strain is 0.002. Then design strength for both
steels are as and . The stress is proportional
to strain up to the level of 0.8fy, i.e. 332 MPa for Fe415 steel and 400 MPa for Fe500 steel. Then
inelastic curve is defined as below:

Stress Inelastic strain

0.80 fy Nil
0.85 fy 0.0001
0.90 fy 0.0003
0.95 fy 0.0007
0.975 fy 0.0010
1.00 fy 0.0020

Fig. 3.9 Idealized Characteristic and Design curve for Deformed (Fe500) and Fe415)
Bars

3.6 Limit State of Collapse and Serviceability

There are mainly two limit states as: (1) Limit state of collapse and (2) Limit state of
serviceability.
(1) Limit state of collapse deals with the strength and stability of structures subjected to the
maximum design loads out of the possible combinations of several types of loads.

32
 Therefore, this limit state ensures that neither any part nor the whole structure should
collapse or become unstable under any combination of expected overloads.
(2) Limit state of serviceability deals with deflection and cracking of structures under service
loads, durability under working environment during their anticipated exposure conditions
during service, stability of structures as a whole, fire resistance etc.
In this course, we are going to design beams, slabs, staircase, column and foundations with
application of above mentioned limit states.

3.2 Analysis of Singly and Doubly Rectangular Beam Section

There are 2 types of beams with respect to the allocation of the reinforcement bars:

(1) Singly Reinforced Beam: Beam which consists of only tensile reinforcement bars

(2) Doubly Reinforced Beam: Beam which consists of both of tensile and compressive
reinforcement bars

And with respect to the cross-section types, there are 3 types of beams as:

(1) Rectangular beam (singly or doubly reinforced)

(2) T-shaped beam (singly or doubly reinforced)

(3) L-shaped beam (singly or doubly reinforced)

Details of above types will be studied in design process of each type beams.

Bending of Beams

Beam passes through 3 stages before its complete failure under bending

(1) Un-cracked concrete stage…………..Elastic stress

(2) Cracked concrete stage………………Elastic stress

(3) Ultimate strength stage………………Just before collapse

These three stages are shown in Fig. 3.10, which shows the relation between moment and
curvature under bending.

33
 Fig. 3.10 Three stages of beam under bending (moment-curvature relation at a section)

And the strain diagram in each case of bending is shown in Fig.

Fig. 3.11 Three stages of the section of beam under bending

Here, curvature under bending, φ can be obtained from the slope of the strain diagram as shown
in Fig. 3.11.

In both figures,

Mcr = Cracking Moment

My = Yield Moment

Mu = Ultimate Moment

φcr = Curvature of cracking stage

Φy = Yield Curvature (curvature when the moment is at yield)

34
Φu = Ultimate curvature (at collapse)

εcr = strain of tensile concrete at cracking

εy = strain of reinforcement bar at yield

εu = ultimate strain of compressive concrete (at collapse)

Ultimate Strength Stage

When the stress in tensile steel exceeds its yield stress at a given section, it is assumed to be in its
ultimate or collapse stage. The failure occurs as soon as the concrete strain in compression
becomes equal to its ultimate strain, which is 0.0035. Analysis of such a section is carried out
using Limit State Design (or, Ultimate Strength) method.

Assumptions for Limit State Method

(1) The plane section normal to the axis remains plane after bending

(2) The maximum strain in concrete at the outermost compressive fiber is taken as 0.0035 in
bending regardless of the strength of concrete.

(3) The relationship between stress and strain distribution in concrete is assumed to be
parabolic, as shown in Fig 3.12. The maximum compressive stress at extreme

compressive fiber is taken as or 0.446fck. Here, note that 0.67 times of the
characteristic strength is taken for the design purpose, which is 0.67fck. And, 1.5 is the
partial safety factor for strength.

(4) Tensile strength of concrete is ignored

(5) The stress in reinforced is derived from representative stress-strain curve for the type of
steel used. Design strength of steel is achieved by dividing characteristic strength, fy, with

partial safety factor 1.15. It means is the design strength of the given
steel.

(6) The maximum strain in tension reinforcement in the section at failure should not be less

than , i.e.

Where,

fy = Characteristic strength of steel

35
Es = Young’s modulus of steel

εs = strain in steel at failure

Moment of Resistance

Let a simply supported beam subjected to under factored load. Here, factored load (or design
load),wd, means the applied actual load, w, multiplied by partial safety factor, 1.5
( . For, equilibrium, total force of compression must be equal to total force of
tension in any section of the beam. The applied bending moment at collapse, i.e. factored
bending moment, is equal to resisting moment on the section provided by internal stress. This
is called the ultimate moment of resistance.

Fig. 3.12 Cross-section, strain and stress block parameters

Fig. 3.12 shows the cross-section of singly reinforced beam with strain and stress distribution
blocks.

Since the section of the beam is assumed to be plane after bending, upper part of Neutral
Axis (NA) bears the compressive stress and lower part bears tensile stress. So, concrete is
assumed to have crack. Since tensile stress of concrete is ignored, all tensile stress is borne
by steel bars and all steel bars bear the equal stress. The resultant tensile force acts at the
centroid of reinforcing bars.

36
Most of notations and their definitions used in section as well as strain and stress blocks are
similar to that of Working Stress Method. Here,

b = Width of beam section; d = Effective depth of section (which is defined as the depth
from extreme compressive fiber to centroid of reinforcing bars); D = Over all depth, i.e.
d+ effective cover, where effective cover is defined as the distance from extreme tensile (or
compressive) fiber to centroid of the reinforcing bars. One should not be confused between
effective cover and clear cover. Clear cover is the distance from extreme fiber to the outer the
surface of reinforcing bar. x = Neutral axis depth, which is defined as the distance from
extreme compressive fiber to Neutral Axis (NA, which is defined as the axis where the stress
is zero). . C and T are total compressive and tensile forces respectively.

Another very important parameter is the lever arm, Z, which can be defined as the distance
between line of the action of total compressive force, C, and total tensile force, T. Lever arm
can be determined as, , it means for the given section after deriving the value of a
(i.e. distance from compressive extreme fiber to the line of C), Z can be calculated.

Apart from above similar notations and definitions, some different ones are used in Limit
State Design Method.

0.0035 and are taken as maximum strain at failure of concrete and steel
respectively. And maximum compressive stress of concrete at extreme fiber is taken as
0.446fck.

As it can be seen in the stress block figure (Fig. 3.12 (c)) that, compressive stress distribution
is considered as the combination of rectangle and parabolic curve. Close-up view of the
compressive section (i.e. upper part from NA) is shown in Fig. 3.13.

37
 Fig. 13 Close-up view of compressive part of the beam

As shown in the figure, upper block ‘mnpq’ is rectangle and the lower block ‘pqs’ is
parabolic curve. It should be noted that if b be the base of parabolic curve and h be height, as
shown in Fig. 14, then:

Fig. 14 Semi-parabola

Its area is and its centroid is at the distance from from the height. Then total
compressive force applied in compressive part, C, can be derived with the following
procedure.In the figure,

x1= distance from neutral axis (NA) to the end of rectangle block ‘mnpq’ or the base of semi-
parabola It is called as depth of the parabolic portion of stress block

38
x2= ‘pq’depth from extreme compressive fiber to the end of rectangle block ‘mnpq’. It is
called as depth of the rectangular portion of stress block.

It should be noted that the value of pq is also 0.446fck.

In the (a) strain diagram of Fig. 13, since two triangles Δghj and Δgkl are similar; equating
the ratios of their respective sides we get,

Then, the depth of rectangular portion of the stress block, x2, can be calculated from the
strain block Δghj as:

Force of compression, C1, in parabolic curve can be calculated by multiplying the area of
parabolic stress with the width of section, b:

Note that is the base and x1 is the height of parabolic curve. Then the area of

parabolic portion of stress block becomes as . Then,

it gives compressive force, C1, of parabolic portion as shown in equation (3).

Similarly force of compression. C2, in rectangular curve can be expressed as:

39
 Then total design compressive force, C, which can be resisted by concrete, can be obtained
by adding C1 and C2:

Similarly, total design tensile force with respect to tensile reinforcement bars, T, can be
calculated as:

Note that equation (5) and (6) are very important formulae to calculate the compressive force
with respect to concrete and tensile force with respect to tensile bars respectively.

As indicated in Fig 13, a, is given as the distance of the line of action of Compressive force, C,
from the extreme compressive fiber. It should be understood that the moment taken at extreme
fiber, due to, C, should be equal to the addition of moments due to C1 and C2 taken at same level.
Then,

Substituting the value of C, C1, C2, x1 and x2 form above equations, we get

For simplifying, we round up the value of a=0.4167x as a=0.42x, then

Neutral axis depth, x, of the equation (6) can be obtained by equating the total compressive force,
C, and total tensile force, T, of the equation, i.e. equating equation (5) and (6).

40
Note that equation (7) is very important formula to find the effective depth, x, for analysis type
of problems.

Lever arm, Z, can be calculated as: , where (equation 7), therefore:

Above liver arm formula is important to calculate the moment of resistance with respect to
concrete and tensile reinforcements.

Finally, moment of resistance, Mr, with respect to concrete and tensile reinforcement can be
calculated.

Moment of resistance with respect to concrete is

Moment of resistance with respect to tensile bars is

Equation (10) can be modified by substituting the value of x as, :

Rounding the value 1.015 as 1.0, the above equation can be written as

As it is clear from equation (11) that is the lever arm Z.

Equations (9), (10) and (11) are very important for calculating Mr. Their condition of use will be
discussed in following section.

Flexural Analysis of Section

Modes of Failure

41
Modes of failure in beam can be divided into 3 categories as (i) Balanced Reinforced (BR)
section (ii) Under Reinforced (UR) section and (iii) Over Reinforced (OR) section

(i) Balanced Reinforced (BR)

Details of the section and condition of strain and stress distribution are shown in Fig. 15.

Fig. 15 Details of section, stress and stain distribution in Balanced reinforced (BR) section

When the compressive stress, fc, at extreme compressive fiber and tensile stress, fst, reach to their
respective permissible stresses, i.e. 0.446fck and 0.87fst, at the same time, then the section is said
to be as balanced reinforced section. In this case strains of both concrete and tensile steel reach

their respective ultimate stage, i.e. 0.0035 and , simultaneously and failure
occurs with less alarming deflection. Such failure occurs after the tensile stress reaches to its
yield stress avoiding the brittle failure of concrete.

Maximum Neutral Axis Depth (xm)

The neutral axis depth of the section, x, of the section in BR condition reaches to its optimum
level, xm; and this depth is called as the maximum neutral axis depth. The maximum neutral axis
depth, xm, is limited to ensure that tensile steel will reach its yield stress before concrete fails in
compression, thus a brittle failure is avoided.

42
 Fig. 16 Strain Distribution diagram in BR condition

Equating the ratios of respective sides of the lower and upper triangles of the strain distribution
diagram in Fig 15, we get

43
Substituting and fy =250 MPa, 415 MPa and 500 MPa for the steel of grades
Fe250, Fe415 and Fe 500 respectively, we obtain the maximum neutral axis depth, xm, for these
steel as shown in the table .

Grade of Steel fy(MPa) Maximum Neutral Axis Depth, xm

Fe250 250 0.53d

Fe415 415 0.48d

Fe500 500 0.46d

Limiting Values of Tensile Steel and Moment of Resistance

In order to calculate the limiting values of tensile steel and moment of resistance, let’s carry out
the analysis of stress distribution in BR condition.

Fig. 17 Stress distribution diagram in BR condition

As stated in the figure, total compressive force with respect to concrete, C, and total tensile force
with respect to tensile steel, T are:

44
When C is multiplied by the lever arm Z (i.e. taking the moment of total compressive force to the
centroid of tensile RB), the result becomes moment of resistance with respect to concrete in
balanced condition, Mrlim. Then, Mrlim with respect to concrete is

Use the equation (15) to obtain the limiting moment with respect to concrete.

Similarly Mrlim with respect to tensile RB can be calculated as

Use the equation (16) to obtain the limiting moment with respect to tensile reinforcement.

Equating equation (13) and (14), we get

It should be understood that the equation (17) gives the maximum area of tensile steel which is
allowed to use in singly reinforced section giving BR condition. Based on it maximum
percentage of steel for balanced condition, ptlim (%), is:

Equation (18) gives maximum percentage of tensile steel, ptlim (%), for given different grades of
concrete and steel. For example if M20 grade concrete and Fe415 steel is given for the design,
ptlim (%) for the balanced section becomes:

Similarly can be calculate for combination of other grades of concrete and steel

45
Table Limiting percentage of steel in rectangular section (IS 456-2000

Concrete Grade (fck ) Percentage of steel, ptlim (%)

Fe250 (fy = 250 MPa) Fe415 (fy = 415 MPa) Fe500 (fy = 500 MPa)

M20 (20 MPa) 1.76 0.96 0.76

M25 (25 MPa) 2.20 1.19 0.94

M30 (30 MPa) 2.64 1.43 1.13

Minimum and maximum tensile reinforcement

Minimum reinforcement area in the section, A0, should be

Maximum reinforcement area should not be more than 4% of the gross area of the section, i.e.
0.04bD (%). It is because to avoid difficulty in placing and compacting concrete.

Limiting moment of resistance for balanced section, Mrlim, can be calculated for given grades of
concrete and steel. For example, If M20 grade concrete and Fe415 steel are provided for the
design, then the Mrlim can be calculated as follows.

For Fe415, xm = 0.48d, substituting this value in equation (15), which is the equation for the
limiting moment of resistance with respect to concrete, we get:

Similarly Mrlim can be calculated for Fe250 and Fe 500 with the result as

Moreover, by substituting the values of, fck, for different grades of concrete, we can further
obtain, Mrlim for the combination of different grades of concrete and steel. For example, for M20
grade concrete and Fe415 steel, Mrlim becomes:

46
Table shows the limiting moment for the combination of different grades of concrete and steel.

Grade of Steel
Grade of Concrete
Fe250 Fe415 Fe500

General

M20

M25

M30

(ii) Under Reinforced (UR) Section

When the area of steel in the section is kept less than that in the balanced condition, steel first

reaches to its yield point, i.e. strain reaches to and stress reaches to ,
but the strain and stress of concrete still do not reach to their limits, i.e. 0.0035 and 0.446fck.
When increasing bending moment, tensile reinforcement cannot resist the stress beyond its

limit , however its strain starts to increase beyond its limit, . However,
stress and strain go on increasing until reach to their limit, 0.0035 and 0.446fck, respectively. In
order to balance the equality of total compressive force and tensile force in the section, Neutral
Axis (NA) goes on shifting upward. This process continues until the strain and stress of concrete
reach to their limiting values. When strain and stress of concrete reach to their limiting values,
i.e. 0.0035 and 0.446fck, then concrete crushes. We take the condition just before the concrete
crushes for the design, and the beam with such condition is called as Under Reinforced (UR)
beam and the failure is Tension failure because yielding of steel was responsible for increase of
strain in concrete.

The detail of the section to be used for UR condition is shown in Fig. 3.18.

47
 Fig. 3. 18 Section detail, strain and stress distribution diagram in under reinforced (UR)
condition

It is clear from the Fig. 3.18 that in UR condition.

Total design compressive force with respect to concrete is

Similarly, total design tensile force with respect to tensile reinforcement bars, T, can be
calculated as:

Equating equation (19) and (200, as described before (equation (7)), we get the neutral axis
depth, x, to be used to determine the moment of resistance.

Unlike in BR condition, it should be careful that when designing the section in UR condition,
only the moment of resistance due to tensile reinforcement (not concrete) should strictly be
considered. It is due to the tensile failure of reinforcement in UR condition. Thus, moment of
resistance with respect to tensile reinforcement, Mr, is calculated (it is also described in previous
section) as:

48
Equation (10) can be modified by substituting the value of x as, :

Rounding the value 1.015 as 1.0, the above equation can be written as

Note: Students are requested to be very familiar with equation (22) since it is frequently used in
analytical or design type of problems.

Over Reinforced (OR) Section

When area of tensile reinforcement in the beam section exceeds its balanced condition, then the
section is said to be Over Reinforced (OR) section. So, the condition for the OR is

We have already discussed how to obtain pt and ptlim (i.e. and

. In OR condition, neutral axis (NA) shifts downward

from the BR level. When further increasing the load, NA as well as the centroid of compressive
force go on shifting downward in order to equalize the total compressive force due to concrete
and total tensile force due to tensile reinforcement. This process continues until the strain of
concrete reaches its limiting value, 0.0035, and concrete crushes. However, the reinforcement is
still within its elastic limit. Such a failure is due to compressive failure of concrete.

Section detail and condition of strain and stress distribution is shown in Fig. 3. 19.

49
 Fig. 3. 19 Section detail, strain and stress distribution diagram in over reinforced (OR)
condition

As it is clear from the figure that in OR condition.

When concrete reaches the strain of 0.0035, tensile strain of steel is much less than

and any further increase of strain of steel will mean failure of concrete, which

is to be avoided. On the other hand, when steel reaches the strain of concrete
far exceeds 0.0035. Hence, it is not possible. Therefore, such design is avoided and the section
should be redesigned.
However, in case of any existing reinforced concrete beam where , the moment of
resistance Mr for such existing beam is calculated by restricting x to xm only and the
corresponding Mr will be as per the case when x = xm. Therefore, moment of resistance, Mr,
should be checked by using the formula of the moment of resistance with respect to concrete in
balanced condition, Mr, as:

Effective Span
(1) Simply Supported Beam or Slab

50
 Fig. 3. 20 simply supported beam

As shown in figure,
lc = clear span; l = effective span and d = effective depth
Then, effective span for simply supported beam/slab

(2) Continuous Beam or Slab

(a) if the width of the support, , then

Effective span,

(b) if or 600 mm, whichever is less,

for end span one end fixed and other end continuous or for intermediate span,
for end span with one end free and the other continuous

Take the less value of above two. Here, ts is the width of discontinuous support.

Nominal Cover to Reinforcement Bars

Reasons:

51
  To develop the desired strength of a bar by ensuring proper bond between concrete and
steel throughout its perimeter

 To protect against corrosion and fire

Actual cover of reinforcement at site should not be less than nominal cover plus 10mm

Nominal cover

Exposure Cover (mm)

Mild 25

Moderate 30

Severe 45

Very Severe 50

Extreme 75

However,
(1) In slabs having reinforcement up to Ф12mm bars, for mild exposure, the nominal cover
may be reduced to 20mm from 25mm.
(2) For longitudinal bars in the column, nominal cover must not be less than 40mm, or not
less than the diameter of such bar. This is done to prevent the buckling of main
longitudinal bars under compression.
(3) For footings, minimum cover should be 50mm. In case of columns of minimum
dimensions of 200mm or under, reinforcing bars do not exceed 12mm; cover of 25mm
may be used.
Spacing of Reinforcement Bars
Spacing of the reinforcement bars can be understood as the clear distance between two bars, i.e.
the distance between outer surfaces of one bar to that of another bar. It is very important to be
considered when designing the diameters of bars and their numbers in the section with
given/designed reinforcement area. It can be classified as horizontal and vertical distance as
mentioned in Fig. 3.22.

52
 Fig. 3.22 Definition of horizontal and vertical distance between bars
Minimum distance between bars in Beam Section
(a) The horizontal distance between two parallel main bars should not be less than the
greatest of followings:
(i) The diameter of bar, if diameters of all bars are equal
(ii) The diameter of largest bar, if their diameters are unequal.
(iii) 5mm more than nominal maximum size of coarse aggregate. …..2/3rd of nominal
size of the aggregate can be considered if the needle vibrator is to be used for
compaction of casting concrete
(b) The vertical distance between two parallel bars should not be less than the greatest of
followings
(i) 15mm
(ii) Diameter of largest bars, if diameters are unequal ( diameter of bar, if all bars are
of equal diameters)
(iii) 2/3rd of nominal maximum size of coarse aggregate
Minimum distance between bars in Slab
(i) Horizontal distance between parallel main bars should not be more than 3 times of
effective depth of a solid slab or 300mm, whichever is smaller.
(ii) Horizontal distance between parallel main bars provided against shrinkage and
temperature should not be more than 5 times the effective depth of a solid slab or
450mm, whichever is small.

53
Tolerance for placing reinforcement
(i) For effective depth ≤ 20 mm………………±10mm
(ii) For effective depth > 20 mm………………±15mm

Reinforcement Requirements
(1) Beam
(i) Minimum area of tension reinforcement, A0,

(ii) Maximum area of tension of compressive reinforcement

(iii)Minimum area of compressive reinforcement, A0c,

(Note that b is width, d is effective depth and D is overall depth of the section)

(iv) Side face reinforcement: If depth of the web in flanged beam is more than 750mm, side
face reinforcement bars should be provided along the two faces. Total area of
reinforcement should not be less than 0.1% of the web area. It should be equally
distributed on each side of faces. Spacing of such reinforcement bars should not be
exceeded 300mm or web thickness whichever is less.

Spacing of Shear Reinforcement

For vertical shear stirrups, maximum spacing measured along the axis of member is
restricted to 0.75d.
For inclined shear bars, is should not exceed d.

In any cases,
Generally spacing is taken as 75mm~100mm to ensure proper compaction of concrete.

54
Minimum Shear Reinforcement
Calculation may not be required for the design of shear reinforcement since concrete may
resist the shear stress. However, minimum amount of shear stirrups should be provided for
the reason that tensile forces may be induced into a beam through shrinkage or some
restraint which will reduce the shear strength of concrete in compressive zone. Shear
failures in concrete beams without secondary reinforcement are essentially brittle which
should be avoided.
Spacing of minimum shear reinforcement, x, can be calculated as

Where, A0 = total cross sectional area of stirrup legs effective in shear and x = spacing

Slabs

Minimum shear reinforcement area ≥ 0.15% of gross-sectional area of slab (MS bars)
≥ 0.12 % of gross-sectional area of slab, (when using
High Yield Strength Deformed bars or welded wires)

th
Maximum diameter of bar should not exceed of the thickness of slab.

Reinforcement Splicing

Reinforcement splicing can generally be done with 3 different methods as:

(1) Lapped joint

(2) Mechanical Joint

55
(3) Welded Joint

Splicing or connection should be as far as possible from the section of high stress.
Where several parallel bars are to be spliced, the joints should be staggered (it mean not in
single position).
Recommendation: Splices in flexural member should not be provided at section where
bending moment, M > 50% of Mr, Moment of Resistance. More than 50% of the total bars
should not be joined at one section.
General Rules for Lap Spicing
(1) Lap splicing should not be used for bars with their diameter larger than 36mm.
Welding should be done for larger bars. If welding is not possible, lapping is allowed
with use of spirals around the lapped bars.
(2) Lap length including anchorage value of hooks:
Flexural Tension: Ld or 30Φ whichever is greater
Direct Tension: 2Ld or 30Φ whichever is greater
Straight length of lap should not be less than 200 mm or 15Φ.
Here, Ld = Development length; Φ = Diameter of bar
(3) Lap splices are considered as staggered if the center to center distance of the splices is
not less than 13 times the lap length.
(4) The lap length in compression is equal to the development length in compression, but
not less than 24Φ.
(5) Lap length is calculated on the basis of diameter of smaller bar when bars of two
different diameters are to be spliced.
(6) In case of bundled bars, lapped splices of bundled bars must be made by slicing one
bar at a time and all individual bars within a bundle must be staggered.

56
Welded and Mechanical Splices
The strength of a welded or mechanical splice is taken as 80% of the design strength of bar for
tension splices and 100% for compression splices. However, 100% of the design strength may be
adopted for tension if the spliced area does not exceed 20% of the total area of steel at the given
section.
Anchoring Reinforcing Bars in Flexural
Anchorage of longitudinal tension reinforcement is important since it has a profound effect on
the shear strength of a member. Inadequate anchorage of the longitudinal reinforcement might
lead to a permanent shear failure. If sufficient development length is not available to provide
anchorage by means of a single reinforcement bar, anchorage should be provided by means of
hooks or bends to maintain the integrity of the system.

Development Length
Development length, Ld, can be defined as the minimum required length of the reinforcement bar
needed in order to develop the full bond with concrete. The bond is measured by bond stress, τbd.
Bond stress is defined as the shear force per unit of nominal surface area of a reinforcing bar
acting parallel to the bar on interface between the concrete and surrounding concrete.
IS 456 stipulates that “The calculated tension or compression in any bar at any section shall be
developed on each side of the section by an appropriate development length or end anchorage or
by a combination thereof”.
Concept of development length and anchorage replaces the old practice of satisfying the
permissible flexural bond stress.
Anchorage Bond
Anchorage relates with the length of the reinforcement bar embedded into the support from the
inner face of the beam/slab. The concept of the anchorage bond is shown in Fig.

