ELECTRIC TECHNIQUES

Department of Earth Sciences

 Electrical Method
• Using electrical methods, one may measure potentials, currents and
electromagnetic fields that occur naturally or introduce artificially

• There is enormous variation in electrical conductivity found in different

rocks and minerals

• Electrical methods include:

• self potential (SP),

• magneto-tellurics (MT),
• resistivity,
• electromagnetic (EM) and
• induced polarization (IP)
Electrical Potential:

• Several rocks and minerals have natural electrical potentials,

electrical conductivity, dielectric constant or magnetic
permeability as an indirect factor

• Certain natural or spontaneous potentials occurring in the

subsurface are caused by electrochemical or mechanical activity

• The controlling factor in all cases are commonly moisture

• These potentials are associated with weathering of sulfide

minerals, variation in rock properties, corrosion, thermal or
pressure gradient in underground fluids
There are four principal mechanisms producing these potentials:
1. Electro-kinetic potentials: It is observed when a solution of electrical resistivity
and viscosity is forced through a capillary or porous media

is adsorption potential
is the pressure difference and k is the solution dielectric constant
(Presence of large anomalies associated with topography could be responsible for
electrokinetic potential.)

2. Liquid Junction (diffusion) potential: This is due to the difference in mobility of

various ions in solutions of different concentrations

Where R is the gas constant (8.31 J/𝑜𝐶 ), F is faraday constant (9.65 × 104 𝐶/
𝑚𝑜𝑙), Ɵ 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑎𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒, 𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒, 𝐼𝑎
𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐼𝑐 are mobilities of ions and cations and C1 and C2 are solution concentrations
.
3. Shale potential: When two identical metal electrodes are immersed in a
homogeneous solution, there is no potential difference between them. If, however,
the concentrations at the two electrodes are different, there is a potential
difference given by:

4. Mineralization potential: When two dissimilar metal electrodes are immersed in

a homogeneous solution, a potential difference exists between the electrodes are
immersed in a homogeneous solution, a potential difference exists between the
electrodes. This electrolytic contact potential along `

Electrical Conduction
• Electronic: material containing free electrons
• Electrolytic: current is carried by ions
• Dielectric: Conduction take place in poor conductor
Electric Resistivity Method
• Resistivity methods employ an artificial source of current which is introduced
into ground through point electrodes or long line contacts

• The procedure is to measure potentials at other electrodes in the vicinity of the

current flow. Because the current is measured as well. it is possible to
determine an effective or apparent resistivity of the subsurface.

• In this method quantitative results are obtained by using a controlled source of

current and Potential (voltage) differences are measured between two other
electrodes located between the current electrodes.
In a typical resistivity
survey, a steady subsurface
electrical field is created by
forcing direct current
through two current
electrodes planted at the
ground surface or down
boreholes
Electric Resistivity Method
• The resistivity of rocks usually depends upon the amount of groundwater present
and on the amount of salts dissolved in it, but it is also decreased by the presence
of many ore minerals and by high temperatures

• The main uses of resistivity surveying are:

• mapping the presence of rocks of differing porosities
• detecting aquifers and contamination,
• mineral prospecting
• saline and other types of pollution,
• archaeological surveying, and
• detecting hot rocks.
The bulk resistivity of a rock will depend on:
a) The amount of conductive minerals present,
b) The amount of water and the salinity of the water (In porous,
water-filled rocks, electrical charge can be carried by the ions in
solution in the electrolyte. The most commonly occurring salt is
sodium chloride and so the ions which carry the charge are Cl-
and OH- in one direction and Na+ and H+ in the other. The
resistivity of the rock decreases with increasing porosity and
also with increasing electrolyte salinity.)
c) The amount of clay (In clay minerals, electrical flow takes place
by means of surface charge built up at the surface of each
individual clay mineral.)

Ron D. Barker
Application of Electrical Resistivity Methods to Determine the Lithological
Parameters:
OHMS LAW

• A mathematical model is then used to simulate the observed voltages and

current, resulting in estimates of the electrical resistance (or conductivity)
of subsurface materials.

• All other factors being constant, the voltage drop between the potential
electrodes is proportional to the resistance of the subsurface.

• The simplest resistivity models assume a homogeneous distribution of

resistivity, and more sophisticated models allow a heterogeneous
distribution such as a sequence of layers.