57
The cantilever beam is shown in Fig. (a). As shown in the figure, the upper part of the
beam faces tensile stress, so reinforced with tensile reinforcement. The detail of cross-
section is shown in Fig. (b). The length of the ‘AB’ part of the reinforcement is the
Anchorage Bond, the detail of which is shown in (c).
In (c), τbd is the bond stress, which is in between the perimeter of reinforcement bar
and concrete.
Then from (c), we get

Here, T is considered as the total tensile force transmitted from reinforcement bar to
concrete by bond stress τbd, in the embedded length, .
It is necessary to have the resistance force to be developed by τbd for the length Ld to
overcome the tensile force. Then the resistance force, Rb, due to bond stress, τbd, is

Equating equation and , we get

58
 Code gives the design bond stress for different grades of concrete with respect to MS
plain (Fe250) bars as
Table Design bond stress of different grades of concrete for MS plain bars (Fe250)

Concrete Grade M20 M25 M30 M35 M40 or above

τbd (MPa) 1.2 1.4 1.5 1.7 1.9

Notes:
1. Values of τbd of above table should be increased by 60% for deformed tensile
reinforcement bars. It means bond stress for M20 grade concrete and Fe415 (or Fe500) is:

2. For compressive bars, the value should further be increased by 25%. It means (1) For MS
plain bars (Fe250) with M20 grade concrete, . And, if it
is for deformed bars (Fe415or Fe500), then .
3. For bundled bars:
The development length obtained for the single bar should be increased for bundled of
bars as:
(i) 10% for 2 bars in contact
(ii) 20% for 3 bars in contact
(iii) 33% for 4 bars in contact
With above determination method, development length for MS bars and deformed bars with
different grades of concrete can be summarized as in Table.

Steel types Tension Bars Compressive Bars

fy (MPa) M20 M25 M20 M25

MS bars Fe250 (250MPa) 46Φ 39Φ 37Φ 31Φ

Deformed bars Fe415 (415MPa) 47Φ 40Φ 38Φ 32Φ

Deformed bars Fe500 (500MPa) 58Φ 49Φ 46Φ 39Φ

The following is the calculation method how development length, Ld, is calculated
(1) Let us calculate the Ld for Deformed bar Fe415 tensile steel and M20 concrete.

59
 Since, τbd for MS tensile bar and M20 concrete, as from table, is 1.2 MPa, then for
deformed (Fe415) bar .

Thus, development length, Ld, is calculated as

(2) And, Ld for Deformed bar Fe500 compressive steel and M25 concrete?
τbd for MS tensile bar and M25 concrete = 1.4 MPa
τbd for deformed (Fe500) tensile bar, .

Then, for compressive deformed (Fe500) bar .

Thus, Ld for Deformed bar Fe500 compressive steel and M25 concrete is

Both calculated values of (1) and (2) are similar to those of table for respective condition.

Flexural Bond

At certain location in a beam bond stress may arise due to large variation of bending
moment over a short distance, i.e. the point where the shear force is higher. These bond
stresses are called flexural bond stresses.

60
Let us take DE part of the tensile reinforcement, with its length dx, of the cantilever beam
for the analysis. Detail for the free body of the DE part is shown in (c). In the figure, TD =
tensile force on the reinforcement at point D and TE = tensile force on reinforcement at
point E. note that since the bending moment goes on increasing from end (0 at
this point towards support.
Let us take any arbitrary point out of the centroid of the tensile reinforcement bar to
which the vertical distances from both D and E are equal. This distance is considered as
lever arm, Z.
Then taking moment to this point, we get

Balancing axial forces we get,

where

The above relation is for single bar, then τbd for N numbers of bar will be

Similarly for anchorage bond,

Then equating equation (1) and (2) we get

61
Where, is considered as the moment of resistance with respect to
tensile reinforcement bar at the point considered.

If design bond stress, τbd, does not exceed, then should be equal or greater than Ld. it
means

Here, l0 is defined as the sum of anchorage beyond the center of support and equivalent
anchorage value of any hook or mechanical anchorage at a support.
l0 is limited to either the effective depth, d, of the member or 12Φ, whichever is greater.
Code Requirements
(1) Anchorage value of a bend should be taken as 4Φ for each 450 bend subjected to
maximum of 16Φ.
(2) The anchorage value of standard U-type hook is equal to 16Φ.

(3) Code requires be increased by 30% when the ends of the reinforcements are
confined by a compressive reaction, such as at a simply support. Then,

Equation (4) is very important formula to check the sufficiency of development

length, Ld, representing the bond stress, τbd.

Curtailment of Tensile Reinforcement in Flexural Member

Main purpose of the curtailment of bars include following two benefits:

(1) Make the structure economy with the curtailment of bar at the section where
bending moment is less.
(2) Due to having lack of standard length available, splicing of reinforcement bars
may be needed.

62
 Determination of Neutral Axis Depth, Lever Arm, Moment of Resistance and Serviceable
Load Under Different Loading Condition

Example 1: Determine actual depth of neutral axis, lever arm and moment of resistance for the
section shown, take effective cover 50mm. Take cover 50mm, fck =20 N/mm2, fy =415 N/mm2.

Fig. 1 Cross section of beam with given details

Solution:

(a) Calculate the area of reinforcement bars,

(b) Determine the Total Compressive Force with respect to Concrete, C

Where, x is the Neutral Axis (NA).

(c) Determine the Total Tensile Force with respect to Reinforcement Bars, T

(d) Equating Total Compressive Force (1) and Total Tensile Force (2), we get

Thus, the depth of NA is 246.2 mm

(e) Determine the maximum Neutral Axis Depth, xm

63
(f) Comparison of NA (x) with maximum NA (xm) and find whether the section is under
reinforced (UR) or over reinforced (OR).

Since, x = 246.2 mm > xm = 216 mm, the section is over reinforced (OR). It means, the design of
the section was not properly done.

For this case, analysis of the section should be made with the consideration of x = xm.

(g) Calculate the Lever Arm, Z, (using x = xm)

Thus, the Lever Arm is 359.3 mm

(h) Determine the Moment of Resistance, Mu, and Serviceable Moment, M

Then,

Example 2: Analysis again the section if the diameters of reinforcing bars are replaced with Φ20
mm.

Fig. 2 Cross section of beam with given details

Solution:

(a) Calculate the area of reinforcement bars,

(b) Determine the Total Compressive Force with respect to Concrete, C

Where, x is the Neutral Axis (NA).

(c) Determine the Total Tensile Force with respect to Reinforcement Bars, T

64
(d) Equating Total Compressive Force (1) and Total Tensile Force (2), we get

Thus, the depth of NA is 157.54 mm

(e) Determine the maximum Neutral Axis Depth, xm

(f) Comparison of NA (x) with maximum NA (xm) and find whether the section is under
reinforced (UR) or over reinforced (OR).

Since, x = 157.54 mm < xm = 216 mm, the section is under reinforced (UR).

For this case, analysis of the section should be made with the consideration of the value of x.

(g) Calculate the Lever Arm, Z,

Thus, the Lever Arm is 383.83 mm

(h) Determine the Moment of Resistance, Mu, and Serviceable Moment, M

Then,

Note:

If you are not asked to determine the lever arm, Z, but only moment of resistance, Mu, you can
use the following formula for under reinforced section case

, where, is the total compressive force and

is the lever arm.

65
Example 3: What can be the maximum load that a simply supported beam of effective span of
5m can support for the following cases?

(i) Mid-span point load

(ii) Two point loads at 1/3rd distance from edges

(iii) Uniformly distributed load

Solution:

Case1 (Example 1)

As from example 1, M = 111.76 kN.m

(i) Mid-span point load

Here, self weight of beam, w = 0.3×0.5×25 = 3.75 kN/m. Then, the load condition of beam and its free
body is illustrated in Fig. 1.

Fig. 3 Loading Condition on Beam and Free Body

As maximum bending moment, BM, at mid-span is equal to the serviceable moment of resistance, M, then

66
(ii) Two point loads at 1/3rd distance from edges

Load condition and free body, in this case is shown in Fig. 4.

Fig. 4 Loading Condition on Beam and Free Body

In this case, maximum BM at mid-span becomes,

67
Then, inputting the given data

(iii) Uniformly distributed load

In this case, maximum bending moment, M, at mid-span is

Where, wd is self weight of beam (given) and wl is the uniformly distributed load transferred
from slab.

Then inputting known data it becomes,

68
Case II (Example 2)

In this case, serviceable moment, M = 87.1 kN.m

(i) Mid-span point load

(ii) Two point loads at 1/3rd distance from edges

(iii) Uniformly distributed load

Design Example of Singly reinforced Beam

69
Example1: Design a
rectangular beam for 5m
clear span which is
subjected to dead load of
10 kN and a live load of
12 kN/m. Use M20
concrete mix and Fe415
grade steel. Beam is
supported on walls of
300mm thickness.

Solution:

(1) Estimation of Effective Span, l

Here, clear span of beam, lc = 5000mm and thickness of wall, ts = 300 mm

Since, d is still unknown, we take lc+ ts =5000+300 = 5300 mm=5.3m

(2) Assumption of the percentage of reinforcement, p (%)

Normally, percentage of reinforcement, p , is assumed as 75%~80% of the limiting percentage of

reinforcement, plim (%).

For M20 and Fe415, plim (%) = 0.96% (refer table E, page 10 of SP-16)

Then, assumed percentage of reinforcement, p (%)=75/100×0.96 % = 0.72 %

(3) Estimation of Effective depth, d

(Refer clause 23.2.1, page no.37 of IS 456-2000)

Here, α = 20 (Simply supported), β = 1.0 (span<10mm), δ = 1.0 (no compression reinforcement)

and λ = 1.0 (for rectangular cross-section).

For determination of γ,

70
Where, σs is the service stress of tensile reinforcement bars. And, area of steel required is
assumed to be equal to the steel provided.

Then, with known values of p (%) = 0.72 and fs =240 N/mm2, then γ can be determined as

γ = 1.1 (Refer Fig. 4, page 38 of IS456-2000 or Table E, page 10 of SP-16)

Then,

The calculated effective depth based upon the procedure is relatively small than in the normal
practice. Because, we normally use width of beam as 150, 200, 230, 250 and 300 mm; and, width
should be within the range of 1/2~2/3rd of overall depth, D.

Generally effective depth of the beam/slab is the function of effective span and the magnitude of
load (dead +live) imposed on it. Since, its accurate model is not developed, we can assume the
effective depth taking the factor of effective span to effective depth as:

Here, let’s take

Thus, let’s adopt overall

depth .
Here Ф20 mm tensile bars are supposed to be used.

Then, let’s use, b = 250 mm.

(4) Revise Effective Span

(a) l = l0 + d = 4000 + 445 =4445 mm =4.445 m

(b) l = l0 + = 4000 + 300 =4300 mm =4.30 m

So, let’s adopt

(5) Calculation of Load, Factored Load and Factored Bending Moment

Dead load, DL = 10 kN/m

71
Live load, LL = 12 kN/m

Self Weight, DS = 0.25×0. 475×25 = 2.97 kN/m

Total Load, w = 24.97 kN.m

Then Factored load, wd = 1.5w = 1.5×24.97 = 37.45 kN

Factored Bending Moment,

(6) Check the assumed effective depth, d

It is always desirable that the section should be designed as under reinforced (UR) section. Then
to find the minimum limit effect, Mr can be equalized with Mlim with respect to concrete.
Then:

Where,

Since calculated d = 437 mm < assumed d = 445 mm, then use the section as b×d = 250
mm×445 mm, with effective cover = 30mm giving D = 475 mm

(6) Revise the factored load and bending moment

Since overall cross-section is not changed, no revise load is needed.

(7) Calculate the area of tensile reinforcement, Ast

72
Always take the minimum value as for the area of tensile reinforcement.

(8) Check with minimum and maximum reinforcement

Since is in between of minimum and maximum value, it is OK.

(8) Check the percentage of steel, pt

(9) Design reinforcement bars

Use 2 nos. of Ф20mm and 2 no. of Ф16 mm bars giving

Which gives,

, it is OK.

Then the designed section becomes:

73
Note that design of stirrups and other checks will be discussed in following chapters.

Doubly Reinforced Section

The section reinforced in both compression and tension reason is called as doubly reinforced
section. It may be of rectangular, T or L types.
Reason for doubly reinforcement:
(1) When depth of section is restricted in terms of its width and depth. In this case, the
strength available from singly reinforcement may not be adequate.
(2) At a support of continuous beam or slab, where bending moment changes sign.

Criteria for doubly reinforcement

(1) When moment of resistance, Mrlim, with respect to concrete is found less than bending
moment calculated from applied load.
(2) When, reinforcement percentage of tensile region exceeds the percentage of balanced
level ,i.e.

(3) When effective depth of the section exceeds that of balanced level, i.e.

The above three points are inter-related. Each of the case can be used depending upon the give
values or analysis and design process.
Analysis of Section

74
Fig. 3. 20 Section detail, strain and stress distribution diagram in doubly reinforced condition

As shown in Fig. 3.20, the doubly reinforced section, fig (a), is composed of two sections as (i)
singly balanced reinforced section, fig (b) and (ii) an imaginary section with compressive
reinforcement and additional tensile reinforcement, fig (c).
Stress distribution block, fig (e), is also composed of two parts as (i) singly balanced reinforced
stress block, fig (f) and (ii) an imaginary section with compressive force with respect to
compressive reinforcement and tensile force with respect to additional tensile reinforcement, fig
(g).
However, strain distribution block, fig (d), is similar to that of singly balanced reinforced section.
Moment to resistance to be resisted by section, Mr, consists of two parts as (i) Moment of
resistance in balanced condition, Mrlim, and (ii) additional moment of resistance to be resisted by
compressive reinforcement or additional tensile reinforcement, Mr2.

Calculation method of Mrlim is similar to that discussed in singly balanced reinforced section.
Analysis of section is similar to singly reinforcement except that compressive force consists of
two parts as in concrete and steel.
75
Limiting moment of resistance with respect to concrete is similar to equation (15) as

Use the equation (15) to obtain the limiting moment with respect to concrete.

Similarly Mrlim with respect to tensile RB is similar to equation to (16) as

Note that Ast1 is used in above equation to obtain the tensile reinforcement area of the balanced
condition
In order to calculate the additional moment of resistance, Mr2, we have to calculate the
compressive force, C2, with respect to compressive reinforcement, Asc, and tensile force with
respect to additional tensile reinforcement, T2.
To obtain additional tensile force, T2 , with respect to additional tensile reinforcement,Ast2 , is
very easy as:

In order to calculate the compressive force, C2, we have to calculate the compressive stress of
concrete, fcc, and reinforcement, fsc , at the level of compressive reinforcement. For it we have to
evaluate the strain of concrete, εsc, at this level.
For it let’s take upper part of the strain block, (d) of Gig. 3.20.

Fig. 3. 21 Upper part of strain block (compressive region)

Equating the ratio of similar sides of two similar triangles, we get

With the known value of εsc, we can determine fsc with help of the graph of fig. 3.9 (IS 456-
2000, Fig 23 A, page 70 OR Table A page 6 of SP-16).
Table Values of fsc for different values of εsc

76
Stress level Fe 415 Fe 500
Strain εsc Stress fsc (MPa) Strain εsc Stress fsc
(MPa)
0.80 fsd 0.00144 288.7 0.00174 347.8
0.85 fsd 0.00163 306.7 0.00195 369.6
0.90 fsd 0.00192 324.8 0.00226 391.3
0.95 fsd 0.00241 342.8 0.00277 413.0
0.975 fsd 0.00276 351.8 0.00312 423.9
1.0 fsd 0.00380 360.9 0.00417 434.8

For MS plain bar, fsc is determined by help of Fig. 10 (IS 456-2000, Fig 23B, page 70) Since
there is two trends of the graph, linear and constant, we consider both conditions:

If εsc is less than 0.00109, then

If εsc is more than 0.00109, then we take fsc = 217.39 MPa, as constant value.

Alternatively, fsc for deformed bars can also be determined with known values of , as
from Table F, page 12 of SP-16 as:

Grade of Steel Strain at yield

fsc (MPa) 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20

215 317.4 317.4 317.4 317.4 0.00109

415 355 353 342 329 0.00380
500 424 412 395 370 0.00417
Compressive stress of concrete, fcc, is taken as 0.446 fck.
Then compressive force, C2, with respect to compressive bars is the compressive resistance
capacity of reinforcement, i.e. fscAsc , minus the compressive resistance capacity of concrete
which is replaced by reinforcement bars, that is fccAsc. Then,

Then additional moment, Mr2, can be calculated by taking the moment of C2 to the centroid
of tensile bars.

77
 Equation (27) is used to calculate Mr2 in analysis type of problem and to obtain Asc in design
type of problems.
By equating equation (27) and (29), that means C2 and T2, we can calculate additional tensile
reinforcement, Ast2.

Finally, total tensile reinforcement, Ast, is the summation of Ast1 (obtained from balanced
reinforce formula: equation (16)) and Ast2 (obtained from equation (29)).

Types of Problems
(1) Analysis of section
(2) Design of section

(1) Steps for analysis of problems

(i) Confirm yourself that the problem given is analysis type (if cross section and
amount of reinforcement is given and moment of resistance/load is asked to
determine).
(ii) Sketch the cross-section with given information and list out the given data.
(iii) Calculate or obtain the parameter from given data, i.e. , Asc, Ast, fck , fy , fsc , fcc etc.
(iv) Calculate limiting moment of resistance, Mrlim, using its formula with respect to
concrete,

(v) Calculate Ast1 using the formula . Here use the

value of Mrlim that is obtained from step (iv).
(vi) Calculate Ast2 by subtracting Ast1 from total tensile reinforcement area, Ast, given

(vii) Calculate additional moment of resistance, Mr2 , using

(viii) Then obtain total moment of resistance as

78
 (ix) Then calculate the working moment as
(x) Finally calculate the working load using bending moment formula depending
upon span and type of load acting upon.

(2)Steps for design types of problems

(i) Confirm yourself that the problem given is design type (if the span and load are
given and asked to design the section).
(ii) Sketch the beam & cross-section with given information and list out the given
data.
(iii) Calculate or obtain the parameter from given data, i.e. fck , fy , fsc , fcc etc.
(iv) Calculate the load and factored load
(v) Calculate the bending moment, M, from calculated factored load and given span
(vi) Calculate maximum neutral axis depth, xm
(vii) Calculate limiting moment of resistance with respect to concrete, Mrlim, using

(viii) Verify if the section is singly doubly reinforced comparing M and Mrlim.
(ix) Calculate additional moment of resistance using

(x) Calculate Ast1 using .

(xi) Calculate Asc using

(xii) Calculate Ast2 using

(xiii) Calculate Ast using
(xiv) Determine diameter and nos. of tensile and compressive reinforcement bars
(xv) Confirm the reinforcement area is in between minimum and maximum percentage
of steel
(xvi) Design the shear stirrups and carry out shear check
(xvii) Check development length, deflection etc.
(xviii) Show the structurally designed section

79
 Numerical on Analysis Type of Doubly Reinforced Beam
Example 1: Determine the moment of resistance of the doubly reinforced beam with b = 300
mm, d = 600 mm, d' = 60 mm. The beam is reinforced with 4 nos. of Ф25mm bars in tension
and 4 nos. of Ф16mm bars in compression. Use M20 grade concrete and Fe415 grade steel.
Solution:
(1) The problem is analysis type of problem
(2) State the given data in figure.

(3) Tabulate given data and calculate or obtain the required parameter
b = 300 mm; d = 600 mm; d’ = 60mm; D = 660mm; fck = 20 MPa; fy = 415 MPa;

For and Fe425, then from Table F, page 12 of SP-16, we get

fsc = 353 MPa

Alternatively,

Then, from graph 23A, page 70 (IS 456-2000), we get fsc = 352 MPa
Or, from Table A page 6 of SP-16, we get

In order to determine, fsc , you can use any of above methods. For easier process, lets
adopt
fsc = 353 MPa

80
 And,

(4) Calculate limiting moment of resistance with respect to concrete

(5) Calculate Ast1 using the limiting moment of resistance formula with respect to tensile
reinforcement

(6) Calculate Ast2 by subtracting Ast1 from total tensile reinforcement area Ast

(7) Calculate additional moment of resistance, Mr2

(8) Calculate total moment of resistance, Mr

(9) Then calculate the workable moment M

(10) Calculate the working load using bending moment formula depending upon span and
type of load acting upon
(Students are advised to follow the method explained in numerical example of singly
reinforced beam)

Numerical Example on Design of Doubly Reinforced Beam

Example 1: Design a rectangular beam for an effective span of 6m, the super imposed load is 45
kN/m and the size of the section is restricted to 30cm×60cm over all. Use M20 grade concrete
and Fe415 grade steel. Take support width = 350mm.

Solution:

(1) The given problem is design type of problem

81
(2) Draw the figure with given data

Fac

(3) Given Data

l = 6000 mm; b = 300 mm; D = 600mm; ts = 350 mm;

Since, effective cover is not given, let’s assume effective cover to tensile and
compressive (if necessary) reinforcement = 70mm; then d=600-70 = 530mm; d’ = 70mm.

For M20, fck = 20 MPa and for Fe415, fy = 415 MPa

Since, , then from Table F, page 13 of SP-16

(4) Calculate load and factored load and

Dead load, DD = 0.3×0.6×25 = 4.5 kN/m

Live load, LL = 45 kN/m

Total load, w = 49.5 kN/m

Factored load, wd =1.5×49.5 = 74.25 kN/m

(5) Calculate factored bending moment, M

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 Factored bending moment,

(6) Calculate Maximum neutral axis depth, xm

(7) Calculate limiting moment of resistance with respect to concrete, Mrlim

(8) Verify if the section is singly doubly reinforced comparing M and Mrlim

Since,

Thus, the section is doubly reinforced.

(9) Calculate additional moment of resistance, Mr2

(10) Calculate Ast1

(11) Calculate Asc

(12) Calculate Ast2

(13) Calculate Ast

83
(14) Determine diameter and nos. of tensile and compressive reinforcement bars

Use 4 nos. of Ф25mm and 2 nos. of Ф12mm bars for tensile giving

Use 6 nos. of Ф12mm bars for compressive giving

(15) Check with minimum and maximum reinforcement

(i) For Compression

Since min. 360 mm2 < Asc = 678.6 mm2 < 7200 mm2……………Hence, OK

(ii) For Tension

Since min. 325.7 mm2 < Ast = 2189.7 mm2 < 7200 mm2……………Hence, OK

(16) Draw the structural section

84
3.3 Analysis of Singly Reinforced Flanged Beam Section
3.3.1 Introduction
In building construction work, there are two ways of casting the structural parts, i.e. slab, beam,
column, staircases etc., as:
(1) Precast Method
(2) Cast in-situ Method
In pre-cast method all structural components of building structure, i.e. slab, beam, staircases
column etc., are first pre-casted in the factory and then fitted them in site to form the building
structures. . The combination of slab and beam built with this method is shown in Fig 5.1.

Fig. 5.1 Pre-cast slab and beam (rectangular beam)

For this method of construction, design of slab and beam is made separately and the beam is
considered as rectangular beam. Designs of such beams are already discussed in previous
chapter.

85
In cast in-situ construction method; slab, beam and upper part of the column are casted
monolithically. The combined structure of slab and beam constructed with this method is shown
in Fig. 5.2.

Fig. 5.2 Slab and beam constructed with cast in-situ method (L-beam and T-beam)
Due to monolithic casting, beam and some part of the slab act together. Under the action of
positive bending moment, i.e. in mid-span of a continuous beam, the slab up to a certain width
greater than the width of the beam forms the top part of the beam. Such beams having slab on top
of the rectangular rib are designated as the flanged beams - either T-beams or L –beams. T-
beam has the flange width (i.e. part of slab) on both sides, whereas L –beam of has one side
flange on which the slab is connected. L-beam and T-beam are shown in the above figure.
3.3.2 Beams in Frame Structural building
Fig. 5.3 gives the plan layout of any building.

86
 Fig. 5.3 Key Plan of Building
All required information on position of columns and beams are detailed in the figure. Columns in
4 corners, 4 sides (except corner) and inside are called as corner columns, side columns and inner
columns respectively. Beams along y-axis and x-axis are termed as longitudinal beams and
transverse beams. It should be noted that the beam which bear the load of the most of the slab is
the longitudinal beam. Or, beams along longer span of slab are longitudinal beams and those
along shorter span are transverse beams. Beams inside the frame are T-beam and those along
outer sides are L-beams. The lines shown in key plan are the center lines of beams.
A-A sections of the key plan is shown in Figs. 5.4.

87
 Fig. 5.4 A-A section of key plan
Fig. 5.4 shows the combination of slab and longitudinal beams as casted monolithically. The
certain portion of the slab acts together with beam forming T-beams on inside and L-beams on
side. The distance between center lines of slab on either sides of the T-beam is called actual
flange width, denoted by b. Whereas, the distance from center line of one adjacent slab to the
corner side of the beam is the actual flange width of L-beam. The portion of the slab that acts as
a flange of T-beam or L-beam depends on its own thickness and span of the beams. The details
of T-beam and L-beam, i.e. details of 1 and 2 of Fig. 5.4, are shown in Figs. 5.5 and 5.6
respectively.

Fig. 5.5 Detail at 1: L-Beam

As it can be understood from Fig. 5.5 that the combination of beam and slab act as L-beam at
side of the frame and as from Fig. 5.6 (Detail of 2), which is the combination of beam and slab
inside of the frame, act as T-beam. Both for T-beam and L-beam, the following terms and their
notations should be understood.

88
 Fig. 5.6 Detail at 2: T-Beam
Flange = Slab (upper) part of the T-beam or L-beam
Web = Beam (lower) part of the T-beam or L-beam, which is also called as Rib
b = Actual width of flange; it is the mid-span distance of the two adjacent slabs for T-beam and
distance from the mid span of the adjacent slab to the outer side of beam (left or right)
bf = Effective width of flange, its derivation will be discussed later
bw = Width of web, means the width of beam
D = Overall depth of T-beam or L-beam
Df = Depth of Flange
d = Effective depth of T-beam or L-beam, it is the distance from the centroid of the tensile
reinforcement to the extreme compressive fiber
NA = Neutral axis
x1, x2, x3,……= distance from centerline of span to the face of the beam (i.e. half of the clear
span of adjacent slab), as shown in Fig. 5.4
Since all beams at section A-A face the positive moment, upper section of the T-beam or L-
beam is in compression and lower part in tension. Depending upon the configuration of slab and
beam, NA may lie either in flange part or in web part of the T-beam or L-beam. Its detail will be
studied in coming sections.

89
 Fig. 5.7 B-B section of key plan
Details of 3 and 4 from Fig.5.7 are shown in Fig. 5.8 and Fig. 5.9 respectively.

Fig. 5.8 Detail at 3: Rectangular beam

Fig. 5.9 Detail at 4: Rectangular beam

B-B section passes through the center line of inner column. Thus section of beam at support of
column faces negative moment. It means upper part of the section is in tension and lower part in
compression. Since concrete is assumed to have cracked in tension, the continuous beam at
support is thus equivalent to a rectangular beam (It means cracked portion of the slab does not
play the role of flange in the combination). It should be then understood that the combination of
beam and slab at support, i.e. cases of Figs. 5.7 and 5.8, should be considered as rectangular
beam.
3.3.3 Composite of Beam and Slab at mid-span of Continuous Beam
It is clear from above description that the composite of beam and slab at mid-span of the
continuous beam act as T-beam (inside) or L-beam (end side). For the design approach, the Fig.
5.6 can be simplified with its effective flange width on top, as shown in Fig.5.10.

90
 Fig. 5.10 Definition of effective flange width
The effective width, instead of actual width, of the flanged beam is used for calculating the
moment of resistance. The effective width is allowed for the fact that the compressive stress in
flange is higher above the web than at some distance away from the web. The effective distance
concept makes use of constant compressive stress over the entire effective width such that the
total force of the compression remains same. The followings are the major points to achieve the
effective width from the actual width of T-beam or L-beam.
(i) Maintain the maximum compressive stress same
(ii) Draw the rectangle, i.e. idealized stress distribution curve, giving the similar area to that
of area given by the actual stress distribution parabolic curve.
(iii) In order to achieve (ii) reduce the equal portion of the actual flange width from both
sides.
(iv) Thus, the achieved width is the effective width of the T-beam or L-beam.
Generally, the effective flange is the function of the span length of the beam and depends on:
(i) Spacing of beam
(ii) Width of web of beam
(iii) The ratio of the slab thickness to the total beam depth
(iv) End conditions of the beam (simply supported or continuous)
(v) The way in which the load is applied (distributed load or point load)
(vi) The ratio of the length of beam between points of zero moment to the width of the web
and the distance between webs.
In design process, the followings are methods of calculating effective width, bf:

91
 (a) For T-beams:

(b) For Isolated T-beams

(c) For L-beams:

(d) For Isolated L-beams

Isolated T-beams and L-beams are such beams that slabs are discontinuous at the sides,
i.e. in a footbridge or stringer beam of a staircase.

3.3.4 Minimum and Maximum Reinforcement

If main reinforcement of the slab is parallel to the beam, transverse reinforcement must be at
least 60% of the main reinforcement at the mid span of the slab. Detail of the transverse
reinforcement is shown in Fig. 5.11

92
 Fig. 5.10 Detail of transverse reinforcement in flange of T-beam

3.3.5 Types of Problems

The neutral axis of a flanged beam may be either in the flange or in the web depending on
the physical dimensions of the effective width of flange bf, effective width of web bw,
thickness of flange Df and effective depth of flanged beam d. The flanged beam may be
considered as a rectangular beam of width bf and effective depth d if the neutral axis is in
the flange as the concrete in tension is ignored. However, if the neutral axis is in the web,
the compression is taken by the flange and a part of the web. For above consideration
problems with regard to flanged beams can be categorized into 4 cases:
Case I: Neutral Axis (NA) lies in flange
Case II: NA lies in the web and the section is balanced
Case III: NA is in the web and the section is under-reinforced
Case IV: NA is in the web and the section is over-reinforced

93
Before we go to the detail of the above 4 cases, we have to make section analysis with

regard to the ratio of the flange depth to effective depth of the flanged beam, . For
this analysis, T- beam section is taken as shown in Fig. 5.11with its stress and strain
distribution.

Fig. 5.11 A Typical T-beam Section

For the section analysis of flanged beam, all assumptions made for the rectangular beam
can also be applied.
From the upper part of the strain diagram, we get:

Then we get the value of as

In the balanced condition when, , then value of becomes for different

grades of steel becomes as

For Fe250:

94
For Fe415:

For Fe415:
Let’s generalize this value as

This relation can also be achieved when analyzing the strain due to reinforcement bar.
Let’s take the upper and lower part of the strain diagram, then

Substituting as obtained from equation (5.8) in (5.10), we get

For Fe250:

For Fe415:

For Fe415:
Therefore generalizing above values as 0.002d, then we get

It now can be understood that the three values of are around for the three grades
of steel. The maximum value of may be , at the bottom of the flange where the

95
strain will be 0.002, if .This reveals that the thickness of the flange may be

considered small if does not exceed 0.2 and in that case, the position of the fiber of
0.002 strain will be in the web and the entire flange will be under a constant compressive
stress of .

When , the position of the fibre of 0.002 strain will be in the flange. In that
case, a part of the slab will have the constant stress of where the strain will be
more than 0.002.

Thus, in the balanced and over-reinforced flanged beams (when x = xm), the ratio of is
important to determine if the rectangular stress block is for the full depth of the flange

(when 0.2) of for a part of the flange (when ). Similarly, for the under-

reinforced flanged beams, the ratio of is considered in place of . If does not

exceed , the constant stress block is for the full depth of the flange. If , the
constant stress block is for a part of the depth of the flange.
According to above mentioned information, we are going to derive governing equations
for design for all 4 cases.

Case I: Neutral Axis (NA) Lies in Flange

When , NA lies in the flange. This is the case which exactly matches with the fig.
5.11. In this case:
(i) Concrete below neutral axis is assumed to be cracked.
(ii) Due to (i), the flanged portion equal to the width of web is considered as part of
web and made equivalent to full rectangular section with effective depth d. blocks
of flange on either sides are neglected.
(iii) Then beam is as good as a rectangular beam having breadth bf and effective depth
d. So, the rectangular section, as shown in Fig. 5.12, is used for the design
calculation.

96
 Fig. 5.12 Detail of Cross-section, stress and strain diagram for NA lies in Flange

(iv) Thus, all calculation method applied for rectangular beam with singly or doubly
reinforced section is valid for such flange beams.
Formulae to be used for balanced, under and over reinforced sections are as:
Singly Reinforced
(i) Balanced Reinforced Condition:

(ii) Under Reinforced Condition:

(iii) Over Reinforced Condition:

Note that equation (5.9) is never used for design, but sometimes is needed to be used for
section analysis.
Doubly Reinforced

97
Ast1 is calculated with the balanced formulae of equations (5.7 a & b). And, Ast2 is calculated by

For all remaining 3 cases, the cross-section of T-beam is idealized into two parts, as shown in
Fig. 5.13, in order to make easier for design calculation.

Fig. 5.13 Idealized T-beam cross-section

In the idealized cross-section two parts. One part is the rectangular beam combining flange part
and the middle web part just above web. So, the beam is with its effective depth d and width bw.
Calculation of this part to similar to singly or doubly reinforced beam section already discussed
in previous chapter. Another part is the part of flange subtracting the part just above web of
width bw. And this part is equally divided into two blocks, left and right side of the idealized

rectangular beam giving the width of each as . These into parts only take the
responsibility of bearing compressive stress based on the stress distribution throughout its
depth . And, main point is where the strain level of 0.002 lies which gives the depth of

constant rectangular stress block of . It is denoted by the ratio and we will fully
describe the cases based on this ration in coming sections.
Case II: Neutral Axis Lies in the Web and T-section is Balanced
This balanced condition of T-beam with NA lying in the web can further be sub classified to two

sub-cases based on the ratio .

The diagram of stress and strain distribution as well as idealized T-beam section will be
according to the Fig. 5.14.

98
 Fig. 5.14 Case II Balanced Section with
Since the section is balanced then the neutral axis depth . In this case, it is assumed the
depth of a rectangular portion of the block is greater than that of the flange. It means level of
0.002 strain is below the flange depth. Then the value of neutral axis depth
becomes , which is already derived in equation (5.9).
Then total compressive force and tensile force can be calculated from the idealized T-beam
section of Fig. 5.14. Note that middle part of the flange is associated with the idealized
rectangular section with reinforcement, which is similar to balanced rectangular section. The

remaining two blocks, with their respective width , i.e. total width being , and
depth bear the compressive stress. Then,

This gives total compressive force with respect to concrete, C, as:

99
And, the total tensile force with respect to reinforcement bars, T, is

Here, (d-0.42xm) is the lever arm for rectangular section and is the lever arm for
flange section. Then moment of resistance can be obtained as

Fig. 5.15 Case II Balanced Section with

The diagram of stress and strain distribution as well as idealized T-beam section will be
according to the Fig. 5.14.
Since the section is balanced then the neutral axis depth . In this case, it is assumed the
depth of a rectangular portion of the block is smaller than that of the flange. It means level of

100
0.002 strain is inside the flange. Then the value of neutral axis depth becomes smaller
than , and is denoted by .
Then total compressive force and tensile force can be calculated from the idealized T-beam
section of Fig. 5.15. Note that middle part of the flange is associated with the idealized
rectangular section with reinforcement, which is similar to balanced rectangular section. The

remaining two blocks, with their respective width , i.e. total width being , and
the depth bear the compressive stress. Then,

This gives total compressive force with respect to concrete, C, as:

And, the total tensile force with respect to reinforcement bars, T, is

Here, (d-0.42xm) is the lever arm for rectangular section and is the lever arm for
flange section. Then moment of resistance can be obtained as

Here let’s determine the value of , with the help of Fig. 5.16.

Fig. 5.16 IS 456 Stress Block and Whitney’s Stress Block

In the figure, (a) is the IS 456 stress block consisting of both rectangular block and parabolic
block. As already derived in previous section, depth of this rectangle stress block is

and the stress in its compressive stress is .

As in (b), Whitney has simplified actual stress block to his rectangle block giving stress block as
and the stress in its compressive stress is .

101
We know that is the function of neutral axis depth and flange depth , which can be
expressed as

Where, A and B are coefficients of the function and can be determined with the help of the
combination of IS stress block and Whitney’s stress block.

As from IS stress block, when , then , it gives

And, from Whitney’s stress block, when , then , it gives

Subtituting in above equation, we get

Then substituting in (b) we get B as

Therefore is determined by the function as

Case III: Neutral Axis Lies in the Web and T-section is Under Reinforced
This under reinforced condition of T-beam with NA lying in the web can further be sub

classified to two sub-cases based on the ratio .

The diagram of stress and strain distribution as well as idealized T-beam section will be
according to the Fig. 5.17.
The section is under reinforced, then the neutral axis depth becomes . In this case, it is

assumed that the depth of a rectangular portion of the block is greater than the depth of
the flange . It means level of 0.002 strain is below the flange depth.

102
Then total compressive force and tensile force can be calculated from the idealized T-beam
section of Fig. 5.17. Note that middle part of the flange is associated with the idealized
rectangular section with reinforcement, which is similar to under reinforced rectangular section.

The remaining two blocks, with their respective width , i.e. total width being ,
and depth bear the compressive stress. Then,

Fig. 5.17 Case III Under Reinforced Section with

This gives total compressive force with respect to concrete, C, as:

And, the total tensile force with respect to reinforcement bars, T, is

Here, (d-0.42xm) is the lever arm for rectangular section and is the lever arm for
flange section. Then moment of resistance with respect to concrete can be obtained as

103
And, moment of resistance with respect to tensile reinforcement can be obtained from

Here, z is the lever arm which is the distance between the centroid of tensile reinforcement and
center of gravity of compressive force to be resisted by concrete. Center of gravity of
compressive force in concrete can be calculated with the help of two idealized portions (one of
rectangular and another of two combined flange portions) as shown in Fig. 5.17.

Fig. 5.18 Case III Under Reinforced Section with

The diagram of stress and strain distribution as well as idealized T-beam section will be
according to the Fig. 5.18.
The section is under reinforced, then the neutral axis depth becomes . In this case, it is
assumed that the depth of a rectangular portion of the block is smaller than the depth of
the flange . It means level of 0.002 strain is within the flange depth.
Then total compressive force and tensile force can be calculated from the idealized T-beam
section of Fig. 5.18. Note that middle part of the flange is associated with the idealized
rectangular section with reinforcement, which is similar to under reinforced rectangular section.

104
The remaining two blocks, with their respective width , i.e. total width being ,
and depth bear the compressive stress. Then,

This gives total compressive force with respect to concrete, C, as:

And, the total tensile force with respect to reinforcement bars, T, is

Here, (d-0.42xm) is the lever arm for rectangular section and is the lever arm for
flange section. Then moment of resistance can be obtained as

Where, the value of is already determined in equation (5.18) as

Case IV: Neutral Axis Lies in the Web and T-section is Over Reinforced

This is the case when neutral axis depth exceeds the maximum neutral axis depth as .

This case also will have two situations depending on or as we

discussed in Case II (Balanced Reinforced Condition).

However, is restricted up to . Therefore, the corresponding expressions of C, T and

for the two situations are similar with similar situations of balanced reinforced condition as:

105
It is clear from above expressions that over reinforced flanged beams never have moment of
resistance greater than those of balanced reinforced condition, similar situation to that of
rectangular beams.
Therefore, as stated in the case of rectangular beam, when we design the flanged beams we
should not allow the section to be over reinforced. We should either increase the effective depth
to maintain the section as singly reinforced or we should design as doubly reinforced for the part
of idealized rectangular section of the flanged beams with formulae, as given in equations (5.10)
and (5.12).

Also, if any over reinforced section of flanged beams is required for the safety analysis, we
should also used the balanced condition limiting the neutral axis
depth . For such work, all figures and formulae are
applicable given for balanced reinforced section case (i.e. Case III).
Numerical Example 1
Calculate the moment of resistance of T- beam as shown in Fig. 5.19. Take M20 grade concrete
and Fe415 grade steel.

Fig. 5.19 T-beam section with given data

(1) Given data:

106
(2) Assume NA lies in Flange
Equating C and T, we get

It means our assumption made as the NA lies in the flange is wrong and NA lies in the
web.

(3)

Then, the depth of rectangular stress block is less than (i.e. rectangular block lies
within the flange). And its depth is:

(4) Determine actual NA depth, x, equating C and T, we get

So, it is over reinforced section and the moment of resistance should be calculated
limiting to and using balanced reinforced section formulae as

107
Then,

Therefore, moment of resistance on working load is

Numerical Exam 2
A T-beam floor consists of 12 cm thick the slab monolithic with 25 cm wide beams. The
beams are spaced at 3.2 m center to center and that effective span is 7m. The
superimposed load on slab is 5 kN/m2. Design an intermediate and exterior beam using
M20 grade concrete and Fe415 grade steel.

108
 Fig. 5.20 T-beam and L-beam to be designed
(a) Design of T-beam

(1) Given data

(2) Calculation of load on adjacent slab and transferred load to beam

Dead load (self weight) of slab

Let, dead load of finishing

Live load

109
 Total load,

(3) Calculate the effective width of flange,

(4) Estimate the effective depth of beam

Then, let’s adopt d = 370 mm, with covering = 70 mm giving D = 440 mm

(5) Calculate total load on beam, factored load and factored BM

Dead load (self weight) of beam

Load transferred from slab

Total load,

Factored load,

Thus, Factored Moment,

(6) Find the position of NA

Let’s assume NA lies in the flange, then

110
Area of steel required to resist the factored BM is

Since, , therefore our assumption is right that NA lies in

flange. Then, it is the case I so that the section can be considered as rectangle with its
width as and effective depth as d = 370 mm
(7) Design reinforcement

, let’s choose 20 mm as diameter of bars giving numbers:

Then use 7-Ф20mm bars gives

So, the design is within the range. The designed section is shown in Fig. 5.21.

111
 Fig. 5.21 Designed T-beam Section

(b) Design of L-beam - Homework

Numerical Example 3

Design the L-beam section, details given in Fig. 522, if it has to resist the factored
moment 400 kN.m. Use M20 grade concrete and Fe415 grade steel.

(1) Given data

112
 Fig. 5.22 L-beam section detail to be designed

(2) Determine the position of NA

Let’s assume NA lies in the flange, then

Area of steel required to resist the factored BM is

Since, , therefore our assumption is wrong. NA

lies in the web.

(5)

113
 Then, the depth of rectangular stress block is less than (i.e. rectangular block lies
within the flange). And its depth is:

(6) Determine actual NA depth, x, equating C and T, we get

It shows that if the section is designed as singly reinforced, it becomes over

reinforced which should be avoided.

So, we have to design the section as doubly reinforced section. For this, we classify
the L-beam to 3 idealized sections as balanced reinforced rectangular section, web
section with its depth and one additional imaginary rectangular section with
compressive and additional tensile reinforcement. The detail is shown in Fig. 5.23.

Fig. 5.23 Idealized Sections of L-beam for design calculation

(7) Calculation of Moment of Resistance with respect to concrete in balanced condition

114
 Then,

Thus additional moment that requires the compressive and additional tensile reinforcement,
is:

(8) Calculation of

can be calculate using moment of resistance formula with respect to tensile

reinforcement as

(9) Calculation of , and

Then from Table F, page 12 of SP-16, we get

Thus, can be calculated:

115
And, is obtained by:

Then total tensile reinforcement is:

(10) Detailing of Reinforcement bars

Use 5 nos. of Ф25 mm bars and 3 nos. of Ф25 mm bars for tensile reinforcement giving
area of total tensile reinforcement as

And, Use 4 nos. of Ф16 mm bars for compressive reinforcement giving compressive
reinforcement area as

(11) Prepare detail designed section

The detail designed section is given in Fig. 5.24.

116
 Fig. 5.23 Detail Designed L-beam Section

3.4 Strength and Serviceability Requirements for Flexural Members

In design of structural element, strength requirements are compressive, flexural (compressive
and tension), shear, bond (development length) etc, bearing. All these strengths provided by
materials should be greater than those respective stresses developed from external loads.

For serviceability requirement, deflection of any structural element should be within the
deflection control limit as given by code. If any cracks allowed, these should be within the limit.

3.6 Design and Detailing of Slabs Spanning on One or Both Directions

3.6.1 Introduction

Plate elements (structures) forming floors and roofs of building carrying distributed loads,
primarily by flexural, are called as slabs. Slabs:

- generally carry uniform loads

- are analyzed for flexural (bending and shear)

- are usually horizontal (except in staircases, sloped roof and ramps for stored car parks)

- Supported by beams or walls (sometimes by flange of T or L beams)

3.6.2 Types of Slabs

1) Simply supported spanning in one direction (one way slab)

117
 2) Simply supported spanning in two directions (two way slab)

3) Continuous slabs (one or two way)

4) Cantilever slab

5) Flat slabs

6) Circular slabs

3.6.3 Method of Analysis

- Elastic Analysis

- Semi-empirical Coefficients as given in code

- Yield line Theory

3.6.3 Distinction between Beams and Slabs

1) Slabs are analyzed and designed with taking unit width, whereas whole width is
considered in beam

2) Compression reinforcement only in exception case for slab; however, it is more common
in beam

3) Since shear stress is usually very low in case of slab now shear reinforcement is needed.
Only depth of slab controls the shear stress, whereas shear reinforcement check and
design is needed in case of beam.

4) Distribution (temperature or transverse) reinforcement invariable provided at right angles

to the main longitudinal reinforcement.

5) Depth of slabs are more thinner than of beams

3.6.4 Method of Analysis

Let lx be the width span (i.e. length of short span) and ly be length span (i.e. length of long span)
of the given slab as shown in Fig. 4.1.

118
 Fig. 4.1 Length and Width of given slab

Then, slab is considered as one way slab & the load is taken by short span.

Then, slab is considered as one way slab & the load is taken by short span. However,
greater load is taken by the short span.

3.6.5 One Way Slab Analysis

Followings are the steps for the design or analysis of one way slabs:

1. 1m width of the slab is taken for the design or analysis, shown in Fig. 4.2.

2. Load is specified in load/m2 (we, here will use kN/m2)

3. Then load for 1m width becomes load/m (i.e. kN/m)

119
 Fig. 4.2 Design of 1m width (short span) for longitudinal reinforcement

4. Effective area of steel required for 1m width is calculated and numbers of bars with
appropriate diameter and their spacing are designed in 1m width so that the area of steel
provided is equal or more than that obtained from calculation.

For example, let Ast is the area of steel required, as obtained from calculation, for 1m
width and let Ф is the chosen diameter of bar. Then the required spacing, s, is calculated
as

Here, spacing s should be adopted equal or smaller than the value calculated by equation
(4.2.3) so that the area of reinforcement is equal or greater than that obtained from
calculation.

3.6.6 Thickness of slab

120
 Generally total thickness of slab is called as overall depth, D, of the slab. However,
overall depth is not taken for the design since certain thickness of the slab, called as
cover, is taken for covering the tensile reinforcement in order to protect from external
environment, i.e. moist, chemicals etc, and is not considered for the design. Cover is also
classified as clear cover, i.e. the distance from extreme tensile fiber of the section to the
outer face of bar, and effective cover, i.e. the distance from extreme tensile fiber of the
section to the centroid of bars.

The thickness of slab obtained from subtracting the effective cover from overall depth, D,
is called as effective depth, d. i.e.

Effective depth of slab, d, plays an extraordinary role for the design of slab, which is somehow
difficult to decide and consider other effecting factors for deciding it. Effective depth, d, can be
decided by the following formula:

Here, l is the tentative effective span of the slab with consideration of only bearing support.

And,

α: base values of span to effective depth. Its value is taken as for the slab with the span is shorter
than 10m:

α = 7 (cantilever)

α = 20 (simply supported)

α = 26 (continuous at both ends)

α = 23 (continuous at one end)

β : Correction for the value of if in the case span of slab is longer than 10m. Its value is taken as

, whereas, span is in m.

γ : This value generally depends upon the amount of steel reinforcement in the section, denoted
by steel percentage. It can be determined by two methods as:

(a) Calculation Method

It can be calculated using the following formula:

121
Where, Mr is the moment of resistance based on tensile reinforcement and fs is the design service
stress of the tensile reinforcement bar. fs can be calculated as:

Here,

= area of tensile required reinforcement (calculated value) at mid span to resist

factored BM (at support of cantilever slab).

= area of provided tensile reinforcement (designed value) at mid span to give the
required moment of resistance, Mr, (at support of cantilever slab).

= the factor which can be calculated as:

Another factor is taken as

(b) Alternative Method

The service stress of given grade of steel, fs, can be calculated from compatibility of strains.
And, it is generally taken as 0.58 fy; whereas, fy is the characteristic strength of the given
grade of steel. With the help of percentage of tension reinforcement, pt (%) and fs, the value
of γ can be obtained from Fig.4.4 (Fig.5, page 38 IS 456-2000).

δ = A factor which depends upon the area of compression reinforcement as shown in Fig.
4.5(Fig.5, page 39 IS 456-2000). δ is taken as 1.0 for the section with no compressive
reinforcement.

λ = A factor for flanged beams which depends upon the ratio of web width to the flange
width. Its value is given in Fig. 4.6 ((Fig.6, page 39 IS 456-2000). λ is taken as 1.0 for the
rectangular section.

122
123
124
 Fig. 4.4 Modification factor, γ, for tension reinforcement

Fig. 4.5 Modification factor, δ, for Compression reinforcement

Fig. 4.5 Modification factor, λ, for Web width to Flange width ratio

3.6.7 Effective Span

Effective span of the slab, to be considered for the design, depend upon the type of slab on how
it is supports. Depending upon the support condition, the effective span to be considered is
shown in Table 4.1.

Table 4.1 Effective Span of Slab depending upon support condition

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S.No. Support condition
1 Simply supported not built integrally with its
supports
2 Continuous when the width of the support is <
1/12th of clear span
3 Continuous when the width of the support is >
lesser of 1/12th of clear span or 600 mm
(i) for end span with one end fixed and the other
end continuous or for intermediate spans,
(ii) for end span with one end free and the other
end continuous,
(iii) spans with roller or rocker bearings.
4 Cantilever slab at the end of a continuous slab
5 Cantilever span
6 Frames
Effective span
Lesser of (i) clear span + effective depth
of slab, and (ii) centre to centre of
supports
Do
(i) Clear span between the supports
(ii) Lesser of (a) clear span + half the
effective depth of slab, and (b) clear span
+ half the width of the discontinuous
support
(iii) The distance between the centers of
bearings
Length up to the centre of support
Length up to the face of the support +
half the effective depth
Centre to centre distance

3.6.8 Reinforcement Bars

Reinforcement bars in slab consist of longitudinal bars along short span and transverse
(temperature) reinforcement bars along the long span. Longitudinal bars, considered as main
reinforcing bars, should be obtained by the design calculation depending upon the maximum
factored bending moment at mid-span (at support in case of cantilever or continuous slab).
Transverse reinforcement can be used as minimum given by code in case of one way slab, but
may need to have calculation in case of two way slab.