V
 a  2a
I
 Telford (1976)

Ohm’s Law
Ohm’s Law describes the electrical properties of any medium. Ohm’s Law, V = I R,
relates the voltage of a circuit to the product of the current and the resistance. This
relationship holds for earth materials as well as simple circuits. Resistance,
however, is not a material constant. Instead, resistivity is an intrinsic property of the
medium describing the resistance of the medium to the flow of electric current.
Resistivity is defined as a unit change in resistance scaled by the ratio of a unit
cross-sectional area and a unit length of the material through which the current is
passing. Resistivity is measured in ohm-m, and is the reciprocal of the conductivity
of the material.
The first step towards this is the measurement of the resistance of the ground by
passing an electrical current into it through a metal stake (electrode), which acts as
the current source. Of course, current can only pass into the ground if it can also
exit through a second electrode (or current sink) so that the circuit is completed.

The expression for the electrical potential is probably the most important in
resistivity surveying and that on which the few equations presented below are
based. The potential, V, at a distance, r, from a point current source, I, on the
surface of the earth of resistivity, , is given by:

where K is known as the geometric factor and depends on the spacing between
electrodes and their arrangement and is the resistivity of a homogeneous earth.
 Two Current Electrodes at Surface

In Wenner array, the four electrodes are placed collinearly and are
equally spaced.
Wenner spread: The electrode separation is kept constant and
moved along profiles while apparent resistivity is measured.

R1=a R2=2a
R3=2a R4=a

Geometric Factor (depend on electrode geometry)

Schlumberger configuration:
 a a a
R = 2a V/I Wenner array

R = [(AB/2)2-(MN/2)2]/MN V/I Schlumberger

array

Dipole-dipole
R = n(n+1)(n+2)a V/I array
Apparent Resistivity
• Before discussing the various electrode spreads, it is necessary to consider
what is actually measured by an array of current and potential electrodes.

• Data are termed apparent resistivity because the resistivity values measured
are actually averages over the total current path length but are plotted at one
depth point for each potential electrode pair.

• The data on current flow and potential drop are converted into resistivity
values. In case of an inhomogeneous earth, the measured resistivity is
influenced in varying proportions by material from a wide depth range in the
region covered by the electrodes and therefore, the field resistivity values are
apparent (ρa) rather than true.

• The electrical resistivity of a dry formation is much higher than that of the same
formation when it is saturated with water

• The arrangement of the four electrodes on the ground (two current and two
potential) is referred to as the electrode ‘array’ or configuration.

• Most commonly used electrode configurations are Wenner and schlumberger

types
 Resistivity Surveys
• Electrical sounding – variations of apparent
resistivity with depth.

• Horizontal profiling – lateral variations in

resistivity.
 Electrical profiling
• Electrical profiling, known as constant separation traversing (CST), uses
collinear arrays to determine lateral resistivity variations in the shallow
subsurface at a more or less fixed depth of investigation.

• The current and potential electrodes are moved along a profile with
constant spacing between electrodes.

• The most common array types used for CST are wenner, dipole-dipole
and pole-dipole arrays, where a dipole is a pair of current or potential
electrodes.

• The dipole-dipole resistivity technique consists of a collinear array with

current dipole separation of length a, potential dipole separation of length
a, with a total distance between the dipoles of length na. The dipole-
dipole technique records the largest anomalies in comparison to other
arrays, but its low signal-to-noise ratio limits its applications. Finding small
changes in resistivity at great depth would be difficult (Ward, 1990).

• The apparent resistivity value is plotted along intersecting 45 degree lines

centered on the dipoles (Hallof, 1957).
 Resistivity Field Procedures
• Geophysical resistivity techniques are based on the response of
the earth to the flow of electrical current.

• An electrical current is passed through the ground and two

potential electrodes allow us to record the resultant potential
difference between them, giving us a way to measure the
electrical impedance of the subsurface material

• The apparent resistivity is then a function of the measured

impedance (ratio of potential to current) and the geometry of the
electrode array. Depending upon the survey geometry, the
apparent resistivity data are plotted as 1-D soundings, 1-D profiles,
or in 2-D cross-sections in order to look for anomalous regions.

• In the shallow subsurface, the presence of water controls much of

the conductivity variation.
Resistivity measurements are associated with varying depths
depending on the separation of the current and potential electrodes
in the survey, and can be interpreted in terms of a lithologic and/or
geohydrologic model of the subsurface.

• Data are termed apparent resistivity because the resistivity values

measured are actually averages over the total current path length
but are plotted at one depth point for each potential electrode
pair.
EQUIPMENT FOR RESISTIVITY FIELD WORK
The necessary components for making resistivity measurements include a
1. power source, (The power may be either dc or low frequency ac,
preferably less than 60 Hz)
2. meters for measuring current and voltage (which may be combined in
one meter to read resistance),
3. electrodes, cable, and reels..