Minimum requirement of reinforcement bars, their spacing and preferable diameters for main
(longitudinal) and distribution (transverse) reinforcing bars is as follows:

(a) Main (Longitudinal) Reinforcing Bars

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 (b) Distribution (Transverse) Reinforcing Bars

4 Covering to reinforcement bars

The nominal cover to be provided depends upon durability and fire resistance requirements. In
case of slab, nominal cover should be:

5 Loads on Slabs

Dead load (self weight of slab) and live (superimposed) load should be taken into account for
design.

6 Design Steps of One Way Slab

Following steps should be considered for the design of one way slab:

1) Assuming (if not given) suitable bearing (≥100mm), find the tentative effective span, l,
taking the distance between the centers of bearings.

2) Using l from step 1), estimate the effective depth of the slab, d can be calculated using
the formula:

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3) Using d from step 2), determine the actual span of the slab, l, using the conditions
mentioned in Table 1.

4) Estimate the load per 1m width span of slab with the given live (superimposed) load and
dead load (self weight) of slab. If L is the given live load, D as overall depth of slab and
d’ as thickness of finishing (load is in kN and dimension is in m), then the load per 1m
width of slab becomes:

The load becomes uniformly distributed load along width and its unit is kN/m.

5) Multiply the load, w, with partial safety factor of 1.5 to obtain the factored load, wu.

6) Determine the factored moment, Mu, using wu from step 5) and l from step 3)

7) Find the effective depth required from flexural strength consideration by equating the
moment of resistance, Mr, to the factored moment, Mu.

As already have derived in beam section that the moment of resistance Mr is:

Substituting Mu in Mr of equation (4.14) and use xm = 0.53d for Fe250, xm = 0.48d for
Fe415 and xm = 0.46d for Fe500, we can calculate the required d. For example
substituting xm = 0.53d and xm = 0.48d in equation (4.14), we get :

Then the required effective depth for above two cases can be obtained as:

Note that, b = 1000mm in above formula, since the 1m width is taken for the design.

128
 8) Check if the required effective depth obtained from step 7) is less than the estimated
effective depth from step 2), i.e.

9) Find the Area of steel using

10) Decide preferable diameter of steel and then calculate the required spacing of bar,
s, using the equation (2.3) as

Then, finalize the area of tensile steel with the selection of appropriate diameter of bars, spacing
and ensuring all within the range of minimum and maximum requirement.

11) Design Distribution bars as for the minimum requirement

12) Shear Check

Maximum factored shear force is determined as:

(a) For simply supported at both ends

(b) For simply supported at one end and continuous at another

Note: take clear span l0 instead of effective span l to calculate shear force

Nominal shear stress, τv, is calculated by:

Note that b = 1000mm

For solid slabs, design shear strength of concrete, τc’, is

129
 Where, τc is design shear strength of concrete applicable for beam. Design shear strength
of concrete, which depends upon the grade of concrete and tensile reinforcement
percentage is given in Table 4.2 (Table 19 of IS 456-2000, page 73).

Table 4.2 Design shear strength of concrete, τc, in MPa

Grade of concrete
(100 Ast/b d)
M 20 M 25 M 30 M 35 M40 and above
≤ 0.15 0.28 0.29 0.29 0.29 0.30
0.25 0.36 0.36 0.37 0.37 0.38
0.50 0.48 0.49 0.50 0.50 0.51
0.75 0.56 0.57 0.59 0.59 0.60
1.00 0.62 0.64 0.66 0.67 0.68
1.25 0.67 0.70 0.71 0.73 0.74
1.50 0.72 0.74 0.76 0.78 0.79
1.75 0.75 0.78 0.80 0.82 0.84
2.00 0.79 0.82 0.84 0.86 0.88
2.25 0.81 0.85 0.88 0.90 0.92
2.50 0.82 0.88 0.91 0.93 0.95
2.75 0.82 0.90 0.94 0.96 0.98
≥ 3.00 0.82 0.92 0.96 0.99 1.01

And, k is the coefficient factor depending upon the overall depth of slab, as shown in Table
4.3(Clause 40.2.1.1, page 72, IS-456-2000)

Table 4.3 Values of coefficient k for different overall depth of slab.

Overall Depth D (mm) ≥ 300 250 225 200 175 ≤150

k 1.05 1.10 1.15 1.20 1.25 1.3

More over nominal shear stress of slab τv should not exceed the values of τcmax given in Table 4.5
(Table 20 IS 456-2000, page 73).

Table 4.4 Maximum shear stress, τcmax in MPa

130
 Grade of concrete M15 M 20 M 25 M 30 M 35 M 40 and above
τcmax (MPa) 2.5 2.8 3.1 3.5 3.7 4.0
Shear reinforcement may be provided in solid slabs deeper than 200mm.

13) Curtailment of Reinforcement Bars

Since it is not economical to extend all designed reinforcement bars up to the support, alternative
bars (i.e. 50% of total reinforcement bars) shall be bent at 0.15l or1/7l from the mid-support,
where l is the effective span of the slab. Note that the length of bar in top should be more than
0.1l from the inner face of support.

14) Check for Development Length, Ld

Development length should be checked in the critical section to ensure the bond and anchorage
capacity between concrete and reinforcing bars. It is generally necessary at the point where
anchorage or curtailment of bars is necessary.

In slab, this check is generally carried out at the support. For it, moment of resistance, M1, is
calculated as:

Here Note that Ast’ is the actual area of the reinforcement bar at the section. If the 50% of bars
are already bent and only 50% are extended to the support, then Ast’ should be taken as half of Ast
as designed for the mid-span of slab.

Development length, Ld, can be calculated as:

131
Here Ф is the diameter of tensile reinforcement bar. τbd is bond strength of concrete depending
upon grades of concrete and steel. Design bond strength of different grades of concrete for MS
bars (Fe250) is given in Table 4.5 (Clause 26.2.1.1, page 43, IS456-2000).

Table 4.5 Design bond stress of different grades of concrete for MS plain bars (Fe250)

Concrete Grade M20 M25 M30 M35 M40 or above

τbd (MPa) 1.2 1.4 1.5 1.7 1.9

Notes:
7 Values of τbd of above table should be increased by 60% for deformed tensile reinforcement
bars. It means bond stress for M20 grade concrete and Fe415 (or Fe500) is:

8 For compressive bars, the value should further be increased by 25%. It means (1) For MS
plain bars (Fe250) with M20 grade concrete, . And, if it is
for deformed bars (Fe415or Fe500), then .
9 For bundled bars:
The development length obtained for the single bar should be increased for bundled of
bars as:
(iv) 10% for 2 bars in contact
(v) 20% for 3 bars in contact
(vi) 33% for 4 bars in contact
Then, the requirement for the development should be carried out with the following expression:

Here, Vu = Shear force at section which can be determined with equation (2.18) or (2.19)
depending upon the condition.

And, l0 = Development length beyond the center line of the support, including length of hook or
anchorage, which shall not be taken more than d or 12Ф whichever is more.

15) Check for deflection

Deflection check can be carried out with the following expression:

132
Note that if the condition does not satisfy the slab section should be redesigned with increasing
of effective depth.

16) Anchorage Length

All bars must be taken into the support, i.e. beyond the inner face of support, for a distance equal

or larger than .

17) Design Drawing

After completion of design calculation and check, we can prepare the design drawings and
details. Bar bending schedule, needed for this slab, can also be tabulated so that it may help to
finalize the bar bending schedule of whole structure to be constructed.

Summary of Design Steps

Above mentioned 18 steps almost completes the design of one way slab. We have to ensure that
the check in each steps ensure the safety for the next step. If any check in any step does not
satisfy the given requirement, we should go to the back steps to amend the parameters (i. e.
effective depth or area of tensile reinforcement steel etc.) to satisfy the condition. Note that the
most neck point in these steps is to decide the actual effective depth of slab (if it is not given).
One should have more practice to be able to choose the affective depth at once.

Numerical Example 4.1

Design a simply supported slab for a room 8.5m × 4.0m clear in size if the live load is 4 kN/m2.
Use M20 grade concrete and Fe415 grade steel.

Solution:

Since, , then the slab should be designed

as one-way slab with taking 1m strip of the shorter span, as shown in Fig. 4.6.

133
 Fig. 4.6 1m strip taken for the design of one –way slab

1) Find the tentative effective span

Let the bearing of 250mm at each ends

2) Determine the effective depth

Here, α = 20, β = 1.0, δ = 1.0 and λ = 1.0. These values are clear with the given requirement. The
problem here is what the actual value of γ should be adopted since we still do not know the
percentage of tensile reinforcement, pt (%), since it has to be designed.

For it, let’s assume γ = 1.3.

Then, the effective depth is

Let’s assume Ф10 mm tensile bar will be used. Then, let’s adopt overall depth D = 185 mm
which gives effective depth as d = 185-15-5=165 mm. Note that for normal environment
condition inside building, nominal cover in slab as 15mm is sufficient.

Alternatively:

We can adopt effective span to effective depth ratio for one way slab as:

Here we have adopted as: (Note that you can also use

134
3) Find the actual effective span

4) Estimate the total load on slab

Dead load (self weight) of slab

Let, 30 mm finishing

Live load

Total load,

Thus, factored load,

5) Determine the Factored Moment

6) Check the effective depth requirement from flexural strength consideration

As for fe415, substituting then can be modified as:

As from this check, initially assumed effective depth d is greater than that needed for flexural
stress requirement. It should be noted that the effective depth obtained from the flexural
stress requirement may not satisfy other critical checks like shear and deflection control etc.

Therefore, let’s still adopt initially assumed effective depth, with effective
covering of giving overall depth, .

7) Amendment on effective span, factored load and factored moment based on new adopted
effective depth.

135
 Since we have used initially effective depth and overall depth, we need not more revise the
factored load, effective span and effective moment. Note that, if the effective depth is
revised, this step should precisely be conducted.

8) Calculate the tensile reinforcement area

Tensile reinforcement area generally should be calculated according to the formula given for
under reinforced section formula as given in equation (4.17)

Since the larger value obtained above generally exceeds the maximum reinforcement and/or
makes the design non-economic, we generally take the lesser value for the design.

9) Decide preferable diameter of steel and then calculate the required spacing of bar, s,
using the equation (2.3)

Let’s use bars, and then its spacing should be

Note that, we have to adopt the spacing lesser than the calculated one and preferably the
rounded value to make the execution easier. Then, let’s adopt , which gives
the area of designed tensile reinforcement as

Thus, satisfies the minimum and maximum requirement of tensile reinforcement.

It gives the tensile reinforcement percentage, , as

136
The above design value of is for the mid span which is not necessary at the support from the
consideration of flexural stress. Therefore, bend alternative (50%) bars at the distance of

from the center line of support, where is more than half of that of
mid-span. It means bent of bar is done at the distance of from the inner
face of support on each sides. Moreover length of bar on upper side should be at
least .

10) Shear Check

As it is known that the critical shear is at the support and since slab is simply supported at
both ends, then

Nominal shear stress, τv, is calculated by:

In order to determine the design shear stress based upon and concrete grade we
refer Table 4.2 (Table 19 of IS 456-2000, page 73).

Here note that since alternative (50%) bars are already bent, then only 50% bars are extended up
to support, then percentage of steel near support becomes half of mid-span

. Then for , design shear stress ,

applicable for beam, can be evaluated from table as:

For solid slab with , coefficient factor as from Table 4.4 (Clause 40.2.1.1, page
72, IS-456-2000) can be evaluated as:

137
Then design shear stress for solid slab is

. (Note that if shear stress is not satisfied, either percentage of steel or grade of concrete
should be increased).

Moreover, for M20, maximum shear stress, from Table 4.3 (Table20, page 73, IS456-
2000) , it satisfies the maximum shear stress requirement.
So, the shear stress of the designed slab is safe. (Note that if maximum shear stress is not
satisfied, cross-section size should be revised (increased)).

11) Development Length Check

Bond stress of M20 concrete for MS bars is given as in Table 4.5 (Clause
26.2.1.1, page 43, IS456-2000). Then for Fe415

Then, development length, Ld, can be calculated as:

Note that only half of tensile reinforcement bars are extended up to support, then

Then moment of resistance of tension reinforcement at support can be calculated as

138
Here, note that the bent or hook is not considered for the development length check. Bars are just
cut-off providing sufficient nominal cover of 20mm. If the provided development length is not
sufficient, hook or bent provisions can be considered. In such cases, the maximum value of
can be taken.

12) Check for deflection

Deflection check can be carried out with the following expression:

, from the Fig. 4 (page 38, IS 456-2000), we obtain , then

1) Transverse reinforcement

Since ;

Then we can use,

It concludes the safe design process of one way slab, remaining work is to prepare the structural
details of slab. Detailed cross section of the slab is shown in Fig.4.7.

139
 Fig. 4.7 Reinforcement in designed one-way slab

4.5 Design of Two Way Slab

As already defined above, slab having , is called as two-way slab. Two-way slabs can be
simply supported or continuous in all or any sides. Further, depending upon the condition of its
support, slab can be classified as 1) Corners held down or Restrained Slabs, or 2) Corners not
held down or Unrestrained Slabs.

1) Corners not held down or Unrestrained Slabs

Deformation evolved at the center point of the slab, due to distribution load is same through long
and short span is equal. It is Rankine- Grashoff theory, as shown in Fig. 4.8, is expressed as

Where, = maximum deformation at the middle of short span strip;

= maximum deformation at the middle of long span strip and

140
 Fig. 4.8 Deformation of simply supported (corners not held down) slab along both spans

When any corners of slab are not held down, each corner tends to lift up due to maximum
moment at the center of each strip. In this case, no any provisions are made to prevent the
corners from lifting.

2) Corners held down or Restrained Slabs (Monolithic or Continuous)

In this case, provisions are made to prevent the lifting of any corners when applying distributed
load to slab. Slabs may either be continuous or monolithic with beams in-situ casting.

- All edges or only few edges may be restrained.

- Since provisions are made to prevent lifting, negative moment develops at support.

4.5.1 Analysis of Two-Way Simply Supported Slab

(a) Corners not held down

1) Maximum Bending Moment

The maximum moments per unit width of simply supported slabs, not having adequate provision
to resist torsion at corners and to prevent the corners from lifting (i.e. corners not held down), are
determined by

Here,

141
 = Maximum moment at mid-span on strips of unit width along short ( ) and long
span ( ) respectively

= Length of shorter span

= Length of longer span

Coefficients derived from Rankine- Grashoff formula

Bending moment coefficients, , are given in Table 4.6.

Table 4.6 Bending Moment Coefficients for Slabs Spanning in Two Directions at
Right Angles, Simply Supported on Four Sides (Table 27:IS 456-2000)
ly/lx 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.75 2.0 2.5 3.0
0.062 0.074 0.084 0.093 0.099 0.104 0.113 0.118 0.122 0.124
0.062 0.061 0.059 0.055 0.051 0.046 0.037 0.029 0.020 0.014

2) Reinforcements

At least 50% of the tension reinforcement at mid span should extend up to supports. Remaining
should be extend up to or as appropriate

(b) Restrained Slabs (Corners held down)

When the two way slabs are supported on beam or when the corners of the slabs are prevented
from lifting, these slabs are called as restrained or corners held down two way slabs. Depending
upon how the edges of slabs are supported in support (either on beam or wall), two way slabs can
be can be categorized into 9 types as shown in Fig. 4.9. In the figure, each type of slabs is
numbered, depending upon their supporting characteristics, as follows:
1: No edges held down, only supported on beam
2: One shorter edge held down
3: One longer edge held down
4: One shorter and one longer edge held down
5: Two shorter edges held down
6: Two longer edges held down
7: Two shorter and one longer edges held down
8: Two longer and one shorter edges held down
9: All edges held down

142
 Fig. 4.9 Type of restrained two way slabs depending upon supporting condition

Maximum moment at mid span can be expressed by

Moment calculation formulae for short and long span are similar with those of simply supported
two way (corners not held down), but only difference on moment coefficients. and are
moment coefficients for restrained two way slabs, which depend upon the supporting condition
of their edges (i.e. 9 types). Values of and are listed in Table 4.7(Table 26, IS 456-2000).
Note that although notations in Table 2.7 are indicated as , these are the values to be
used for and . and are used here to give the difference from those corners not
held down two way slabs.
Moment at two-way slab can be positive as well as negative, as shown in Fig. 4.10. In the figure,
1: Positive moment at mid span of both spans
2: Negative moment in the short span; and
3: Negative moment in the long span

143
 Fig. 4.10 Positive and negative moments in two-way restrained slab

Correction of moment at edges

Generally average of two different moments is taken for design and there is no need for the
modification of mid span moments. If the support moments calculated (from given table) differs
significantly, some adjustment may be needed (details skipped).

Table 4.7 Bending moment coefficients for restrained two-way slabs (read for and
for )

144
Detail requirement for the design of restrained slabs, as per code, can be given as follows:
(c) Slabs are considered as divided in each direction into middle and end strips, as shown in
Fig. 4.10.
As shown in figure, middle edge is 3/4th of span (for both of shorter and longer span, i.e.
and ).

Fig. 4.10 Middle and edge strips along short span

Fig. 4.11Middle and edge strips along long span

(d) The maximum moments obtained using equations (4.28a and b) are apply only to middle
strip.
(e) The rules for curtailment of bars in middle strip are shown in Fig. 4.12.

Fig. 4.12 Curtailment rules of bar in two-way slabs

(i) 50% of the tension reinforcement provided at mid span in the middle strip shall
extend in the lower part of the slab to within of a continuous edge or
of a discontinuous edge and the remaining shall extend into support.

145
 (ii) of tension reinforcement at top of a continuous edge shall be extended for a
distance of on each side from the support and at least shall be
provided for a distance of on each face from the support.
(iii) At discontinuous edge, negative moment may arise; in general of mid span
steel shall be extended into the span for a distance of from inner surface of
support at top.
(iv) Minimum steel can be provided in the edge strip
(v) Another main part of the reinforcement in restrained two-way slabs is to avoid
any torsion effect in corners. For this, tension steel shall be provided at corner in
the form of grid (in two directions) at top and bottom of slab where the slab is
discontinuous at both the edges. This area of steel in each layer in each direction
shall be equal to , where is the area of steel required for maximum
mid span moment. This steel shall extend from the edges for a distance of .

The area of steel shall be reduced to half (i.e. ) at corners containing

edges over only one edge is continuous and other is discontinuous. No torsion
reinforcement is needed for the corners which are continuous on both ways. The
detail of corner reinforcement is shown in Fig. 4.13. In the figure,
A: Discontinuous corner on both directions. So, provide
B and D: continuous and in one direction and discontinuous in another direction. So,

provide tension reinforcement.

C: Continuous towards both directions, no any torsion reinforcement is provided.

Fig. 4.13 Detail of torsion reinforcement in restrained two way slabs

Design for Shear

Since shear reinforcements are not provided in slab, slab thickness should be sufficient to resist
the shear stress. Shear stress in two way slab is computed following the procedure stated below
with reference to Fig.4.14.

146
The two-way slab of Fig.4.14 is divided into two trapezoidal and two triangular zones by
o
drawing lines from each corner at an angle of 45 . The loads of triangular segment G will be
transferred to shorter beam BC and the same of trapezoidal segment H will be to shorter beam
AD. Similarly the load of trapezoid E will be transferred to the longer beam AB and that of
trapezoid F to the beam CD. The shear forces per unit width of the strips 1-1 and 2-2 are highest
at the ends of strips. Moreover, the length of half the strip 1-1 is equal to the length of the strip 2-
2. Thus, the shear forces in both strips are equal and we can write

Fig. 4.14 Strips for shear consideration

The shear stress on strip 2-2 on the longer span (at short edge) must be checked since the
effective depth is less than that on short span. It is due to arrangement of reinforcement bars,
since the short span bars are provided in the bottom layer and long bars are provided on the
upper layer in two way slabs.
Nominal stress acting on slab can be calculated by

The value of calculate here must be less than as discussed in case of one way slab.
Development length also should be checked for two way slab design.

Check for Deflection

The strip of slab may be checked against short span to effective depth. is not so critical in
case of short span two-way slabs like it is in case of one-way slab. Two-way slabs having both
spans up to 3.5 m and a maximum live load of 3 kN/m2, code permits that short span to over all
depth ratio, given in Table 4.8, may be assumed to satisfy the vertical deflection limits.

Table 4.8 Short span to overall depth ratio

Type of reinforcement
Type of Slab
MS Fe250 Fe 415
Simply Supported 35 28
Continuous 40 32

Numerical Example 2

147
Design a slab over a room 4.0 m × 6.0 m. If the live load is 5 kN/m2 and slab has bearing of 150
mm on supporting walls. Use M20 grade concrete and Fe415 grade steel.
a) Edge simply supported – corners not held down
b) Edge simply supported – corners held down
Solution (a):

2) Find the tentative effective span

3) Find the tentative effective depth

Let α = 20 and γ = 1.3, others β = 1.0, δ = 1.0 and λ = 1.0 then tentative effective
depth becomes:

With comparison of one-way slab, smaller effective depth is required in case of two-way of slab
for similar effective span and same intensity of load. Here in this numerical, since intensity of
load is increased for similar effective span, similar value of is adopted (if the load was
similar could be adopted).

Then adopt d = 160 mm with effective cover = 20 mm giving D = 180 mm ( here clear cover is
used as 15mm and since Ф10 bars are assumed to be used, then its radius 5 mm is considered to
calculate the effective cover)

Alternatively:

We can also use the provision of effective span to effective depth ratio to estimate the effective
depth. Here,

. It

means if the live load was 4 kN/m2, as in case of one-way slab, will work.

4) Revise Effective Span

148
 5) Load calculation

Dead load (self weight) of slab

Let, 20 mm finishing

Live load

Total load,

Thus, factored load,

(a) Design of shorter span section

(1) Determine the Moment coefficients

From Table (Table 27 page 91, IS 456-2000), we get

(2) Determine Bending Moments

(3) Calculate the minimum effective depth required

As for fe415, substituting then can be modified as:

149
The required effective depth of the slab from flexural stress consideration is much less than that
of tentative one. However, considering the shear and deflection control we still use same
effective depth as d = 160 mm with effective cover = 20 mm giving D = 180 mm
(4) Calculate the tensile reinforcement area

Tensile reinforcement area generally should be calculated according to the formula given for
under reinforced section formula as given in equation (4.17)

(5) Decide preferable diameter of steel and then calculate the required spacing of bar, s,
using the equation (2.3)

Let’s use bars, and then its spacing should be

Note that, we have to adopt the spacing lesser than the calculated one and preferably the
rounded value to make the execution easier. Then, let’s adopt , which gives
the area of designed tensile reinforcement as

Thus, satisfies the minimum and maximum requirement of tensile reinforcement.

It gives the tensile reinforcement percentage, , as

150
The above design value of is for the mid span which is not necessary at the support from the
consideration of flexural stress. Therefore, bend alternative bars at the distance of

from the center line of support, where is more

than half of that of mid-span. That is the distance from the outer face of
support. And the minimum length of upper bar should be more
than .
Note that
bending is not the mandatory, you can also cut-off 50% bars and 50 % bars can be put in upper
layer to prevent the possible tensile stress above support. Both methods are optional to use.

(6) Shear Check

As it is known that the critical shear is at the support and since slab is simply supported at
both ends, then

Nominal shear stress, τv, is calculated by:

In order to determine the design shear stress based upon and concrete grade,
we refer Table 4.2 (Table 19 of IS 456-2000, page 73).

Here note that since alternative (50%) bars are already bent or cut-off depending upon your
choice, then only 50% bars is extended up to support, then percentage of steel near support

becomes half of mid-span . Then for

, design shear stress , applicable for beam, can be evaluated from table as:

For solid slab with , coefficient factor as from Table 4.4 (Clause 40.2.1.1,
page 72, IS-456-2000) can be evaluated as:

151
Then design shear stress for solid slab is

Moreover, for M20, maximum shear stress , it satisfies the

maximum shear stress requirement. So, the shear stress of the designed slab is safe.

(7) Development Length Check

Bond stress of M20 concrete for MS bars is given as in Table 4.5. Then for
Fe415

Then, development length, Ld, can be calculated as:

Note that only half of tensile reinforcement bars are extended up to support, then

Then moment of resistance of tension reinforcement at support can be calculated as

Here, Reinforcement bars are considered to be cut-off giving nominal cover of 20 mm. Then, let

the anchorage length, , then

152
 (8) Check for deflection

Deflection check can be carried out with the following expression:

Here, for , from the Fig. 4.6 ((Fig.4, page

38 IS 456-2000), we obtain , then

(b) Design of Longer span

(1) Transverse reinforcement

Let’s use bars, and then its spacing should be

153
 Note that, we have to adopt the spacing lesser than the calculated one and preferably the
rounded value to make the execution easier. Then, let’s adopt , which gives
the area of designed tensile reinforcement as

The above design value of is for the mid span which is not necessary at the support from the
consideration of flexural stress. Therefore, bend alternative bars at the distance of

from the center line of support, where is more

than half of that of mid-span. That is the distance from the outer face of
support. And the minimum length of upper bar from inner support should be more
than

. That is Detail is shown in structural drawing.

(2) Shear Check

Since shear stress is critical in longer span, we carry out this check.

Since maximum shear force is similar to both spans

But, here d’ = 151mm

Then, nominal shear stress, τv, is calculated by:

With , design shear stress , applicable for

beam, can be evaluated as from Table 4.2 (Table 19 of IS 456-2000, page 73):

154
For solid slab with , coefficient factor as from Table 4.4 (Clause 40.2.1.1,
page 72, IS-456-2000) can be evaluated as:

Then design shear stress for solid slab is

in longer span too. Moreover, for M20, maximum shear stress, from Table 4.3 (Table20, page
73, IS456-2000) , it satisfies the maximum shear stress
requirement. So, the shear stress of the designed slab is safe in longer span.

Other checks like development length check and deflection control check are not carried out in
transverse direction.

It concludes the safe design process of one way slab, remaining work is to prepare the structural
details of slab. Detailed cross section of the slab is shown in Fig.4.7.

155
 c) Corners Held Down

Solution:
(1) Find the tentative effective span

(2) Find the tentative effective depth

Let α = 20 and γ = 1.4, others β = 1.0, δ = 1.0 and λ = 1.0 then tentative effective
depth becomes:

Then adopt d = 150 mm with effective cover = 20 mm giving D = 170 mm ( here clear cover is
used as 15mm and since Ф10 bars are assumed to be used, then its radius 5 mm is considered to
calculate the effective cover)

Alternatively:

156
It means depth required for slabs are:

From these series of three numerical examples we can tentatively assume effective depth for
three types of slab as:

Types of slabs Effective span to effective depth ratio (

Simply supported one-way slab 25

Simply supported two-way non-restrained slab 26

Simply supported two-way restrained slab 28

(3) Revise Effective Span

(4) Load calculation

Dead load (self weight) of slab

Let, 20 mm finishing

Live load

Total load,

Thus, factored load,

157
 (5) Determine the Moment coefficients

As given that all corners are held down, the boundary condition matches with case (9) (Table
26, page 91, IS456-2000), then referring the values of case (9) we get,

6) Determine Bending Moments

7) Minimum Depth Check with flexural requirement

For Fe 415,

The required effective depth of the slab from flexural stress consideration is much less than that
of tentative one. However, considering the shear and deflection control we still use same
effective depth as d = 150 mm with effective cover = 20 mm giving D = 170 mm

8) Calculate the tensile reinforcement area

Tensile reinforcement area generally should be calculated according to the formula given for
under reinforced section formula as given in equation (4.17)

7) Decide preferable diameter of steel and then calculate the required spacing of bar, s,
using the equation (2.3)

158
 Let’s use bars, and then its spacing should be

Note that, we have to adopt the spacing lesser than the calculated one and preferably the
rounded value to make the execution easier. Then, let’s adopt , which gives
the area of designed tensile reinforcement as

Thus, satisfies the minimum and maximum requirement of tensile reinforcement.

It gives the tensile reinforcement percentage, , as

Bending of bars near support is similar to above numerical.

8) Shear Check

As it is known that the critical shear is at the support and since slab is simply supported at
both ends, then

Nominal shear stress, τv, is calculated by:

With , design shear stress , applicable for beam, can

be evaluated as from Table 4.2 (Table 19 of IS 456-2000, page 73):

159
For solid slab with , coefficient factor as from Table 4.4 (Clause B-5.2.1.1,
page 84, IS-456-2000) can be evaluated as:

Then design shear stress for solid slab is

Moreover, for M20, maximum shear stress , it satisfies

the maximum shear stress requirement. So, the shear stress of the designed slab is safe.

9) Development Length Check

Bond stress of M20 concrete for MS bars is given as in Table 4.5(Clause

26.2.11, page 43, IS 456-2000). Then for Fe415

Then, development length, Ld, can be calculated as:

Note that only half of tensile reinforcement bars are extended up to support, then

Then moment of resistance of tension reinforcement at support can be calculated as

160
 10) Check for deflection

Deflection check can be carried out with the following expression:

Here, for , from the Fig. 4.6 ((Fig.4, page

38 IS 456-2000), we obtain then

11) Transverse reinforcement

Let’s use bars, and then its spacing should be

161
 Note that, we have to adopt the spacing lesser than the calculated one and preferably the
rounded value to make the execution easier. Then, let’s adopt , which gives
the area of designed tensile reinforcement as

Since shear stress is critical in longer span, we carry out this check.

Since maximum shear force is similar to both spans

But, here d’ = 142mm

Then, nominal shear stress, τv, is calculated by:

, design shear stress , applicable for beam,

can be evaluated as from Table 4.2 (Table 19 of IS 456-2000, page 73):

For solid slab with , coefficient factor as from Table 4.4 (Clause B-5.2.1.1,
page 84, IS-456-2000) can be evaluated as:

Then design shear stress for solid slab is

in longer span too. So, the shear stress of the designed slab is safe in longer span.

162
12) Arrangement of Longitudinal and Transverse Bars

Let’s determine the middle strip and edge strip in both spans

(i) Short span bars:

(ii) Long span bars:

13) Corner Bars

Then use Ф8 mm bars on both sided giving spacing as

163
 Short span bars:

Long span bars:

Corner length is

Then use 840mm along long edge for using 7 bars and 1000mm along short span for
using 6 bars for the above specified spacing.

14) Structural Drawings

164
165
 3.6 Design and Detailing of Simply Supported and Continuous Beam (Flexural, Shear and
Torsion)

Flexural design is already explained above.

3.6.1 Shear
3.6.1.1 Introduction
Then bending in beam/slab is accompanied by shear. Its exact analysis is complicate. Based on
the study of various shear experiments, shear failure in beam can be divided into three categories
as follows:
(a) Diagonal Tension Failure
These types of cracks generally occur under large shear force and less bending moment. Such
cracks are normally at 450 to the horizontal.
(b) Flexural Shear Failure
Such cracks are developed under large bending moment and less shear force. These cracks are
normally at 900 to the horizontal.
(c) Diagonal Compression Failure

166
Such types of cracks happen under very large shear force. It is characterized by the crushing of
concrete. Normally it occurs in beams which are reinforced against heavy shear.
Research results have shown that shear force is resisted by the un-cracked concrete in
compressive region, the aggregate interlocking and the shear acting across the longitudinal
reinforcement bars. The shear force across the longitudinal bars is also called as Dowel Force.
Shear reinforcement are also used in the beam to resist the shear force if in case the above matrix
is not sufficient to resist the total force.
3.6.1.2 Shear Stress
Shear stress can generally be defined as shear force per unit area. Analysis of actual shear stress
at each portion of the section is quite complicated. In order to simplify the derivation process, we
just consider the average shear stress also called as nominal shear stress.
In order to derive the nominal shear stress under bending of beam, let’s consider the beam as
shown in Fig. 6.2 (a), which is under uniformly distributed load .
For the analysis, let’s take the abcd part of the beam in-between 1-1 and 2-2 section, with its
length dx. Its close-up view is shown in Fig. 6.2 (b).

Here in the Fig, let and be the compressive stresses at and level of 1-1 surface
respectively and; and be compressive stresses at
and level of 2-2 surface respectively. and be the
total compressive forces of 1-1and 2-2 surface respectively.
Note that since bending moment at section 2-2 is greater
than that of section 1-1, then values of , and are
greater than those of , and . is the average shear
stress of the lower surface of abcd part, thus gives the
total shear force; whereas is the width of beam.
It is clear from the Fig. 6.2 (b) that we are going to apply
working stress method for the analysis of section.
So, is considered as neutral axis depth and is the
height of lelvel from neutral axis.
Then balancing Horizontal forces we get,

Where,

167
Then,

Let be the bending moment at section 1-1; then we have from the analysis of working stress
method as:

Substituting the value of from equation (6.2.5) in equation (6.2.4), we get:

Let be the bending moment at section 2-2.Then as similarly from analysis of section 2-2; we
get:

Substituting Value of and , from equations (6.2.6) and (6.2.7), in equation (6.2.1); we get:

However

Then,

The value of shear stress is valid from the value of from 0 to . Then maximum shear
stress is at the neutral axis where .

168
Then the maximum shear stress at any section is

In order to simplify the expression of equation (6.2.12), the factor is considered as constant
and removed from the equation. Thus, the
maximum stress, also called as nominal shear
stress, , of the section can be obtained
dividing the factored shear force at any section
by the section area as . i.e.

The equation (6.2.13) is applied to determine the nominal shear stress at any section of beam
with its uniform depth. However, nominal stress for the beam of varying depth, can be
calculated with modified formula as:

Here,

The positive sign applies when the absolute bending moment decreases with the increase in
effective depth. The negative sign applies when the absolute bending moment increases with the
increase in effective depth.
3.6.1.3 Diagonal Tension
As shown in Fig. 6.3 (a), let ABCD be a small rectangular element of the vertical plane along the
length of beam. The element is subjected to shear stresses parallel to each sides and the tensile
stress normal to vertical sides as AD and BC. Fig. 6.3 (b) is the lamina, i.e. half left portion of
the rectangular element ABCD denoted by ABC, which is under the action of given shear
stresses and normal stress as well as diagonal normal stress, i.e. diagonal tension, and
shear stress . Let, the diagonal BC is inclined with AC with the angle of .

Our target is to determine the value of diagonal tension .

Let’s consider the Fig. 6.3(b) for the analysis of equilibrium of forces.

Resolving all forces along the direction of diagonal tension , we get:

169
Diving both sides with BC and substituting , then we get:

Similarly when resolving forces along the direction of , we get:

Diving both sides with BC and substituting , then we get:

Using trigonometric function as , we can

rearrange equations (6.2.14) and (6.2.15) as:

[Note that in equation (6.2.16):

]

If is a principal stress, should be equal to zero, then RHS of equation (6.2.17) shoul be
zero.

And,

Substituting in above equation, we get

170
Then,

Thus the expression of principal stress can be derived from equation (6.2.17) substituting the
values of .

Therefore, the expression for the diagonal tension is:

Similarly, there will be another principal stress which will be compressive in nature and at right
angles to .
Conditions:

(i) If : it generally happens at neutral axis or near the support.

Then, and
(ii) If : it generally happens at mid-span.

Then, and
The principal tensile stress near the supports acts in the diagonal direction and is equal to shear
stress. It is called diagonal tension. On this basis, types of cracks in continuous beam are shown
in Fig. 6.4.
3.6.1.4 Shear Reinforcement
Design of shear reinforcement is based on the truss analogy, i.e.
(1) Upper cord of truss is in compression
(2) Lower cord is in tension
(3) Diagonal or web members of truss are alternatively in compression and tensile

171
 (4) Tensile forces in the diagonal tie members are resisted by tensile reinforcement bars
(5) Compression forces in diagonal struts are resisted by concrete
(6) Shear reinforcement is provided in the case shear stress exceeds the shear capacity of
concrete.

(7) Maximum shear stress values are limited ( given in Table) to prevent the possibility
of crushing of concrete in the web of member
(8) The shear strength of concrete based on the percentage of tensile reinforcement for
different grades of concrete is given in Table. Values given in Table are based on
following equations:

Where,

When shear reinforcement is needed in the beam, the shear strength of the beam is calculated on
the following basis:

We have learned from test results that inclined bars do not provide a satisfactory resistance of
shear force and its contribution is limited to only 50% after deduction of the contribution of
concrete. Vertical shear stirrups should be used for the remaining shear. Although bent bars can
be used at inclined angle from 300 to 600, inclined angle 450.
Vertical stirrups can of 1, 2, 4 or 6-legged types depending upon number and layers of tensile
and compressive longitudinal bars. Stirrups should well encircle the tension reinforcements and
their ends should be well anchored in the compressive zone in order to resist the tension properly
without slipping. U hook is the proper way for better anchorage. Inclined bars should also be
extended upto compressive zone so that they have sufficient development length to develop their
full strength by bond.
Critical Shear Section
Concrete section can be classified into 4 cases depending upon the amount of shear force on the
section relative to its shear capacity.

172
Case I: When inclined cracking may occur at or even inside the face of support; i.e. beam with
UDL or the concentrated load near support. Inner face is taken as the critical section. Fig. (a)
and (b).
Case II: When reaction in the direction of the shear induces compression into end region of the
member, section located less than a distance of effective depth d from the inner face of the
support may be designed for the same shear as that computed at a distance d. Fig. (c) and (d).
Conditions for Shear Reinforcement Design:
1. No Shear Reinforcement
(a) When factored shear force Vu is less than half of shear capacity of section, i.e.
(b) Members of miner structural elements like lintel beam.
2. Minimum Shear Reinforcement
(a) When . In this case minimum shear reinforcement area obtained by designing
minimum spacing of vertical spacing, x, as:

Here, = total cross section area of stirrups legs effective and shear; b = breadth of beam ( or
breadth of web in flanged beam); should not be taken more than 415 MPa.
3. Shear Reinforcement
When . Its detail will be discussed later.

4. Redesign of section
When
Spacing of Stirrups

Let’s assume that diagonal crack develop at 450 for full depth of the beam, then
theoretical resistance is in reasonable agreement with the experiment results

173
As shown in Fig. , let certain numbers of vertical stirrups are used to cover whole diagonal crack
region in the spacing of x. And note that since the direction of crack is 450, then the horizontal
projected length of the diagonal crack is also equal to effective depth, d. Here, note that any
distance from extreme compressive fiber to the level of longitudinal bars (if any) in compression
zone is neglected since it is relatively very small with compared to effective depth d.

Thus the numbers of vertical stirrups, with its spacing x, in distance d can be given as .
Again, let be the area of one stirrup. It means if the stirrup of Ф8 mm bar is of 2- legged or

4-legged, then for 2-legged stirrups

and for 4-legged stirrups.

Then, the shear force to be resisted by vertical shear stirrups can be given as:

So, the combined resisting shear power of the concrete section (with inclusion of tensile
longitudinal tensile bars) and vertical stirrups to tackle the factored shear force , become:

Thus the Shear design formula for vertical stirrups becomes:

Design procedure of vertical stirrups for shear reinforcement is:

174
  Calculate total factored shear force and shear stress of the critical section required

 Determine for given concrete grade and confirm that . If not, section
should be redesigned.

 Determine with help of concrete grade and tensile steel percentage( )

and compare with . Use following cases:

 Determine with help of concrete grade and tensile steel percentage ( )

and compare with . Use following cases:

 Calculate using

 Determine whether vertical stirrups are of 2, 4 or 6-legged types. Then calculate

with choose of appropriate of bar.

 Then calculate spacing, x, of the stirrups using

 Check with minimum and maximum spacing as per code provisions.

Example1: Design a rectangular beam for 4m clear span which is subjected to dead load of 15
kN and a live load of 20 kN/m. Use M20 concrete mix and Fe415 grade steel. Beam is supported
on walls of 300mm thickness.

Fig.1 Given dimensions and load on beam

Since it is simply supported beam with UDL, then the critical section is inner face of the support.

As from previous solution we have achieved that

175
The section is designed as b×d = 250 mm×450 mm, with effective cover = 50mm giving D =
500 mm

Then Factored load, wd = 57.19 kN

(1) Calculation of factored shear force

The factored shear force, is

(2) Calculation of shear stress

(3) Determination of Maximum shear stress and design shear strength of concrete

For M20 concrete,

Steel percentage is already known from previous example as:

Then for M20 concrete and , the design shear strength of concrete is

(4) Determination whether shear reinforcement design is needed

It means section is OK (no need to redesign). But, shear reinforcement needs to be

designed.

(5) Calculation of Shear Force for the design

(6) Determination of grade of steel, diameter of bars and calculate spacing

Let’s use bar of Fe 415 for 2-legged strippus

Then,
176
Then spacing of 2-legged vertical stirrups is:

(7) Compare with minimum spacing

(i)

(ii)
The minimum spacing of vertical stirrups should be lesser of above two cases, the minimum
spacing should be as 300 mm.

Also should check with minimum shear reinforcement area as

Therefore, use 2-legged of Fe 415 bars @ 300mm throughout the span of beam as
minimum shear reinforcement.

Second Case:

Determine the shear reinforcement if of Fe 250 mild bars is authorized to be used.

In this case;

Minimum Spacing is

Then use 2-legged of Fe 250 bars @ 110 mm

177
However, this spacing may not be needed near the midspan since shear force is less. For this
case, one can determine the point of the section where design shear force is zero, i.e.
. Then beyond that section, minimum shear reinforcement can be used.

As for this case,

Then, let this is at s distance from inner support.

Then,

Thus use 2-legged of Fe 250 bars @ 110 mm up to 0.88 m from each support and then
use minimum reinforcement as 2-legged of Fe 250 bars @ 120 mm.

Third Case: (Homework)

If factored shear force at the support is 250 kN. Then design the shear reinforcement using Fe
250 and Fe 415 grade steel for two-legged stirrups.

3.6.2 Torsion

3.6.2.1 Introduction

In some cases, beam and slab are subjected to torsional effect in addition with bending and shear.
Loads acting directly acting on plane causes bending and shear, but the load acted away from the
plane causes the torsion. Its examples are already given in the section of torsion stress. Generally
monolithic construction of reinforced concrete structures tends to introduce torsional moments in
to the members which cannot be ignored in design. Torsional strength of sections made with
homogeneous section can be estimated more accurately using elastic theory, however estimation
of that in case of section made with heterogeneous material like RCC.

Torsion must be considered in structures subjected to unsymmetrical loadings about axes. In

structures, where torsion is required to maintain equilibrium, members shall be designed for
torsion. However, for such indeterminate structures where torsion can be eliminated by releasing
redundant restraints, no specific design for torsion is necessary, provided torsional stiffness is
neglected in the calculation of internal forces. Adequate control of any torsional cracking is
provided by the shear reinforcement.

Skew bending theory and space-truss analogy are some of the theories developed to understand
the behavior of reinforced concrete under torsion combined with bending moment and shear.

178
3.6.2.2 Primary and Secondary Torsion

Torsion in structural member can be divided into two parts as;

(1) Primary or equilibrium Torsion: The primary torsion is required for the basic static
equilibrium of most of the statically determinate structures. Such torsion must be
considered in design both at serviceability and ultimate limit states.

(2) Secondary or compatibility Torsion: In statically indeterminate structures, torsion may

arise from the condition of compatibility and the structure may not be required to carry
torsion from stability consideration. Such torsion is called as secondary or compatibility
torsion which may not be required to be considered in design.

Exact analysis of the combined effect of the bending, shear and torsion is beyond of this
study. However, we use the codal provisions for the analysis and design of this effect.

Codal Provisions for Compatibility Torsion

(1) The statically indeterminate structure can be designed without consideration of torsion
effect. In this case, it is assumed that the nominal shear reinforcements prevent from
cracking due to compatibility torsion.

(2) If tensional stiffness of structure is considered in analysis, the members must be designed
for compatibility torsion.

Difference between Bending Moment and Torsion Moment

Elastic modulus, E, is used for the analysis with respect to bending moment; whereas
shear modulus, G, is used for the tensional effect analysis. The relation between E
and G is given as

Where, = Poisson’s ratio = 0.15 for concrete

Equivalent Shear and Moment

Equivalent Shear
Equivalent nominal shear, , due to combined effect of bending and torsion can be
calculated by using empirical formula as;

Where,
= Factored shear force

179
 = factored torsion moment
= width of beam or lateral dimension and = for flanged beam

Then the equivalent nominal shear stress can be calculated by

Here, is the effective depth of the section.

Design requirement

Here, is the maximum shear stress of concrete (Table 20 of IS 456)

Shear reinforcement

Here, is the design shear stress of concrete based on concrete grade and steel percentage
(Table 19 of IS 456)

Equivalent Moment
Equivalent bending moment, , can be computed by

Here,
= factored bending moment
= Absolute moment value due to tensional moment
= Overall depth

The tensional moment has opposite sense that of the bending moment. In above case,
tensional moment dominates over applied factored moment.

Longitudinal reinforcement
Longitudinal reinforcement for flexural tensile and flexural compression can be
determined with the same procedure described in section analysis using above equivalent
moments

Transverse Reinforcements
The area of two-legged stirrups enclosing the corner bars can be calculated by

180
 From above relation, we can design the transverse reinforcements as:

And, minimum transverse reinforcement should not be less than

Here,
= Area of transverse reinforcement
= Center to center distance between corner bars in the direction of width
= Center to center distance between corner bars in the direction of depth

Distribution of Transverse (Torsion) Reinforcements

The torsion reinforcement should be provided for the member designed for torsion as
follows:
(1) Longitudinal bars should be placed as near to the corners of section as possible
(2) Each corner of the ties should have at least one longitudinal bar (it means at least 4
longitudinal bars in section)
(3) In case of D>450 mm, additional face bars should be added along the two faces of
the section (left and right). Minimum area of side bars should be more than 0.1% of
web area (gross area, bD, in case of rectangular section). Spacing should be equal and
not more than 300mm or web thickness, whichever is less.
(4) Spacing of stirrups (transverse reinforcement) should not exceed
(i)

(ii)
(iii)
Here, = short dimension of stirrups & = long dimension of stirrups

Numerical Example:
A rectangular beam section is 320 mm wide and 500 mm deep with 50 mm effective cover. The
beam section is to be subjected to factored moment of 162KN.m and factored shear force of
26KN. In addition to these, the beam section is also subjected to factored torsional moment of
13KN.m. Design a beam with M20 mix and Fe500 grade steel (Board 2009).
Solution:
(1) Given Data:
b =320 mm, D = 500 mm, d = 450 mm, fc = 20 MPa, fy = 500 MPa

= 162 kN.m, Vu = 26 kN and =13 kN.m

(2) Determination of Equivalent shear force and shear stress:
Equivalent shear force is:

Then, equivalent shear stress is:

181
 For M20 concrete, from Table 20 (IS456, page 73),
Since
Let’s assume that percentage of tensile steel, pt = 0.4%
Then, from table 19 (IS456, page 73),

Since ………torsional reinforcement is required to be

designed in the form of longitudinal and transverse reinforcements.
(3) Determination of longitudinal reinforcement:
Longitudinal reinforcements can be determined using equivalent moment, , as:

Since, , design of compressive reinforcement, due to

twisting moment, is not necessary (However, it does not mean that the section is singly).

(4) Determine the section whether it is singly or doubly

Limiting neutral axis depth, .
Then with respect to concrete is:

Since, , the section should be designed as

doubly section.

(5) Calculate additional moment of resistance, Mr2

(17) Calculate Ast1

(18) Calculate Asc

For calculation of Asc, we should determine and

Here, let d’ = 50 mm (similar to effective depth)

182
Then for and Fe 500

Since, , use the minimum compressive reinforcement as

(19) Calculate Ast2

(20) Calculate Ast

(21) Determine diameter and nos. of tensile and compressive reinforcement bars

Use 4 nos. of Ф20mm and 2 nos. of Ф12mm bars for tensile giving

For compressive reinforcement, calculated value seems to be very small. It should first be
compared with minimum reinforcement:

Since, , use the minimum compressive reinforcement as

183
 Use 3 nos. of Ф12mm bars for compressive giving

(22) Check with minimum and maximum reinforcement

(iii) For Compression

Since min. 320 mm2 < Asc = 339 mm2 < 6400 mm2……………Hence, OK

(iv) For Tension

Since min. 244.8 mm2 < Ast = 1257 mm2 < 6400 mm2……………Hence, OK

(23) Transverse reinforcements

Transverse reinforcement can be calculated using the relationship

Here, is the center to center distance between corner bars in the direction of width.
is the center to center distance between corner bars in the direction of depth.
Let’s assume the stirrups be of 8mm diameter. Since effective cover is already given as
50mm
Clear cover in tensile

184
 Clear cover in compression
Let clear cover on two sides = 25 mm

For 2-legged 8mm stirrups,

Then,

Here,

1st Requirement:
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
Above condition tells us that spacing should be equal or less than 176 mm.
Therefore, let’s adopt , means spacing of stirrups as 150 mm c/c.
2nd requirement:

Thus for & M20 concrete, design shear strength of concrete, , is:

Then,

With satisfying above both requirements let’s use 2-legged Ф8 mm stirrups @ 150
mm/cc.
(24) Side bars
Since depth exceeds 450 mm let’s use face bars equally on two faces.
For this,

Let’s use 2 nos. of Ф 12 mm bars, one in middle of each face, giving

185
Also the spacing of this bar with corner bars, on same face becomes less than 300 mm…….OK

Design of Continuous Beam

1. Introduction

In cast-in-situ construction method, when casting of beam and upper part of beams are casted
monolithically, such beams act as continuous beam spanning over columns. Beams are also
made continuous over column supports in pre-cast system. Continuous beam is a statically
indeterminate structure, the analysis of which is quite complicated and lengthy.

As compared to simply supported beam, use of continuous beams in building structures and
others, like bridges etc, has the following advantages:

(1) It increases the structural integrity

(2) For the same span, vertical load bearing capacity of continuous beam is more

(3) Continuous beam has less mid span deflection and bending moment than of simply
supported beam

(4) Span of the continuous beam can be made longer for the same section or section size of
the beam can be made less for the same given span. It means continuous beam is more
economical in material than simply supported beam.