To avoid the effects of electrolytic polarization caused by unidirectional current, the

de polarity should be reversed periodically. either by hand with a reversing switch, or
by a mechanical commutator, relay system, or vibrator.
Higher level
Of dissolved
solids
• Survey Design and Procedure Survey design depends on the specific
characteristics of the site and the objective of the survey.

• The three most common modes of electrical resistivity surveying are

profiling, sounding, and profiling-sounding, each having its own specific
purpose.

• If the purpose of the survey is to map the depths and thickness of

stratigraphic units, then the electrical resistivity data should be collected in
the sounding mode.

• Lateral electrical resistivity contrasts, such as lithologic contacts, can best

be mapped in the profiling mode.

• Incases where the electrical resistivity is expected to vary both vertically

and horizontally, such as in contaminant plume mapping, the preferred
mode is profile sounding.
 Vertical electric sounding

• Vertical electric sounding (VES) employs collinear arrays designed to

output a 1-D vertical apparent resistivity versus depth model of the
subsurface at a specific observation point.

• In this method a series of potential differences are acquired at

successively greater electrode spacing while maintaining a fixed central
reference point.

• The induced current passes through progressively deeper layers at

greater electrode spacing.

• The potential difference measurements are directly proportional to the

changes in the deeper subsurface. Apparent resistivity values calculated
from measured potential differences can be interpreted in terms of
overburden thickness, water table depth, and the depths and thicknesses
of subsurface strata.

• The most common array used for VES is the Schlumberger array.
Vertical Electrical Sounding (VES) is applied to near horizontal layered
medium, e.g. sedimentary terrain or weathered zones over hard rocks. It is
used to determine variations in electrical resistivity with depth. In VES (also
loosely called electrical drilling), the distances between electrodes are
increased so that the electric current penetrates to deeper and deeper levels,
which allows resistivity measurement of a deeper and deeper and larger
volume of the earth.
• The interpretation can be refined
through forward or inverse
modelling.

• Resistivity mapping is carried out

for delineating near surface
resistivity anomalies caused by
for example, fracture zones,
cavities or waste deposits.

• Generally speaking the larger the

electrode spacing the more the
observed data will reflect the
resistivity of layers at depth in the
earth
Sounding
Easy and simple
to set up and run.
 Dipole-Dipole – combine Sounding and Profiling

45°

• Data acquisition proceeds by combining Depth Sounding and Lateral Profiling to obtain data
from a 2D section of the subsurface.
• The horizontal location of a data point is at the mid-point of a set of electrodes used.
• The vertical position (pseudo-depth) of a data point is at a depth proportional to the
electrode spacings.
Site investigation for proposed tunnel,
courtesy of Hyundai Construction Company, Korea
Pole-pole 3D command file
It is easy to create a pole-pole 3D command file by using the
“Create command file” option in the UserLoad software
3D resistivity image
Survey (pole-pole) performed over a horizontally layered limestone.
Displayed high resistive area is caused by unknown structure within
the limestone.

3D presentation, courtesy of “C Tech Development Corp.”

Conclusion:

• Use the dipole-dipole array when the highest resolution

is required

• Use the Schlumberger array in case of electrically noisy

conditions which is often the case under low resistive
conditions such as landfills and environmental sites

• Use the Wenner array as a last resort, or if you are

mapping
basically horizontal layers
 Induced polarization (IP method)

• Discovered by accident by observation of resistivity meters – slow

decay of voltage in some areas

• Widely used in mineral exploration

• More recently found application in groundwater and environmental

studies
 Mechanisms causing the IP effect

Membrane polarization:
• in clays, electrolytic current flow is impeded by positive ions (attracted to
negatively charged clay particles)
• charges accumulate, voltage builds up
• on release of current, charges drift back to equilibrium, voltage decays
 Mechanisms causing the IP effect

Electrode polarization:
• metallic mineral grains conduct electronically, electrolytic ions accumulate at pore
restrictions causing a buildup of voltage

• on current release, ions drift to equilibrium positions, leading to a voltage decay

IP Effect – factors
Three main causes
1) Electrochemical processes at the interface of
metallic minerals / pore fluid:
 presence of ore deposits.
2) Exchange reactions in clay and shaly sands:
 hydrogeological applications.
3) Reactions involving organic materials:
 hydrocarbon exploration.

IP - Main Applications:
 disseminated metallic ores
⁻ porphyry coppers,
⁻ bedded lead/zinc
⁻ sulphide-related gold deposits
 environmental related studies
 geothermal exploration
current is injected into the ground it also acts as a capacitor (or actually a battery),
which stores electrical charge. The two phenomena can be depicted in an equivalent
circuit as shown here on the right, where R is the earth resistance and C describes
the capacitance. Upon turning off the (polarising) DC-current, the ground gradually
discharged and returns to equilibrium which is the observed IP effect.