186
 (5) There is redundancy in load path. It means formation of hinges may occur in case of
extreme event.

Due to above advantages, continuous beams or frames are preferred in buildings, bridges in
seismically risk region.

However, continuous beams have some disadvantages:

(1) Complicated and lengthy analysis/design process

(2) Stress loss in reinforcement bars due to changed profile of curvature

(3) Increased shortening of beam leads to develop the lateral force on columns

(4) Secondary stress may develop due to time dependent effect like shrinkage, creep, ambient
temperature changes and settlement of support etc.

(5) Construction of pre-cast continuous beam is quite difficult

(6) Since maximum moment and shear occur near supports, proper detailing of
reinforcements.

(7) Reversible of moments due to seismic force, proper analysis and design is required.

2. Moment and Shear Coefficients

Since proper analysis/design of any continuous beams/slab is quite lengthy and complicated, we
use already established moments and shears coefficients at mid spans and supports of different
supporting conditions. Moment and shear can be determined by the following formulae:

M = Bending Moment

V = Shear force

= Moment coefficient ( for dead load; for live load)

= Shear coefficient ( for dead load; for live load)

w = Factored uniformly distributed load ( : factored dead; : factored dead)

l = Effective span of beam

187
Table 1 and table 2 give moment and shear coefficients respectively.

Table 1 Moment Coefficients ( )

Types of Span Moment Coefficients Support Moment Coefficients

Loads
Near middle At middle of At support next to At other interior
of end span interior span the end support supports

Dead Load 1/12 1/10 -1/10 -1/12

( )

Live 1/10 1/12 -1/9 -1/9

Load( )

Table 2 Shear Coefficients ( )

Types of At end At support next to the end support At all other

Loads support interior supports
Outer side Inner Side

Dead Load 0.40 0.60 0.55 0.50

( )

Live Load 0.45 0.60 0.66 0.60

( )

Note: Students are requested to find these codes in any codes, if not should remember

Numerical Example:

Design a continuous beam spanning over five column supports of effective span 5m. The beam
is subjected to dead load of 15kN/m and live load of 20 kN/m. Use M20 concrete and Fe415
steel.

Solution:

188
 (1) Given Data:

Effective Span, l = 5m, Dead load, DL = 15 kN/m, LL = 20 kN/m. fck = 20 MPa, fy = 415
MPa

(2) Effective Span

Since effective span l = 5 m is already given, we do not have to estimate.

(3) Estimate of Effective depth, d

Let’s use the control of deflection for the estimation of effective depth.

Since most critical part for positive moment is near mid-span of end support and at
support next to the end support, both end spans of continuous beam are considered as for
critical bending moment. Such spans are considered as continuous at one end and
discontinuous at another end. So as rules, .

Since we do not know the steel percentage (to be designed) yet, we also take .

Then,

The above effective depth estimated with the help of control of deflection is very small with
compared to general practice.

It can be directly estimate for continuous beam with rectangular section the span of
which is less than 10m. If any condition is changed with respect to span, cross-section or doubly

section, then the value of can be divided by respective factors with the method as
explained above.

In this problem, since sum of dead load and live load is quite high, let’s use for
continuous beam which gives

189
Thus, let’s adopt tentative effective depth d = 450 mm with effective cover of 50 mm giving over
all depth D = 500 mm. And, adopt b = 300 mm giving effective section as
.

(4) Calculation of Load, Factored Load and Factored Bending Moment

Dead load, DL = 15 kN/m

Self Weight, DS = 0.3×0. 50×25 = 3.75 kN/m

Total dead load =DL+DS=15+3.75=18.75 kN/m

Then, factored dead load, wd =1.5×18.75=28.13 kN/m

Live load, LL = 20 kN/m

Factored Live Load, wl = 1.5×20=30 kN/m

(5) Moment and Shear Force Coefficients

With above achieved values of factored dead load and live load, we can determine the bending
moment and shear forces at each section of beam using coefficients. Bending moment and shear
coefficients on each important section of the given continuous beam is shown in following

fig.

As it can be checked from moment and shear coefficients throughout the beam, it is clear that the
most critical sections are as:

(6) Calculation of BM and SF

Positive bending moment: near mid of end span (S1)

190
Negative bending moment: at support to the next of end support (B)

Shear Force: at outer face of the next support to the end support (B1)

(7) Values of BM and SF

With similar calculation, values of moment and shear force at every noticeable section are
summarized in following tables:

Moment values:

Spans Supports
Position
1 2 A B C
l(m) 5
αmd 1/12 1/16 0 - 1/10 - 1/12
αml 1/10 1/12 0 - 1/9 - 1/9
wd
(kN/m) 28.13
wl (kN/m) 30.0
M (kN.m) 133.6 106.5 0.0 -153.7 -141.9

Shear force values:

Position Supports

191
 A B1 B2 C
l(m) 5
αvd 0.4 0.6 0.55 0.5
αvl 0.5 0.6 0.6 0.6
wd
(kN/m) 28.13
wl (kN/m) 30
V (kN.m) 131.3 174.4 167.4 160.3

(8) Distribution of BM and SF

Moment distribution and Shear distribution throughout the beam are shown in following figures.

(1) Check for limiting effective depth

Let’s take maximum bending moment to check if adopted effective depth is sufficient or
not. Take M = -153.7 kN.m

192
 Where,

(2) Determine whether the section is singly or doubly

Also take M = -153.7 kN.m for this check.

Calculate Maximum neutral axis depth, xm

Calculate limiting moment of resistance with respect to concrete, Mrlim

Verify if the section is singly doubly reinforced comparing M and Mrlim

Since,

Thus, the section is singly reinforced.

Since the critical section with respected to maximum bending moment is singly
reinforced section all sections of beam can be designed as singly reinforced section.

(3) Calculation of Reinforcement

(i) \Tensile reinforcement at mid span

Let’s take maximum positive bending moment value for the calculation of tensile
reinforcement in the mid-span. That is M = 133.6 kN.m

193
Check with minimum and maximum reinforcement

Since is in between of minimum and maximum value, it is OK.

Check the percentage of steel, pt

Design reinforcement bars

Use 2 nos. of Ф20mm and 2 no. of Ф16 mm bars giving

Which gives,

, it is OK.

(ii) Tensile reinforcement at intermediate supports

Let’s take , then required tensile reinforcement area is:

194
 , it is OK.

Design reinforcement bars

Use 4 nos. of Ф20mm giving

Check with minimum and maximum reinforcement

Since,

Check with limiting reinforcement percentage

, it is OK.

(iii) Shear Reinforcement

As we already know, the most critical section for shear force is B1, i.e. outer face of the
2nd support next to end support. Here,

At first, let’s check if the designed section is enough for maximum shear stress. For this, nominal
shear stress, , due to shear force is:

As from table 20 (IS 456, page 73), maximum shear stress, for M20 grade concrete is:

195
Since ……..thus, concrete section is safe with respect to
maximum shear stress.

Now, let’s check what the limiting shear force concrete can resist itself. For this,

For and M20 concrete, from Table 19 (IS 456, page 73)

The Maximum shear force, Vc, concrete can resist is:

Since, shear force , shear reinforcement should be

designed for exceeding shear force, as defined as design shear force, that is

Let’s decide to use Fe 415 2-legged Ф10 mm bar stirrups for shear reinforcement, then
we have to decide the spacing. For this, lets find out the area of two-legged reinforcement
as:

Let’s check with minimum shear reinforcement area as

Then spacing of 2-legged vertical stirrups is:

Compare with minimum spacing

196
 (iii)

(iv)
Since the designed spacing is still less than the minimum requirement. As per design norms, let’s
decide to use Ф10 mm@ 180mm near this section.

At end supports

Then spacing is:

So use Ф10 mm@ 180mm near interior supports and use minimum shear stirrups as Ф10
mm@ 300mm at end supports as well as mid spans of beam.

(4) Deflection Control Check

We have to check whether the deflection of the mid span of the beam is within limit or
not. For this, deflection control requirement is:

Here,

For determining :

197
Then, working stress of Fe 415 steel in this section, fs, is:

Then for and , we can determine

Thus,

Since, , therefore the designed beam is within the deflection

control limit……………Safe!

7. Design of Staircase
7.1 Types of Staircases

Staircase is also one of important structural elements of building which provides access from
floor to floor.

Staircase mainly consists of its components as: steps, waist slab and landing. Based upon
arranging of these components, staircase can be of many types. Different types of staircases are
shown in Fig. 7.1.

198
(a) Single flight staircase

(b) Two flights staircase

(c) Open-well staircase

(d) Helicoidal staircase

(e) Spiral staircase

7.2 Typical Types of Staircase and its Details

Fig. represents the plan and cross-section of typical type of staircase.

199
The followings are main terminologies used in design of any type of staircases:

(a) Tread: The tread is defined as the horizontal top portion of step where the foot rests
while person going up or down through the staircase.

Width of tread: ranging from 270 mm (residential buildings) to 300mm (public buildings)

(b) Riser:

200
 Riser can be defined as the vertical height of the step. It is the vertical distance between
two successive treads.

Height of riser: ranging from 150 mm (public buildings or factories) to 190 mm

(residential buildings)

(c) Nosing: The tread, in some cases, is projected outward in order to increase the steps. The
horizontal projected distance is called as nosing.

(d) Step: Combination of successive one riser and one tread is called as step.

(e) Going: Going is defined as the projected horizontal distance between the first and the last
riser of an inclined flight.

(f) Landing: Landing is the horizontal space ahead or after the going.

(g) Flight: Flight is the combination of landing(s) and one going.

The flight of the staircase shown in Fig. consists of

two landings and one going.

Depending upon the type the combination of landings

and going, structure of typical type of staircase can be
divided into 3 types as:

(a) Waist Slab Type

(b) Tread-Riser Type

(c) Isolated Tread Slab Type

(h) The inclined slab on which steps are made and resist all dead /live
load acting on steps is called as waist slab. Depth (or thickness) of
slab is the minimum thickness perpendicular to the soffit of the
staircase

(i) Pitch: Pitch is defined as the inclined angle of flight.

General Rules:

201
  The respective dimensions of tread and riser for all the parallel steps should be the same
in consecutive floor of a building.
 There should be at least 2 m headroom measured vertically above any step.
 There should be at least 1.5 perpendicular distance from the pitch line.
 should be between 550 mm & 700 mm
 &
 Pitch of staircase
 Width of staircase depends upon the
usage; however minimum should be
850 mm. Generally it may ranges from
1.1m to 1.6m in public buildings.
 Generally, numbers of risers in one
flight
 Relation between risers & treads is

7.3 Structural System of Staircase:

Different structural systems are possible for

the staircase, as shown in Fig., depending on
the spanning direction. The slab component of
the stair spans either in the direction of going
i.e., longitudinally or in the direction of the
steps, i.e., transversely.

(A) Stair slab spanning longitudinally

As shown in Fig. structural combination of

going and flight can be made up of following
types:

(1) Simply supported on end of both

landings (b)

(2) Fixed supported on end of both

landings

(3) Supported on end of going and both

landings as cantilever

(4) Supported on both ends of landings and upper end of going

(5) Supported on each ends of goings and landings

202
Cantilevered landing and intermediate supports (Figs. d, e and f) are helpful to induce negative
moments near the supports which reduce the positive moment and thereby the depth of slab
becomes economic.

(A) Stair slab spanning

transversely

In these types of
staircases, either the waist
slabs or the slab
components of isolated
tread-slab and trade-riser
units are supported on
their sides or are
cantilevers along the
width direction from a
central beam. The slabs
thus bend in a transverse
vertical plane.

Based upon arrangement

of slab and supporting
condition, this type of
staircase can be of
following 3 types:

(1) Slab supported

between two
stringer beams or
walls (Fig. a)
(2) Cantilever slabs
from a spandreal
beam or wall (Fig. b)
(3) Doubly cantilever slabs from a central beam (c)

7.4 Effective Span of Stairs

Generally, a staircase consists of sloping slab in the direction of the flight and is supported at
each end. Steps are built over this slab. The support at either end may be of following types:
(1) Walls/beams spanning transversely to the flight
(2) Landing slab spanning transversely to the flight
(3) Landing slab spanning along the direction of flight

203
Then, based upon above three conditions, effective span of stairs can be determined with
following method:
(1) Where supported at the top and bottom risers by beam/walls, then horizontal projected
center to center distance of support
(2) When supported at transverse slab, then the slab in meter can be the lesser of:

The detail of above condition is as shown in Table 7.1 with help of Fig.

Table 7.1

Sl. No. x y Effective span in meters

1 <1m <1m G+x+y
2 <1m ≥1m G+x+1
3 ≥1m <1m G+y+1
4 ≥1m ≥1m G+1+1

(3) Where landing slab spans in

same direction as the stairs,
then total span will be
horizontally projected center
to center support (beam/wall)
at ends of both landings.

7.5 Loadings on Slabs

In the case of stairs with open

wells, where two flights of a
staircase or flight and a landing
slab cross each other at right
angles and if each is supported at
its ends, the load on areas common to any two
such spans may be taken as one-half in each
direction as shown in Fig.

Where flights or landings are embedded into

walls for a length of not less than 110 mm and
are designed to span in the direction of the
flight, a 150 mm strip may be deduced from the
loaded area and the effective breadth of the
section increased by 75 mm for the purpose of
design. It is shown in Fig.

204
Loads are calculated per m2 on plan. Dead load of flight is converted into equivalent plan area
load.

No difference on bending moment value is noted, if:

(1) Less load is allowed normal to flight over the distance measured on slope, or

(2) Greater load is taken vertically over the shorter span measured horizontally between the
limits of slope

Depth of slab section is taken as the minimum thickness perpendicular to the soffit of the
staircase.

Design a stair flight and a landing for the staircase shown in figure. Take superimposed load as
5kN/m2, fck = 20 MPa and fy = 415 MPa.

205
Solution:

1. Determination of effective span of flight and depth of slab

It should be noted that the landing A is common to two stair flights. Therefore, its only half span
is considered for the portion of effective span of the flight to be designed. Then, total effective
horizontal projected span of the flight becomes:

206
Let’s assume the depth of the waist slab. Assuming and taking ; the tentative
effective depth of the waist slab is:

Then let’s take overall depth with clear covering of 20mm. Assuming use of Ф
12 mm bars; then effective depth becomes

2. Calculation of load

(1) Load on flight:

In order to calculate the dead load of flight, let’s first calculate its sectional area.

Here,

Length of one tread,

Height of one riser,

Thus, length of bottom inclined slab of one step

Then, total sectional area can be calculated as:

Step section

Inclined slab

Area of finishing

Total Area of one step section

Let, the density of concrete (including finishing)

Then, dead load of one step section in one 1 m unit and 260mm horizontal plan length

Then dead load per m2 plan

207
Live load per m2 plan (given)

Total load

Taking 1.2 m width of slab, load

Then, factored load

(2) Load on Landing A:

Self weight of slab

Weight of finishing

Live load

Total Load

For 1.2 m width, total load

Then factored load on landing A,

(3) Load on Landing B:

Here the embedded length of landing slab is . Then, 150 mm strip from the inner
face of the support is considered as not having the live load and the effective breadth of the
landing is increased by 75 mm.

In this condition

Then total effective span of the landing B becomes

Where the length without live load is . This portion bears the factored

load as:

208
 In rest of the strip, i.e. , factored load is similar of that of landing A,

i.e. .

Thus, load distribution throughout the span of landing A, flight and landing B becomes as shown
in Fig.

3. Calculation of bending moment andshear force

In order to determine the maximum bending moment and shear force, we have to first
calculate the reaction forces at support A and B, i.e. RA and RB.

(1) Calculation of Reaction forces at support

Equating moment at A, we get:

And,

209
 (2) Find the position where the maximum bending moment occurs, i.e. at which the shear
force is zero.

Let x be the distance from position A to the position C

where shear force is zero.

Then,

(3) Calculate the BM at position C,

4. Calculate the minimum required effective depth

When substituting for Fe 415 the above equation becomes:

Thus, let’s adopt initially assumed for the further design process.

5. Calculate the tensile reinforcement

210
 Let’s use bars, which give the spacing in 1.2 m width as:

Then numbers of bars in 1.2 m width can be calculated as:

Thus, let’s use 9 nos. of bars equally spaced in 1.2 width, which gives

And it gives steel percentage as:

6. Check for Shear

(1) Calculate nominal shear stress

For the shear check, let’s use the maximum shear force on flight, which is at position A,
i.e.

Then, nominal shear stress, , at position A is:

(2) Determine maximum shear stress and design shear strength of concrete

For M20 concrete,

211
For M20 concrete and ,

For the case of solid slab, the value of k for the overall depth is:

Thus the design shear strength of concrete for slab, , is:

Since

The design is safe for shear.

Note that the depth of the slab should be increased if, in case, the design does not satisy the shear
requirement since we do not use shear reinforcement in slab.

7. Check for Development length

For Fe 415 bars, design bond stress is

Note that the design bond stress, , is given for mild steel bars; which should be
increased by 60% for deformed bars.

Then the development length for bars can be calculated as:

Moment of resistance for 9 nos. of bars is

212
The shear force at support B is

Lrt, the any anchorage length by means of hook or bent,

Then,

8. Design of Landing A

(1) Determination of effective span

Effective span of landing A is the lesser of clear span adding effective depth or support width.
Since effective depth is smaller than support width, then effective span is:

(2) Load Calculation

(i) Self weight of landing A

As already calculated load on landing A is . Then, the factored load

is .

Thus, total factored load on landing A is

(ii) Load transferred from flight

Fig. is the one symmetric part of two flights of which the land A is the common part to both.
Thus, the load transferred from two flights to the landing A is the double of the reaction from
one flight. Then, the reaction from one flight is

213
 Let’s adopt similar effective depth as and

Then area of steel is

Let’s use bars, which give the spacing in 1.2 m width as:

Then numbers of bars in 1.2 m width can be calculated as:

Thus, let’s use 10 nos. of bars equally spaced in 1.2 width, which gives

(iii)Shear check

Since shear force is increased and effective depth is decreased in case of landing A,
shear check should be carried out.

214
 Calculate nominal shear stress

Then, nominal shear stress, , at support is:

(3) Determine maximum shear stress and design shear strength of concrete

For M20 concrete,

For M20 concrete,

For M20 concrete and ,

For the case of solid slab, the value of k for the overall depth is:

Thus the design shear strength of concrete for slab, , is:

Since

The design is safe for shear.

Other checks like development length and deflection checks can also be carried out.

9. Temperature (Transverse Reinforcement)

Provide 1 no. of Ф10 mm transverse bar in each riser.

And provide minimum transverse reinforcement bars in landing and waist slab as:

215
Provide Ф10 mm bars @ 300 mm c/c giving

10. Design of Landing B

Design of landing B is not mandatory. We can extend 50% longitudinal bars (alternative bars) to
the top of landing slab and use 50% in on the bottom of slab. Care should be made that the
extended length of bars from the joint of waist slab and landing B should be equal or more than
the required minimum development length, Ld.

11. Structural Drawing

Reinforcement Detail in Stair Flight and Landings

216
 Reinforcement Detail in Landing A

Design of Columns
Compressive members: Structural elements which primarily bear axial compressive loads.

Effective Length: It is defined as the height between the points of contra-flexural point or point
of inflection of the compressive member in the buckled configuration in plane.

Here, is the effective length is the unsupported length and is the ration of effective
length to the unsupported length.

Based on effective length of compressive members they can be classified as walls, columns,
pedestal and struts.

Pedestal is the vertical compressive element whose effective length does not exceed 3 times of
its least lateral dimension, b. Other dimension D should not exceed four times of b.

217
Column can be defined as an element primarily used to support axially compressive loads and
with its effective length of at least three times of its least lateral dimensions, b.

Wall is the vertical member whose effective height to thickness (least lateral dimension) should
not exceed 30t. Larger lateral dimension should be larger than 4 times of thickness.

Types of Columns

(a) Based on Shape: Rectangular, Square, Circular or Polygon

(b) Based on Reinforcement

(i) Tied Columns: Use of lateral ties surrounding longitudinal bars

(ii) Column with Helical Reinforcement: Use of spiral reinforcement around

longitudinal bars, generally used in circular or octagonal column

(iii) Composite columns: Main longitudinal reinforcement consists of steel sections or

pipes with or without longitudinal bars.

(c) Based on Loadings

(i) Axially Loaded Column

(ii) Axial Load and Uni-axial Bending

(iii) Axial Load and Bi-axial Bending

(d) Based on Slender Ratio

(i) Short Columns:

(ii) Long Columns: :

Maximum slender ratio of the column should not exceed 60.

For cantilever column it is restricted to

In column, lateral dimension is generally indicated by b × D, where b < D. Then axis toward D
is called as major axis and axis towards b is called as minor axis.

Then,

218
 Where and are effective lengths of columns in respect of major and minor axis.

Effective Height of Column

Degree of Restraint Effective Height

Effective held in both positions + rotational restrained at both ends 0.65l

Effective held in two positions + rotational restrained at one end 0.8l

Effective held in two positions + no rotational restrained at both ends l

Effective held in one position + rotational restrained at end and at another end

(a) restrained against rotation but not held in position

(b) Partially restrained against rotation but not held in position 1.2l

(c) Not held in position not restrained against rotation 1.5l

2.0l

Restrained Condition

Condition I: Fixed End

Condition II: Semi-fixed End

Condition III: Hinged End

Condition IV: Free end Cantilever in un-braced structure

Value of for different condition of braced and un-braced columns is:

A. Braced Column

219
 End condition at bottom
End condition at top
1 2 3

1 0.75 0.8 0.9

2 0.8 0.85 0.95

3 0.9 0.95 1.00

A. Un-braced Column

End condition at bottom

End condition at top
1 2 3

1 1.2 1.3 1.6

2 1.3 1.5 1.8

3 1.6 1.8 -

4 2.2 - -

Non-sway: The columns of frame

possibly are means of a bracing system
and with its own rigidity are restricted
at their ends from horizontal
displacements and only subjected to end
moments and axial load transferred
from the frame.

Assumptions for the design

1. Plane sections normal to the axis

remains plane after bending.

2. Stress-strain relationship of concrete

is parabolic, where

220
 3. Tensile stress of concrete is ignored

4. Stress in reinforcement is derived from stress-strain relationship of different types of steel

used.

5. Maximum strain in concrete in axial compression is taken as 0.002.

6. Maximum compression stress at the highly compressed extreme fiber in concrete

subjected to axial and bending, but when there is no tension on the section ( shown in
Fig. (a)), is taken as 0.0035 minus 0.75 times the strain at the least compressed extreme
fiber.

Fulcum:

Strain distribution lines for purely axial compression (dotted line in the Fig.) and for a
limiting case when strain varies from 0.0035 to zero at another edge (solid line) intersect at

distance from the highly

compressed edge. This point
is called as Fulcum;
and, the neutral axis lies
outside the section in this
case leading to
assumption 6.

7. Maximum
strain of 0.0035 is
taken at highly
compressed
extreme fiber
when subjected to
axial and
bending in which the part of the section in tension. This means NA lies within section.

Maximum Eccentricity

Code permits

221
Where, L= Unsupported length of column; D = long lateral dimension of the column and b =
least lateral dimension of column.

Short Column under Axial Compression

When, , code permits

Here,

In this case should be based on stress on concrete and steel corresponding to maximum strain
of concrete as 0.002.

For this case, maximum stresses of materials are as:

10% of maximum stresses of concrete and Fe500 are reduced for the equation of as given in
equation (7.3).

For concrete,

For steel,

Equation (7.3) can also be written as:

Substituting ,

222
Here

Substituting Gross area of concrete as and rearranging, we get

Equation (7.4) can be used to solve the problem axial compressive load with use of chart given in
SP-16. However, students are recommended to use the equation (7.3) to solve such problems.

Requirement of Reinforcement

Longitudinal reinforcement strengthens the column.

Transverse reinforcements hold the longitudinal bars with lateral support preventing from
buckling outward and splitting of concrete. It does not contribute the strength.

Longitudinal reinforcement requirement:

(1) Minimum reinforcement

(2) When column has larger cross-section than that required to support the load, minimum
percentage of steel should be based on the area of concrete required to resist the direct
stress and not on the actual area.

(3) Maximum reinforcement

However it is recommended that maximum reinforcement still

be to avoid practical difficulties in placing
and compacting concrete.

(4) Minimum diameter of bar

(5) Minimum nos. of longitudinal bars should be 4 in rectangular and 6 in circular cross-
section columns

223
 (6) There should be minimum 6 longitudinal bars in column having helical reinforcement.
Helical means spiral reinforcement as lateral reinforcement used in circular column.
Helix means smooth space curve with three dimensions.

(7) Spacing of longitudinal bars along periphery

(8) Pedestal: If longitudinal bars are not taken account in strength calculation,
. Pedestal is the
compressive member the effective height of which should not exceed 3 times the lateral
least dimension.

Arrangement

(a) Longitudinal Bars

(1) According to ACI or BS code, maximum spacing of unrestrained longitudinal bars should
be . However IS code permits .

(2) In case of two rows of longitudinal bars, the spacing of row should be .

(3) If the longitudinal bars are grouped, grouped bars may be treated as single reinforcement
bar with totaling area of steel. The diameter of bar should be .

(b) Lateral Ties:

(1) Diameter of lateral ties or polygonal links should of the longitudinal bars
and

(2) Pitch of the lateral ties

should not exceed

(i) Least lateral

dimension of
compressive
member

(ii) of the
smallest
diameter of longitudinal bar

(iii)
(c) Helical Reinforcement

224
 (1) Diameter of helical reinforcement of longitudinal bar or 6 mm.

(2) If an increased load on the column on strength of the helical reinforcement is

allowed, pitch should not exceed

(i) 75 mm

(ii) of the core diameter of column

Pitch should not be less than

(i) 25mm

(ii) Should not be less than of bar forming helix

(3) If the increased load on columns on the strength of helical reinforcement is not
allowed, pitch should not exceed

(i) Least lateral dimension

(ii) of the longitudinal bar

(iii)
Column with Helical Reinforcement

The collapsed load for an axially loaded spirally reinforced column, without any safety factor,
can be expressed as:

In the RHS of above equation, first part is the resisting power of concrete, second is that of
longitudinal reinforcement bar and third is that of spiral reinforcement. Here,

Collapsed load, without safety factor

Characteristic strength of helical reinforcement but not exceeding

Constant (1.5~2.0) based on experiment results

Volume of spiral reinforcement per unit length of column

Area of core

225
Taking average value of , then

The spiral reinforcement is designed to increase the capacity of the core by amount to nearly
equal to the capacity of shell.

Let’s assume that the strength of spiral is 90% of

the shell, that is:

Using factor of safety as 1.2, we get

Also, can be defined as

Here,

Area of core

Diameter of core

226
 Diameter of spiral wire

Area of spiral wire

Then,

Code permits 5% increase in strength of spiral column over lateral ties column. Then the total
axial load to be resisted by helical column can be written as:

Numerical Examples on Short Column with Pure Axial Load

Example 1

A concrete column is reinforced with 4 bars of 24mm diameter.

Determine the axial load capacity of column. Use M20 grade concrete
and Fe415 grade steel. And, cross-section is given as 500mm×500mm.

Solution:

(1) It is the considered as the short column.

(2) Check if the column is pure axial loaded column

Since , then the equation to determine the factored axial load in short
column is applicable. Then,

Then the area of concrete is

227
Then,

Allowable load P is

Example 2

Design a rectangular column of 3.5m unsupported length, restrained in position and direction
(rotational restrained) at both ends to carry an axial load of 1700 kN. Use M20 grade concrete
and Fe415 grade steel.

Solution:

Effective length,

Factored load

Let us assume 1 % of steel and

Assuming that , then we can use pure axial load formula as

Then,

For practical purpose, let’s adopt & , which gives

For rectangular column, let’s use 8 nos. of longitudinal bars giving equal numbers in 4 sides.
Then, area of one bar is

228
Then, let’s use 8 nos. of bars giving total area of steel as:

The percentage of steel is

Checking for the eccentricity with

Hence, the column is short column in both directions

Again checking for the minimum eccentricity for both directions

So the design of column section and longitudinal bar as for the short axial column is Safe!

Design of lateral ties

229
Then use bars for lateral ties in the pitch of:

Thus, use bars @ 300 mm c/c

Example 3

Design a short axially loaded square column, 600 mm × 600 mm for a service load of 2500 kN.
Use M20 grade concrete and Fe415 grade steel.

Solution:

230
Example 3: Design a circular column to carry the axial load of 1500 kN. Use M20 grade concrete
and Fe415 grade steel.

Solution:

Let’s assume , Then

Then in order to determine the diameter of circular column:

Let’s adopt

Use giving number

231
Let’s use 7 nos. of with nominal cover of 40 mm giving

And steel percentage is

Use which satisfies all the requirements as:

Example 4: Redesign the above circular column using helical reinforcement

Solution:

Strength of helical reinforcement is 1.05 times the column with lateral ties. Then,

Let’s assume , Then

Then in order to determine the diameter of circular column:

232
Let’s adopt

Use giving number

Let’s use 10 nos. of with nominal cover of 40 mm giving

And steel percentage is

Let’s provide for helical reinforcement. Then,

Again,

Since,

233
 The Code require s

Then, let’s adopt . Therefore, use

for helical
reinforcement.

Short Column under Axial Load and Uni-axial BM

The figure shows the interaction curve of axial force and moment. In overall, the interaction
curve is divided into compressive control region and tension control region.

Compressive control region: NA lies outside section

Tension control region: NA lies within section

Compressive control region can further divided into 2 sub-regions as:

(1) Eccentricity, e, lies within emin

(2) Eccentricity, e, exceeds emin

234
When axial force, , then column section acts as doubly reinforced beam and its moment
capacity is given by M0.

. It is because
compressive stress due to axial load decreases the net tensile stress below the yield level. The
section can sustain additional moment such that tensile stress in the reinforcement reaches yield
level.

. Balanced condition is shown

in figure.

Moment carrying capacity

of the section begins to reduce because of failure in region due to crushing of concrete.

So based on above interaction diagram, failure of column under axial load and uni-axial
bending can be categorized as:

(1) Compression Failure

(2) Balanced Failure

(3) Tension Failure

Thus, in order to make safe design of column, i.e. to avoid any kind of failure, we have to take
the following 3 steps:

(i) Selection of a trial section with assumed longitudinal steel,

(ii) Construction of the interaction diagram of the selected trial column section by successive
choices of the neutral axis depth from infinity (pure axial load) to a very small value (to
be found by trial to get P = 0 for pure bending), (we will refer already constructed Chart
for our design)
(iii) Checking of the given and , if they are within the diagram.

Use of SP-16 Charts for Design of Column

SP-16 has three sets of design charts for rectangular and circular types of cross-sections of
columns. The three sets are as follows:

235
 (i) Charts 27 to 38 are the first set of twelve charts for rectangular columns having
symmetrical longitudinal steel bars in two rows (Fig.10.25.1) for three grades of steel
(Fe 250, Fe 415 and Fe 500) and each of them has four values of d’/D ratios (0.05,
0.10, 0.15 and 0.20).
(ii) Charts 39 to 50 are the second set of twelve charts for rectangular columns having
symmetrical longitudinal steel bars (twenty numbers) distributed equally on four sides
(in six rows, Fig.10.25.2) for three grades of steel (Fe 250, Fe 415 and Fe 500) and
each of them has four values of d’/D ratios (0.05, 0.10, 0.15 and 0.20).
(iii)The third set of twelve charts, numbering from 51 to 62, are for circular columns having
eight longitudinal steel bars of equal diameter and uniformly spaced circumferentially
(Fig.10.25.3) for three grades of steel (Fe 250, Fe 415 and Fe 500) and each of them
has four values of d’/D ratios (0.05, 0.10, 0.15 and 0.20).
All the thirty-six charts are prepared for M 20 grade of concrete only. This is a justified
approximation as it is not worthwhile to have separate design charts for each grade of
concrete.

Approximation When Using Design Charts

(a) Grade of Concrete

All charts are prepared for M20 grade concrete. However, each chart has fourteen plots

having different values of the parameter , ranging from zero to 0.26 at an interval of

0.02. We can make use of the actual grade of concrete by multiplying the obtained
from the plot with the actual for the particular grade of concrete to partially
compensate the approximation.

(b) ratio

The three sets of charts have four fixed values of d’/D ratios
(0.05, 0.10, 0.15 and 0.20). However, in the practical design, the
d’/D ratio may be different from those values. In such situations
intermediate values are determined by making linear
interpolations.

(c) Equal distribution of twenty longitudinal steel bars on four sides

of rectangular columns

In spite of the above consideration, the design charts may be used

without significant error for any number of bars greater than

236
 eight provided the bars are distributed equally on four sides.

(d) Longitudinal bars in circular columns

Though the design charts are prepared considering eight bars uniformly placed
circumferentially, they may generally be used for any number of bars greater than six,
uniformly placed circumferentially.

Use of Design Charts for Analysis Type of Problems

The target of analysis for the safety of column should be that

(a) Step 1: Selection of design charts based on given ratio, grade of steel (for circular
columns) and the distribution of longitudinal bars equally on two sides or four sides.

(b) Step 2: After the selection of particular chart, the particular curve should be selected

based on known (calculated) value.

(c) Step 3: Then assessment of column can be made by selecting two of three given

parameters as , and for rectangular columns. For circular columns, b

can be replaced by D (i.e. diameter of column).

Use of Design Charts for Design Type of Problems

(a) Step 1: Select the appropriate chart based on assumed value as similar of above step 1.

(b) With known values of and determine the actual point on the curve and

obtain the value of with interpolation in between given two curves of .

(c) Then, the percentage of longitudinal steel is obtained by multiplying the , so obtained,
by the actual grade of concrete (which may be different from M 20 though the chart is
prepared assuming M 20 only). Thus, percentage of longitudinal steel,

237
 (d) This percentage of longitudinal steel (obtained from above equation) is a tentative value

and shall be confirmed after finalizing the assumed data, i.e., , b, D etc.

(e) Design of transverse reinforcement should be done before confirming as the diameter
of the lateral tie has a role in finalizing d’.

(f) If the value of d’/D changes in step (e) requiring any change of other dimension etc., the
repetition of steps (a) to (d) are needed. Otherwise, the design is complete.

Numerical Examples on Short Column Under Axial Load and Uni-axial Bending

Example 5

The following figure shows a rectangular short column using M25 grade concrete and Fe415
grade steel. Analysis the safety of the column when subjected to and
.

Solution:

Here,

(1) Calculate and

238
 (2) Calculate percentage of steel (p) and

Then,

(3) Let’s determine the conditions for referring the charts:

From above 4 conditions, we know that chart no. 45 is to be referred.

(4) Assessment of column

Among three parameters input, let’s take any two of three and determine the third value
with the help of chart. Then, compare the determined third value with already known one.

Here, let’s input and , then determine the value .

As from calculated value of , we do not have its actual curve line. Then,

we have to find the exact value with the interpolation method between

& . That is,

239
Since, the determined value from chart

It can be concluded that the already designed column is safe for the pair of and
.

Example 6

A column of size 400mm × 500 mm has effective length of 3.6 m and is subjected to
and about the major axis. Design the column using M25
grade concrete and Fe415 grade steel proving (a) on both sides (b) on four sides. Assume cover
of 60 mm. The column is partially restrained at both ends.

Solution:

(1) Determination of unsupported length

Since the column is partially restrained at both ends, then the unsupported length of
column is equal to its effective length, i.e.

(2) Check

Here, and which gives:

Hence, the column is in the category of short column on both axes.

(3) Check minimum eccentricity

Actual eccentricity on column,

240
Since,

Hence, the column is subjected to axial load and uniaxial bending along major axis in this case.

(4) Calculate and

Now, with above values of two parameters and , we can determine the
percentage of steel required from SP-16 charts as per two conditions given in this
problem.

Let effective cover of column on both cases,

(5) Determine steel percentage (p)

At first, let’s determine the steel percentage (p) for

(a) For providing bars equally in two sides

Conditions:

From those above 4 conditions, we can select the appropriate chart from given
different charts for different condition. Select chart 32 which suits all above 4

parameters and determine the actual value of using already known values of

and .

Then with determined value of , we can calculate the actual percentage of

steel substituting .

241
 Then with determined value of and known value of gross area of
concrete , we can calculate the area of longitudinal reinforcement , as:

(b) For providing bars equally in 4 sides:

Conditions:

From those above 4 conditions, we can select chart 44 which suits all above 4

parameters and determine the actual value of using already known values of

and .

Then with determined value

of , we can calculate
the actual percentage of steel
substituting .

Then with determined value of and known value of gross area of

concrete , we can calculate the area of longitudinal reinforcement , as:

242
 (6) Design of Lateral Ties for both cases:

Then use bars for lateral ties in the pitch of:

Thus, use which satisfies all the requirements.

Short Column under Axial Load and Bi-axial Bending

A column section subjected to axial load and bi-axial bending is shown in Fig.

The theoretical value of limit strength of a axial compression and biaxial bending is a function of
three variables , and . and are developed biaxial moment due to eccentricity

243
of with respect to x-axis and y- axis as

and respectively. Then,

moments and are acting along x-axis
and y-axis respectively.

The method set out in code is based on an

assumed failure surface that extends the axial
load- moment interaction diagram for single
axis bending to three dimensions as along the
direction of , x-axis and y-axis. The
extended diagram, called as Load Contour
Method (developed by Bresler 1960), is
shown in Fig.

Bresler proposed a new approach of

approximations of the failure surface. He showed the magnitude of the failure load is a function
of primary factors; column dimensions, steel reinforcement, stress-strain curves and secondary
factors; concrete cover, lateral ties arrangement. According to his proposal, it involves cutting
the failure surface at a constant value of to give a so called load contour relating
and .
The general non-dimensional equation for the load contour at constant P may be expressed in the
form

Here,
Factored Moment along x-axis
Factored Moment along y-axis
Maximum moment capacity for bending
along x-axis only at axial load P
Maximum moment capacity for bending
along y-axis only at axial load P
An exponent that depends upon the dimensions
of cross-section, amount of reinforcement and yield
stress of steel.
This expression approximates the equation of the load
contour at constant P.
Determination of

As per code, is the function of , where:

Factored axial load

244
 Capacity of cross-section under pure axial load, i.e.

Then the value can be determined by the help of the graph.

Here, when:

And when

For the values of , use the graph and determine the value of with interpolation
method.

Numerical Examples on Column with Axial Load and Bi-axial Bending

Example 7

Design a short column under biaxial bending with the following data:

Size of column

Concrete grade
Steel grade

Axial load,

Factored Moment,

Moments due to minimum eccentricity are less than above values and reinforcements are
distributed equally along 4 sides.

Solution:

(1) Factored axial load and bending moments

Here, factored axial load,

Factored bending moments are similar to given values

245
(2) Assumption of steel percentage ( ) and calculation of

Let’s assume the percentage of steel as , then:

(3) Determination of

Let the effective cover of column be . Then:

(4) Calculation of

Uniaxial moment capacity of the section will be equal in the both directions, because it is
square in section and is symmetrically reinforced. Then,

(5) Selection of required chart

With above 4 known conditions, then it can be decided that Chart no. 44 is required to
be referred.

(6) Determination of

246
 (6) Calculation of

(6) Calculation of

(7) Determination of

(8) Check the required condition

Therefore, the assumed value of is OK for the safety.

(9) Calculation of reinforcement area and design reinforcement bars

Provide 16 numbers of bars, which gives the diameter as

Thus, use nos. of bars giving

247
 (10) Design of lateral ties

Diameter of ties should be

Then use bars for lateral ties in

the pitch of:

Thus, use which satisfies all the requirements.

Alternative Method

Example 7b

Design a short column under biaxial bending with the following data:

Size of column

Concrete grade
Steel grade

Axial load,

Factored Moment,

Moments due to minimum eccentricity are less than above values and reinforcements are
distributed equally along 4 sides.

Solution:

248
(1) Factored axial load and bending moments

Here, factored axial load,

Factored bending moments are similar to given values

(2) Criteria for steel percentage (p)

For assuming steel percentage (p), we can start from taking resultant moment as (Pillai &
Group Method):

(3) Calculation of design parameters

Let the effective depth,

(4) Selection of required chart

Then, according to above 4 conditions chart no. 44 is required to be referred.

With & ; can be determined as:

Then let’s assume minimum

(1) Calculation of reinforcement area and design reinforcement bars

249
 Provide 16 numbers of bars, which gives the diameter as

Thus, use nos. of bars giving

(5) Determine &

As above, chart 44 should be referred. Among three parameters, let’s use

& as known parameter and determine the third

parameter from the chart 44. Then,

(6) Calculation of

250
(7) Determination of

(8) Check the required condition

Therefore, the design is safe.

(9) Design of lateral ties

Diameter of ties should be

Then use bars for lateral ties in the pitch of:

Thus, use which satisfies all the requirements.

Example 8

Design the reinforcement to be provided

in the short column with given data:

b = 400mm, D = 500 mm, Pu = 2000 kN,

Mux = 130 kN.m, Muy = 120 kN.m

The unsupported length = 3.2 m. Column

is partially restrained at both ends.

251
 Use M25 grade concrete and Fe 415 grade steel.

Solution:

(1) Checking Eccentricity:

Again,

Thus, the eccentricity requirement is OK.

(2) Trial section and reinforcement

For assuming steel (%), take the resultant moment as:

(3) Calculation of design parameters

Let the effective cover,

252
 (4) Selection of required chart

Then, according to above 4 conditions chart no. 44 is required to be referred.

With & ; can be determined as:

Provide 16 numbers of bars, which gives the diameter as

Thus, use nos. of bars giving

(5) Determine &

(i) Determine

As above, chart 44 should be referred. Among three parameters, let’s use

& as known parameter and determine the third

parameter from the chart 44. Then,

253
 (ii) Determine

Then with the method of interpolation, we get:

(6) Calculation of

(7) Determination of

Since

254
 (8) Check the required condition

Therefore, the design is safe.

(9) Design of lateral ties

Diameter of ties should be

Then use bars for lateral ties in the pitch of:

Thus, use which satisfies all the requirements.

Design of Slender Columns

As already described in previous section, columns with any their ratios of effective lengths to
cross-sectional dimensions is greater than 12, are called as slender columns. It mans i:

255
Any of above two condition exits with column, then it is slender column. Here,

= effective length of column with respect to major axis

= effective length of column with respect to minor axis

= Sectional size of column along major axis (longer side), also called as depth of column

= Sectional size of column along minor axis (shorter side), also called as width of column

Use of Slender columns in the structures is getting popular due to the development of high grade
concrete and steel, improvement on design procedure and for the artistic requirement.

The main difference on mechanical properties between short and slender column is that failure of
short column is due to failure on materials, but the failure of slender column is due to buckling
(geometric failure).

Buckling is characterized by a sudden failure of a structural member subjected to high

compressive stress, where the actual compressive stress at the point of failure is less than the
ultimate compressive stresses that the material is capable of withstanding. Buckling on column is
due to the development of secondary moment because of the eccentricity. The load at which the
slender column fails due to buckling may be called as Euler’s load, which is much less in
comparison to that of short columns having equal area of cross-section.

Critical load, namely Euler’s load, at which the slender column may be collapsed due to
buckling, Pcr, can be expressed as:

Where,

Critical load, Euler’s load

Young’s modulus

Moment of inertia

Constant, the value of which depends upon restrained condition of the column end

Unsupported length of column

256
Since, , equation (1) can be re-written as:

Here, is the slender ratio. And, the term is the effective length of the column, l.
Generally

257
258
Code recommends the calculation of additional moments due to buckling as follows:

Here:

Additional moment towards major axis, along depth, D

Additional moment towards minor axis, along width, b\

= Effective length of column with respect to major axis

= Effective length of column with respect to minor axis

= Depth of column, longer cross-section side of column, major (x)-axis

= Width of column, shorter cross-section side of column, minor (y)-axis

In above equations,

and are eccentricities of factored compressive load, , with respective to major and
minor axes respectively. After determination of eccentricities, additional moments can simply
determined by:

These above expression can be used for the design of slender column under axial load with either
uni-axial or bi-axial bending. When increasing the axial load from zero in slender column, the
tensile stress decreases up to zero and then compressive stress arises. Then the curvature and
deflection of the column decreases. Considering this effect, code permits a reduction in
additional moments by a reduction factor k, which is obtained by:

259
Here, balanced axial load corresponding to the maximum compressive strain of concrete
as 0.0035 and tensile strain of 0.002 in outermost layer of steel. depends upon arrangement of

reinforcements, and grades of concrete as well as steel. can be determined by:

Coefficients and can be obtained from Table 60, page 171 of SP-16.

Additional moments should be combined with the initial moments to obtain the total design
moments. Combination of additional moments and initial moments depend upon end conditions
of slender columns.

(1) Braced frame (No relative displacement of ends of member) Single Curvature

The ends of such type of columns do not undergo relative displacement. In such cases, Design
moments at the center of the braced column can be obtained by summing up additional
moments and with initial moments and .

Initial moments and can be calculated as:

260
 (2) Braced frame (No relative displacement of ends of member) Double Curvature

When point of contra-flexure occur in-between two end points of braced column, such condition
is called as double curvature. In such case, effect due to additional moment is greatly reduced.
Design moments in such condition can be calculated as:

(3) Unbraced frame (Relative displacement of ends of member not prevented) Curvature

In such conditions, total design moments are obtained by summing up respective end
moments and additional moments.

Along major axis:

Along minor axis:

Numerical example (braced-single curvature)

Design a symmetrically reinforced bi-axially eccentrically loaded braced column of size 300mm
× 480mm deformed in single curvature with following data.
Effective length for bending parallel to larger dimension 5.4m
Effective length for bending parallel to smaller dimension 4.2m
Unsupported length 5.8m
Factored axial load (Pu) 1025 KN
Factored moment in the direction of larger dimension 108 KNm at top and 73 KNm at bottom
Factored moment in the direction of shorted dimension 42 KNm at top and 28 KNm at bottom
Concrete mix M20
Reinforcement Fe415
The column is bent in single curvature.
(Board exam 2009)

261
Solution:

(1) Determine if the column is short or slender

(2) Determine the additional moment about minor axis

Eccentricity with respect to minor axis is:

Then additional moment along minor axis is:

(3) Determination of Initial Moment along minor axis

Thus, take initial moment along minor axis as

(4) Reduction of additional moment along minor axis

Let’s assume reinforcement percentage, , then:

Note that, here it is better to use

Let effective cover of column, . Then for:

262
Thus:

(5) Comparison of initial moment with moment due to minimum

Initial moment

Let’s adopt initial moment as moment as for the calculation of

design moment.

(6) Determination of Design moment

(i) Along Minor Axis

(ii) Along Major axis

(7) Determination of Moment of resistance for the section:

Let us determine the moment capacity along major axis;

263
 Let’s use chart 44 for this case. Then:

Again for minor axis

(i) For it let’s consider chart 45 with

(ii) Again consider chart 45 with

With interpolation of (i) and (ii), we get:

(8) Check for Safety (Check whether assumed reinforcement is sufficient or not)

Thus, initially assumed steel percentage is safe!

264
 (9) Decide diameter and numbers of bars

Since section should be symmetric with respect to the arrangement of reinforcement bars,
then numbers of bars should be at least 4 and multiplication of 4, i.e. 8, 12, 16 etc.

Let’s try for 12 nos. of bars, which gives the diameter.

Let’s use 12 nos. of bars equally on 4 sides which gives:

Note: Students may have more effective trials for choosing appropriate diameter and
numbers of bars revealing small difference between required and provided bars.

Numerical example (braced-double curvature)

Design a bi-axially eccentrically loaded braced column of size 350mm × 400mm deformed in
double curvature with following data.
Effective length for bending parallel to larger dimension 6.5 m
Effective length for bending parallel to smaller dimension 5.8 m
Unsupported length 6.5 m
Factored axial load (Pu) 1800 KN
Factored moment in the direction of larger dimension 50 KN.m at top and 35 KNm at bottom
Factored moment in the direction of shorted dimension 35 KN.m at top and 25 KNm at bottom

265
Concrete mix M30
Reinforcement Fe500
Reinforcement is equally distributed on four sides.
Solution:

(10) Determine if the column is short or slender

(11) Determine the additional moment about minor axis

Eccentricity with respect to minor axis is:

Then additional moment along minor axis is:

(12) Determination of Initial Moment along both axes

So decide to use

So decide to use

(13) Reduction of additional moment along minor axis

Let’s assume reinforcement percentage, , then:

Let effective cover of column, . Then for:

266
Thus:

Thus revised additional moments along both directions are:

267
(14) Comparison of initial moment with moment due to minimum

Then, moments due to minimum eccentricities are:

Since above moments due to minimum eccentricities are larger than initial moments
determined based on given end factored moments. Thus use and
as initial moments along major and minor axis respectively.

(15) Determination of Design moment

(iii) Along Majoor Axis

(iv) Along inor

(16) Determination of Moment of resistance for the section:

Let us determine the moment capacity along major axis;

Let’s use chart 44, . Then:

268
 Chart 45:

With Interpolation, we get:

Again for minor axis

(iii) For it let’s consider chart 44 with

For , with chart 45

With interpolation of (i) and (ii), we get:

(17) Check for Safety (Check whether assumed reinforcement is sufficient or not)

269
 Thus, initially assumed steel percentage is safe!

(18) Decide diameter and numbers of bars

Since section should be symmetric with respect to the arrangement of reinforcement bars,
then numbers of bars should be at least 4 and multiplication of 4, i.e. 8, 12, 16 etc.

Let’s try for 12 nos. of bars, which gives the diameter.

Let’s use 12 nos. of bars equally on 4 sides which gives:

Note: Students may have more effective trials for choosing appropriate diameter and
numbers of bars revealing small difference between required and provided bars.

270
Numerical example (unbraced)

Design a bi-axially eccentrically loaded braced column of size 300mm × 350mm deformed in
double curvature with following data.
Effective length for bending parallel to larger dimension 4.8 m
Effective length for bending parallel to smaller dimension 4.0 m
Unsupported length 5.0 m
Factored axial load (Pu) 1200 KN
Factored moment in the direction of larger dimension = 40 kN.m
Factored moment in the direction of shorted dimension = 30 KN.m
Concrete mix M25
Reinforcement Fe500
Reinforcement is equally distributed only on two sides.
Solution:

(1) Determine if the column is short or slender

(2) Determine the additional moment about minor axis

Eccentricity with respect to minor axis is:

Then additional moment along minor axis is:

(3) Reduction of additional moment along minor axis

Let’s assume reinforcement percentage, , then:

271
Let effective cover of column, . Then for:

Thus:

Thus revised additional moments along both directions are:

272
(4) Comparison of initial moment with moment due to minimum

Then, moments due to minimum eccentricities are:

Since above moments due to minimum eccentricities are smaller than given factored
moments. Thus use and as initial moments along
major and minor axis respectively.