Induced Polarisation

“equivalent circuits”
• DC Resistivity • Induced Polarisation
- I
+ - I
+

completely described +
by Ohm’s law - C

𝑼 resistance R “capacitance ”
𝑹 =
(charge / voltage)
𝑰
 IP Effect

charge time
Steady state voltage: Vp
(primary voltage)
IP effect
Residual voltage: Vs
(secondary voltage)

• The rate of decay depends on the electrical properties of the ground and the presence of
metallic minerals

• The decay voltage is the result of storage of energy by the ground during the period when
the DC current is on

• The effect cannot be explained in terms of the atomic or molecular structure of the
material, but depend on the macro-structure.
Principally with the same equipment as Resistivity
Measurements:

C1 P1 P2 C2
• The greater the exposed metallic surface area, the stronger the effect
• Enhanced effect for disseminated mineral grains
• Often these are cases in which standard resistivity response is weak
• In mineral exploration, the effect of near-surface clays complicates the
measurement
Time-domain IP measurement

Frequency domain measurement of Induced Polarization

•The AC output voltage is measured

for each input frequency
• At low frequency, the output
voltage stabilizes to the DC response
before the voltage is switched
• At high frequency the output
voltage is lower, as the input
switches before the voltage stabilizes
• DC resistivity
→direct electrical connection (electrodes)
→ flow of current
→ electrical potential in the ground

• IP methods
→direct electrical connection (electrodes)
→ flow of current switched off
→ decay of electrical potential
Induced Polarisation

• IP surveys usually use a separate

transmitter and receiver
• Power requirements are higher than for DC
res. surveys
• Cables and electrodes must be watched. If
a passer-by or animal touched the current
electrodes during data acquisition, this
could be fatal
IP Data Interpretation

DC / IP data are DC
gathered together

Invert potentials for

conductivity (background)
model
IP
Use 𝜎-model for forward
mapping of chargeability

Least-Squares
Inversion
Invert for chargeability
models
observed data

2D inversion

observed data

2D inversion
IP Data Interpretation
2D resistivity Section

Conductive zone ~1000 𝛺 ∙ 𝑚 (Groundwater?)

EDB (100)

Conductive zone ~300 𝛺 ∙ 𝑚 (Clays?)

Log Resistivity (𝛺 ∙ 𝑚)

2D IP Section

EDB (100)

Chargeability Anomalies
(Contaminants ?)

Chargeability (mV/V)
The Self-Potential (Spontaneous-Potential) Method

SP method is passive, i.e. differences in natural ground potentials are measured

between any two points on the ground surface

What Is Self-Potential Used For?

The self-potential method was the first electrical method used for mineral
exploration and is still used therein. In fact, it was used to find raw materials in the
industrial revolution, making it extremely valuable back in the day.

Self Potential (SP) geophysical surveys measure the potential difference between
any two points on the ground produced by the small, naturally produced currents
that occur beneath the Earth's surface.
The SP method is passive, non-intrusive and does not require the application of an
electric current. Small potentials of the order of a few millivolts are produced by two
electrolytic solutions of differing concentrations that are in direct contact, and by
the flow of groundwater through porous materials (streaming potential). Larger
ground potentials are produced by conductive mineralised ore bodies partially
immersed below the water table.
SP SURVEY OPERATION

Standard SP surveys utilise non-polarising, porous pot electrodes,

which have been specially adapted to minimise contact voltages.

Readings are typically taken with one electrode fixed at a base station
and a second, mobile 'field' electrode that is moved around the survey
area.

Reading stations are spaced at regular intervals along linear profiles,

closed loops or grids depending upon the desired application.

The self potential method is traditionally used as a mineral exploration

tool and for downhole logging in the oil industry. More recently it has
been adapted for hydrogeological and water engineering applications,
by the use of more sensitive equipment and the careful application of
data correction processes.
Self-potential signal (SP) associated to the pumping test. Correlation between SP
and the depth of the water table measured on monitoring wells (black lines with
solid triangles).
(Adapted from Revil et al., 2003 and Bogoslovsky and Ogilvy, 1973).
APPLICATIONS
Finding leaks in canal embankments
Identifying seepage in dams and reservoirs
Locating leachate leaks at landfill margins
Assessing effectiveness of water-engineering remedial measures
Defining zones and plumes of contaminants
Mineral exploration of massive sulphide ore bodies
DSEAR stray current testing