(5) Determination of Design moment

(v) Along Majoor Axis

(vi) Along inor

(6) Determination of Moment of resistance for the section:

Let us determine the moment capacity along major axis;

273
 Let’s use chart 44, . Then:

Chart 45:

With Interpolation, we get:

Again for minor axis

(iv) For it let’s consider chart 44 with

For , with chart 45

With interpolation of (i) and (ii), we get:

(7) Check for Safety (Check whether assumed reinforcement is sufficient or not)

274
 Thus, initially assumed steel percentage is safe!

(8) Decide diameter and numbers of bars

Since the arrangement of reinforcement bars are equally in two sides, then numbers of
bars should be at least 4 and addition of 2, i.e. 6, 8, 10 etc.

Let’s try for 8 nos. of bars, which gives the diameter.

Let’s use 8 nos. of bars equally on 2 sides which gives:

Note: Students may have more effective trials for choosing appropriate diameter and
numbers of bars revealing small difference between required and provided bars.

275
 Design of Foundation
1. Definition

Foundation Structural elements that transfers all loads from any structural body to the earth.

Purpose of design to prevent settlement or rotation, to minimize differential settlement and to

provide adequate safety against sliding or overturning.

2. Types of Foundations

(1) Isolated footing under individual column (square, rectangle, circular)

(2) Strip foundation and wall footing

(3) Strap footing use of strap beam to join two isolated footing

(4) Combined footings supporting 2 or more columns

(5) Raft or mat foundation while soil condition is poor

(6) Pile foundation support isolated column or groups of several columns or load bearing
walls

The choice of types of foundation for design depends upon:

(1) Soil strata

(2) Bearing capacity and standard penetration test value N of soil

(3) Type of structure

(4) Type of loads

(5) Permissible differential settlements

(6) Economy

3. Bearing capacity of Soil

Requirements for design:

(i) Soil strata

(ii) Depth of water table

276
 (iii) Values of density

(iv) Bearing capacity

(v) N value

(vi) Coefficient of friction

Bearing capacity of soil can be classified as (i) Gross bearing capacity, and (ii) Ne bearing capacity

Depth of foundation is governed by:

(1) To secure bearing capacity

(2) To penetrate below the zone where seasonal changes are likely to cause shrinkage & swelling of
soils

(3) To penetrate the zone affected by frost

Code requires

And depth of footing can be estimated by:

Here,

Depth of foundation

Gross bearing capacity

Density of soil

angle of response of soil

4. Analysis of Foundation

277
(1) Bending Moment at Foundation

Critical section (i) at the face of column

(ii) half-way between the face of column or

pedestal and edge of gusseted base (thin plate base) for footing

(2) Shear Force

Shear strength of footing is checked in:

(i) One-way bending to be checked in vertical

shear

(ii) Two-way bending to be checked in punching

shear

Critical sections for shear:

278
 (1) Vertical shear across the full width of the base on a vertical section located from the face of the
column, pedestal or wall or distance equal to:

(i) The effective depth of footing in case of footing on soil

(ii) Half the effective depth of footing in case of footings on piles

(2) Punching shear around the column on a perimeter of away from face of column or pedestal.

Calculation of shear stresses:

(1) One-way shear

Here,

Nominal shear stress

Factored vertical shear

Breadth of critical shear

Effective depth

is the provision as discussed in case of slab.

(2) Two-way shear

For two-way shear nominal shear stress is calculated by:

Perimeter of the critical section

When shear reinforcement is not provided, then the requirement for the nominal shear is:

Here

279
 In case of footing, design shear stress is given by:

In general, shear reinforcement is not provided in foundations. Thickness of foundation is

normally governed by shear.

Development length as in beam

Deflection No need to check

6. Transfer of load at base of column

Tensile force through development length (dowel reinforcement may or may not be needed)

Compressive force direct bearing

Permissible bearing stress on full area of concrete of the column base can be given as:

Permissible bearing stress on footing area can be given as:

Here,

Maximum area of the portion of the

supporting surface that is geometrically similar to
and concentric with the loaded area

Loaded area at the column base

When permissible bearing stresses exceeded in

column or footing reinforcement must be
provided for the developing the excess force.

Reinforcement either is extension of

longitudinal bars of column or new dowel bars.

280
Requirement for compressive reinforcements:

(1) Minimum area of extended longitudinal bars or dowels must be 0.5% of cross-section area of the
supported column or pedestal

(2) Minimum 4 bars

(3) Dowels should not exceed the diameter of column longitudinal bars by more than 3 mm

(4) Enough development length transfer compression or tension to supporting member

(5) If of column bars only can be dowelled at the footings with

bars of smaller

(6) Should extend the dowel into column at a distance of equal to development length of bars of
column; and into footing, vertically distance should be equal to development length of dowel.

Requirement for tensile reinforcements:

(1) One-way reinforcement footing reinforcement must be distributed uniformly across the width
of footing

(2) Two-way reinforcement footing uniformly among both directions.

(3) Reinforcement along longer side should be uniformly distributed across the full width

(4) Reinforcement in short direction should be provided by dividing the length into 3 bands as central
band and 2 end bands as shown in figure.

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 The reinforcement in the central band should be according to:

Here,

Area of reinforcement in central band

Total area of reinforcement in shorter direction

length of shorter side

length of longer side

Then, reinforcement in each end band, i. e. , should be:

7. Analysis of isolated Footing

282
Shape square, rectangular,
circular in plan

Load axially loaded or

eccentrically loaded

Eccentrically loaded footing when placing column on center of footing, soil reaction
below The footing will not be uniform as shown in Fig. (a).

The footing should be designed for the actual soil pressure distribution which will depend
upon the amount of eccentricity.

Two Cases for Axially Load

Case I: Load eccentricity not greater than

Case II: Load eccentricity greater than

283
Case I: Load eccentricity not greater than

Axial Load

Moment

Eccentricity

Area of footing

Moment of inertia

Length of footing

Width of footing

Then, resultant soil pressure can be given as:

When the value of results in +ve Compression

When the value of results in -ve tension

If lies within , then the resultant pressure is compressive

284
 If , then the part of the footing losses contact with ground due to tension development

For footing with moments or eccentricities about both axis, then the soil pressure at any
point will be:

Example 1

A rectangular column 450mm×600mm transfers a total service axial load of 2300 kN. The safe
bearing capacity of soil is 140 MPa. Using M20 grade concrete and Fe415 grade steel, design the
rectangular isolated footing to support the column.

Solution:

(1) Size of rectangular footing

Since the size ration of column

Let’s adopt similar ratio for the size of footing

(2) Estimation of Size

Axial factored load

Self Bearing capacity

Let, weight of footing

Then, total load

Thus appropriate area of footing can be estimated as:

285
 Thus, let’s adopt the dimensions of footing as , giving area of
footing as

(3) Net Earth Pressure

The net pressure acting upward due to factored load, , can be calculated as:

(4) Determination of effective depth

There are two ways of determining effective depth as (i) estimate the effective depth and verify it with
check of concerned parameters; or, (ii) decide all parameters and determine the actual effective depth.
Here, second option is adopted:

It is to note that the adopted effective depth of footing is governed by the bending and shear. Since, if we
determine the strength of bending and shear; then it can be decide the actual depth, let’s try it.

Let’s determine the effective depth assuming the percentage of steel as 0.25% and using
one-way and two-way shear check as well as moment of resistance.

(a) One – way shear check

286
One-way shear is critical at the distance of effective depth from the face of column. And, the
most critical section is along x2-x2 section.

Design shear strength of concrete for M 20 and , we get from table 19, page 73
as

(i) Along x2-x2 direction:

287
(ii) Along y2-y2 direction:

(b) Two-way shear check

As we know that the two-way shear action is critical at the perimeter at the distance

of , i.e. 400 mm from the face of column at each side. Then the shear force at this
section can be calculated as:

288
Then,

Here note that the width is the perimeter at , i.e. 400 mm from the face of
column. That can be calculated from above figure as:

Here, strength of M20 concrete is:

289
 (a) BM about x1-x1 direction (along the column face of shorter side):

(b) BM about x1-x1 direction (along the column face of longer side):

(5) Determination of minimum effective depth

From above depth analysis, it is learnt that the one-way shear along short direction,
i.e. x2-x2 direction governs the effective depth of foundation. That is .

(6) Determine area of steel

(a) Along x1-x1 direction

Use bars giving spacing x as:

Then use bars giving

290
 (b) Along y1-y1 direction

Along y1-y1 direction, effective depth is smaller than along x1-x1 direction. Let 32
mm bars are used along y1-y1 direction too. Then effective depth becomes;

Use bars giving spacing x as:

Then use bars giving

(7) Development length Check

(a) Check development length along both sides of footing from face of column

291
Minimum required development length is:

Actual embedded bar from the face of column:

(i) x-x direction

(ii) y-y direction

Thus, development length is safe on both side of column.

(b) Check development length for transfer load from column to footing;

Nominal bearing stress in column is:

Allowable bearing stress is:

It means that concrete itself is not sufficient to transfer all compressive loads
from column to footing. Therefore, dowel bars should be designed for excess
bearing stress, i.e. for . It means dowel
bars should be designed for excess compressive load as

Then required area of dowel bars can be calculated by:

292
 Let’s choose dowel bars which give numbers of bars as

Use bars for dowels which gives the area

Available vertical length for

dowel

Since
is not sufficient, lower part of dowel bars
should be bent to provide sufficient
development length. However, development length is sufficient if we provide
horizontal of bent dowel bars as 250mm.

Combined Footing

Necessity:

(1) When two columns are close together and separate footings may overlap

(2) When one column is near to property line or sever pipe.

293
Example 2

Design a combined footing for two interior column carrying axial loads 1200 kN and
1500 kN. Column A is in size and column B is circular with its
diameter of 500 mm. The centroid of column A is at distance of 500 mm from the
property line. They are reinforced with 20 mm bars and are spaced 4.5 m center to
center. The bearing capacity of the soil is 120 kN/m2. Use M20 grade concrete and
Fe 415 grade steel.

Solution:

(1) Length and width of footing:

Center Gravity (CG) of loads from the property line, x, is:

294
Let’s assume the weight of footing and earth above it as 10% of total load from columns

Then the width of the footing can be estimated as:

Let’s adopt the width of footing as 4.2 m. Then, the plan of column and footing is as shown
in Fig.

(2) Longitudinal Bending Moment and Shear

Factored load on column,

Factored load on column,

Then, Total factored load from columns to footing

295
Maximum Shear force at center line of column A

Maximum Shear force at center line of column B

Then shear diagram becomes as shown in Fig.

Let x be the distance from center of column A to the point where shear force is zero. Then, x
can be determined as:

Then, maximum bending moment computed from left side

296
Again, maximum bending moment computed from right side

Hence,

Note: if there is little difference between , due to effect of eccentricity, take

the larger moment for the design.

Thus, the bending moment diagram throughout the length of footing becomes as shown in
Fig.

(3) Calculate tentative depth, d:

For 415,

297
The minimum requirement of effective depth required with respective to bending moment
is less than the minimum requirement of 500 mm. As we know that the depth of the
foundation is more critical to shear stress since we do not use shear reinforcement. So, the
effective depth of the footing should be finalized by the shear check.

With consideration of heavy load on both columns, let’s assume the effective depth of the
footing with effective cover as 50 mm giving overall depth as .

(4) Design of Negative longitudinal reinforcement

Let’s use giving as

Minimum development length required for is

(5) Shear Check

298
With comparison of column A and B, the column B is more critical on shear. Then,
let’s carry out the shear check on column B.

(a) Shear one-way action

The idealized square column of the circular column B and the detail for shear one-
way action is shown in Fig.

Fig. shows that the critical section falls at the distance of (220 mm + 750 mm) =
970 mm from the center line of column or 30 mm inside from right boundary of
footing.

Then shear force at this section calculated as:

For and M20 concrete, shear strength :

299
(b) Shear two-way action

As we know, shear two-way action is critical on perimeter at

distance from the face of the column. Its detail is shown in Fig. The critical section
around the circular column on perimeter of circle with diameter of

Here, shear force should be considered based upon the factored axial load on
column B as 2250 kN and net upward pressure.

Then shear force around perimeter is factored axial load minus the upward force
due to net upward pressure on area covered by critical circle. i.e.

Then nominal shear stress is:

300
Shear strength of M20 concrete is:

Thus, shear is safe for two-way action.

(6) Curtailment of Reinforcement

(a) Left side of footing

Let’s plan to cut half of the negative longitudinal bars from the point where BM is

about half of maximum, i.e. BM at point

Let the distance be x from the left edge of footing.

Then the distance of point from center of column A

Then, x can be calculated as:

We have already calculated that BM is the maximum at the distance from the left
edge .

Then theoretical cut off point becomes at distance from max

301
Here, you can confirm the bending moment and nos. of bars.

Thus it is confirmed that half numbers of bars, i.e. , can be cut at the
point.

Thus theoretical cut-off point of 15 alternative bars from left edge

Then actual cut-off point from edge

(b) Right side of column

Similarly we can find the distance from right edge where BM is -750 kN.m.

302
 Since, at the distance of 1842 mm from right edge or 842 mm from the center
of circular column (that is the distance of 6000-2667-1842=1491 mm from
the point of maximum bending and it coincides with the distance up to left
where bending moment is half).

Thus theoretical cut-off point of 15 alternative bars from right edge

Then actual cut-off point from edge

(7) Development Length Check

(a) At ends

At the left end, available development length

At the right end, available development length

Note: diameter of transverse bars is considered as Ф12mm.

(b) At inflection point

(i) At Column A

Let be the right distance from center line of column A, where

It means BM is zero at the distance of 58.5 mm from center line of column.

Moment of resistance at this point is (Note that all designed bars are available at
this point):

303
 The critical shear force at column A is

Anchorage length ; then:

(ii) At Column B

Anchorage length (because ); then:

(8) Design of positive longitudinal reinforcement at bottom beyond column faces

Moment at

(a) At face of column A:

(b) At face of column B:

Let’s take greater of moment for the calculation of reinforcement:

304
 Thee, we may provide minimum reinforcement. Let’s use bars which
give number:

Let’s provide at bottom of footing beyond both columns,

giving reinforcement area as:

(9) Transverse (temperature or distribution) bars

Use for the transverse reinforcement.

The whole above detailed procedure concludes the design process of combined
footing.

8. Raft Footing

Raft foundations are special cases of combined footing where all the columns of the building are
having a common foundation. Raft foundations are generally necessary for buildings with heavy
loads or when the soil condition is poor. Raft foundations are useful to reduce the settlement of
structures located above highly compressible deposits and transfer the loads not exceeding the
bearing capacity of the soil due to integral action of the raft foundation. Since raft foundation are
at some depth in the ground, large amount of underground soil needs to be excavated. If weight

305
of excavated soil is equal to the total weight of the structure including the self weight of raft, and
center gravity of structures and excavation coincide, then the settlement can be neglected. Raft
foundation can either be rectangle or circular depending upon the plan of columns.

If columns are equally spaced loads

Example 2

Design a raft foundation for the layout as shown in following figure. Net bearing capacity of
soil is 75 kN/m2. Column size is 400mm × 400mm. Use M30 grade concrete and Fe 415
grade steel. Note that loads transferred by each columns are factored loads.

306
Solution:

(1) Determination of Total load transferred by columns

40600 kN

(2) Determination of eccentricity along major and minor axis:

Centroid of loads can be obtained by taking the moment of all loads along any major grid.

Note that with respect to any axis, summation of moments of all load should be equal with
the moment of total load.

(i) Major axis

Here, let’s take the moment along major grid 5-5. Let the total load is at
distance from grid 5-5. Then:

(ii) Minor axis

Here, let’s take the moment along minor grid E-E. Let the total load is at distance
from grid 5-5. Then:

Note that the geometric center point of that plan of the raft is at:

Major axis distance from Grid 5-5,

Minor axis distance from Grid 5-5

Thus eccentricity along major axis,

And, eccentricity along major axis,

307
(3) Determination of Factored Moments along Major axis and Minor axis:

(4) Determination of Area and Moment of Inertia along each axis

(5) Determination of compressive and flexural stress

(6) Determination of Soil Pressure at Different Points

Soil pressure at different points can be determined with the following formula based
on the location point of

The location of geometric centroid of column grids is denoted by red point and
centroid due to load is denoted by blue point. All respective dimensions are also
shown.

Condition of formula to be used in each corner columns is shown as in the figure.

Note that the flexural stress at the same side from load centroid is considered as
positive and negative for opposite side.

308
From the figure, it can be understood that maximum positive stress is at corner
column A-5. The opposite corner column also should be checked if negative stress
arises due to large eccentricities.

1 2 3 4 5 0.5m
0.5m 6m 6m 6m 6m

5m
B
0.025m
0.207m
5m
C 21m
11.793 m
5m 10.025m 12.0 m
D
10.0 m
5m

E
25m

(i) Stress at Column A-5

(ii) Stress at Column E-1

309
 (iii) Stress at Column E-5

(iv) Stress at Column E-5

(7) Determination of maximum bending moment for tensile reinforcement

(i) Critical Grid along Major axis

Critical strip, as equivalent beam, is considered with its maximum stress is

considered for tensile reinforcement design.

Here, the most critical strip is A-A grid beam with its width as and

stress on it . Its span is taken as the longest span of the grid, i.e.
center of column distance, .

Note that since 1m width strip is considered for the design, then the stress on the
strip becomes uniformly distributed load as explained in design of slab.

Again note that bending moment coefficient is considered to determine the

maximum mid-span bending moment. Thus, maximum bending moment of grid A-A
is:

(ii) Critical Grid along Minor axis

Since same maximum stress is considered for this direction, then the grid 5-5

is the most critical grid in minor axis. Bending moment coefficient of is

considered to determine the maximum mid-span bending moment. The
longest span here is . Then maximum bending moment at mid
span is

310
(8) Estimation of the depth of raft footing

Depth of the raft foundation is governed by two way shear at critical columns.
Generally corner columns with larger Loads are critical. However, edge columns and
interior columns should also be considered if they have extremely large loads.

As explained previously, critical section for two way shear is always at

distance from the face of column.

Here, columns A-5, A-3 and C-3, corner column, edge column and interior column
respectively, are considered as critical columns with different conditions for two-
way shear analysis. Section details for two-way shears for these three columns are
shown in (a), (b) and (c) respectively. Note that critical sections are dotted lines and
solid lines are edges of raft foundation.

Shear strength of concrete for M30 grade concrete can be determined as

(i) Corner Column A-5

Note that perimeter of critical section is the summation of length of dotted

line. Then in this case perimeter of critical section, , can be determined as:

Shear force is considered as the load to be transferred by the column. Here,

Then shear stress can be determined as:

311
 For the safe shear design, the above shear stress in terms of should be less
than the shear strength of concrete. Then:

Similarly, effective depth can be estimated from the shear analysis of two
other columns:

(ii) Edge Column A-3

Then,

(iii) Edge Column C-3

Then,

312
 We have to adopt the effective depth which should be more than values of
above 3 cases.

Thus let’s adopt effective depth , with effective cover

giving overall depth

(9) Determination of Reinforcement in Long (Major) direction

Design of Water Tank

1. Introduction
Storage tanks are used for storing water, liquid petroleum, petroleum products, chemicals and
other similar liquids.
Based on shape tanks can be classified as:
(1) Rectangular Tanks (2) Circular Tanks (3) Polygonal Tanks (4) Intze Tanks (5) Spherical
Tanks etc.
Based on their placement, tanks can be classified as:
(1) Resting on Ground (2) Elevated tanks supported on staging (3) Underground Tanks
Generally, large reservoirs are built either resting on ground or underground for the storage of
liquid, elevated tanks are built to supply the water in city/town.
Any storage tank should structurally fulfill the following requirements:

313
 (1) Tank should have adequate designed strength and durability
(2) Tank should be built of high impermeability concrete. Note that since increase in W/C
ratio decreases the impermeability, as less W/C ratio is used. In order to have adequate
workability of concrete, mineral or chemical admixtures may be used.
(3) Tank structure should be free from any cracks to prevent the leakage of liquid.
(4) Tanks should have enough coverage to prevent the corrosion of its embedded
reinforcements
The tank has the following structural components
(1) Container: most critical component with no leak or crack
(2) Staging: Elevated tanks are supported on staging built of beams and columns or circular
shafts
(3) Staircases: built for accessing to any level of structure outside as well as inside of
container
(4) Foundation: isolated, solid or aerated raft and pile depending upon the loads and nature of
soil.

2. Design Philosophy
Overhead, underground or resting on ground tanks can be designed with either limit state method
or working stress method. In order to get familiar with working stress method, it is applied for
the design here as according to IS 3370-part2-2009. Code states that the maximum calculated
surface width of cracks for direct tension and flexural tension or restrained temperature and
moisture effects must not exceed 0.2mm width with specified cover.
Design of water retaining structure using Working Stress Method is based on 2 conditions as:
(1) Adequate resistance to cracking; and, (2) Adequate Strength
For the calculation of stresses, for both flexural and direct tension with related to the resistance
of crack, the whole depth of the concrete (including covering) as well as the area of tensile
reinforcement are taken into account provided that the tensile stress in concrete is restricted.
But, tensile strength of concrete is neglected for the strength calculation.

3. Impermeability of Concrete
Impermeability of concrete is the most important factor to resist any leakage the designed liquid
retaining structure. We know that impermeability of any given concrete mix is directly depend
upon water cement (W/C) ratio. Increase in W/C ratio greatly reduces the impermeability of
concrete. In current practice, W/C is used as low as possible with use of chemical and mineral
admixture for improving workability and impermeability of concrete. Impermeability also
directly affects durability, resistance to leaching, chemical attack, erosion, abrasion, frost damage
and protection for corrosion of steel.

4. Analysis/Design method
Design Conditions:
4.1 Members subjected to Axial Tensions
4.2 Members subjected to Bending Moment
4.3 Members Subjected ti Axial Tension and Bending Moment

4.1 Members subjected to Axial Tensions

Design criteria for this condition are as follows:

314
 (1) Tensile reinforcement should resist all tensile forces. It means:

Tensile force
= Permissible tensile stress in steel reinforcement
= Area of tensile reinforcement

(2) The calculated tensile stress of any element should not exceed the permissible tensile
stress of given steel.
For this, it is assumed that concrete and steel act together and concrete itself is not un-
cracked. From this consideration equivalent concrete area of the section can be obtained
using modular ration as:

Since Design requirement as per condition (2):

Width of the cross-section

depth of cross-section

= modular ration,

4.2 Members Subjected to Bending Moment

The structural element under bending moment should satisfy the following requirements:
(1) The concrete should not have any crack
(2) Under bending, compressive stress in concrete and tensile stress in steel reinforcement
should not exceed their respective permissible values.
Bending stress in compression or tension can be expressed as:

For analysis of section under bending, we consider the following two conditions as:
(i) When the section is un-cracked, and (ii) When the section is cracked.

4.2.1 When the section is un-cracked

This case is applied when the tension is on the liquid face or when the reinforcement is away
from the liquid by a distance less than 225 mm. In this case, the section will be treated as
composite section. Detail of un-cracked section and its stress distribution through out the
effective depth is shown in Fig. 1.

315
 Fig. 1 Un-cracked section and stress distribution
As shown in figure, the neutral axis depth is below the central line of the overall depth. It

means neutral axis depth, x, is greater than .

In this condition line of action of total tensile force lies outside of the section. Since both
bending and direct stresses are equally dominant, the location of neutral axis can be
determined by trial and error.
Let us take the moment of area about neutral axis

The moment of inertia of the equivalent section can be calculated as:

Here, d = effective depth of the section. Thus the tensile stress in concrete can be calculated
using equation (5) where y = d-x.
Since the area of tensile reinforcement is converted to equivalent area of concrete as mAst, then

the tensile stress at tensile extreme fiber becomes

The tensile stress in steel, , is less than the permissible stress of concrete, . It means

Because, neutral axis depth is below the mid-depth, which is given in equation (6) as: .
It can also be clearly noticed in stress distribution block given in Fig. 1.

316
4.2.2 When the section is Cracked
In this case, neural axis lies above the mid-depth. It means:

Detail of section and stress distribution block in this condition is shown in Fig.2. Let’s equate
the moment of effective area of concrete and tensile steel at the level of neutral axis.

Here note that is the equivalent area of concrete. Equivalent area of concrete is
times of steel area .
We can express the following relation between steel and section area.

Here is the fraction of steel area in the section. Substituting the value of from
equation (12) in equation (11), we obtain as:

In working stress method, neutral axis depth can also be expressed by , whereas N is
called as neutral axis depth factor. Then, substituting in above equation, we obtain:

Since it is quadratic equation for parameter N, then its solution is given by:

317
Since the value of is always positive, then above expression becomes

318