Republic of the Philippines

Don Honorio Ventura State University

Sto. Tomas Campus
Moras dela Paz, Sto. Tomas, Pampanga

Geology for Civil Engineers

Chapter 2: Mineralogy

Submitted to:
Alldrine B. Muñoz, RCE

Submitted by:
Tiglao, Diana Marie L.
Toledo, Marwin Adrian C.
Tolentino, Erika D.
Tullao, Mikaela D.
Villacora, John Rey
Visda, Lester Kelie S.
Yabut, Erika G.
Yabut, Joshua G.
Yumang, Shiella Marie S.
MINERALOGY
What is Mineralogy?
Mineralogy is the branch of geology concerned with the study of minerals.
What are Minerals?
Minerals are the building blocks of a rock.
What makes a mineral a mineral?
1. The substance must exist as a solid under a normal conditions on earth.
2. The substance must be naturally occurring on earth, not man-made.
3. The substance must be inorganic, not living or made from living things.
4. The substance must have a fixed chemical formula, made of specific elements.
5. The atoms that make up the substance must be arranged in an orderly structure.
ELEMENTARY KNOWLEDGE ON SYMMETRY ELEMENTS OF CRYSTALLOGRAPHIC
SYSTEMS
i. Symmetry in Crystallography
ii. Unit cells
iii. Rotational Symmetry
iv. Stereographic Projection
v. Micro- translation
vi. Symmetry of the reciprocal lattice
vii. Space groups
viii. International tables for Crystallography

i. Symmetry In Crystallography

Crystals are defined as solids that have an atomic structure with long-range, 3 dimensional order.
Crystals have flat faces and sharp edges. Also, many crystals will have one or more directions that can
be cleaved cleanly. Samples with a naturally round shape, or samples that have a concoidal fracture
pattern are nearly always described as a "glass" having no significant, long-range, 3-D order.

Long- range can only confirmed by using diffraction technique

In crystallography, symmetry is used to characterize crystals, identify repeating parts of molecules, and
simplify both data collection and nearly all calculations.
Physical properties of crystal
1. Thermal Conductivity
2. Optical Activity

Movement of Crystals
 1. Rotation
2. Translation

In the 17th century were interested in the specific make up of crystals that would allow them to
maintain the same angles between pairs of faces. These scientists believed that crystals must be made of
some regularly-repeating components. Through these early studies, René-Just Haüy was able to
postulate that if crystals of calcite and cubic garnets were built from many small blocks, then these
blocks could easily be used to describe the faces of these crystals in terms of rational indices.

ii. Unit Cells

These regularly-repeating blocks are now known as unit cells. The

dimensions of a unit cell are described by the lengths of the three axes, a, b,
and c, and the three interaxial angles, α, β, and γ. In most published papers
the axial lengths are expressed in terms of Å (Ångströms), and the interaxial
angles are expressed in terms of ° (degrees).

Lattice - symmetrical three-dimensional arrangement of atoms inside a crystal.

Crystalline materials are separated into 7 crystal systems.

Trigonal Lattice
iii. Rotational Symmetry
1. Proper rotations
2. Improper rotations

1. Proper rotations- move an object but do not change the handedness of the object.

• 1-Fold Rotation - A 1(E)-fold rotation operation implies either a

0° rotation or a 360° rotation, and is referred to as the identity
operation.

• 2-Fold Rotation - A 2-fold(C2) rotation operation moves the

object by (360/2) ° = 180 °. The symbol used to designate a 2-fold
axis is a solid oval.

• 3-Fold Rotation - A 3-fold(C3) rotation operation moves the

object by (360/3) ° = 120 °. The symbol used to designate a 3-fold
axis is a solid equilateral triangle.

• 4-Fold Rotation- A 4-fold(C4) rotation operation moves the object

by (360/4) ° = 90 °. The symbol

• 6-Fold Rotation- A 6-fold(C6) rotation operation moves the object

by (360/6) ° = 60 °. The symbol used to designate a 6-fold axis is a
solid hexagon.

Proper Rotations- include a proper rotation as well as a component that invers to the
handedness of the object.
2. Improper Rotation may be thought of as occurring in two parts, first a proper rotation is
performed, followed by an inversion through a particular point on the rotation axis.
• 3 Roto-inversion- This operation involves a rotation by (360/3) ° followed by an inversion
through the center of the object. The symbol is a filled triangle with an open circle in the
middle. This is the only improper rotation that also includes the proper rotation axis and an
inversion center.
 • 4 Roto-inversion- This operation involves a rotation by (360/4) ° followed by an inversion
through the center of the object. The symbol is an open 4-sided diamond with an filled oval
in the middle.
• 6 Roto-inversion- This operation involves a rotation by (360/6) ° followed by an inversion
through the center of the object. The symbol is an open hexagon with an filled triangle inside.

iv. Stereographic Projections

Drawing the three-dimensional symmetry operations on a two-

dimensional surface such as this page has been a difficult problem.
One way to overcome this problem is through the use of a
stereographic projection. Such figures are also effective in describing
the angular relations among the faces of a crystal.

v. Micro- Translations

Rotational symmetry operations can be combined with translations of part of the unit cell creating
entirely new symmetry operations. Proper rotations combined with translations give rise to
operations described as screw axes. Mirror planes that are combined with translations give rise to
glide plane operations.

vi. Symmetry of the Reciprocal Lattice

The real cell parameters are determined by the relative positions of the reciprocal lattice points.
Actually the reciprocal cell parameters are determined during a process known as indexing the
diffraction pattern. From the reciprocal cell parameters the real cell parameters are then calculated
according to the relations below.
 • Laue Class
• Friedel's Law
• Symmetry- Equivalent Intensities

vii. Space Groups

In crystallography, space groups are also called crystallographic or Fedorov groups, and represent a
description of the symmetry of the crystal.

viii. Table List of The Graphical and Typed Symbol used to Describe Symmetry Operation
in the "International Tables For Crystallography"

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF MINERALS

The physical properties of minerals are used by Mineralogists to help determine the identity of a
specimen. Some of the tests can be performed easily in the field, while others require laboratory
equipment.

Properties of Minerals
The following physical properties of minerals can be easily used to identify a mineral:
1. Color
2. Streak
 3. Hardness
4. Cleavage or Fracture
5. Diaphaneity or Amount of Transparency
6. Tenacity
7. Magnetism
8. Luster
9. Odor
10. Taste
11. Specific Gravity

1. Color
Most minerals have a distinctive color that can be used for identification. In opaque minerals, the color
tends to be more consistent, so learning the colors associated with these minerals can be very helpful in
identification. Translucent to transparent minerals have a much more varied degree of color due to the
presence of trace minerals. Therefore, color alone is not reliable as a single identifying characteristic.

2. Streak
Streak is the color of the mineral in powdered form. Streak shows the true color of the mineral. In large
solid form, trace minerals can change the color appearance of a mineral by reflecting the light in a
certain way. Trace minerals have little influence on the reflection of the small powdery particles of the
streak.

3. Hardness
Hardness is one of the better properties of minerals to use for identifying a mineral. Hardness is a
measure of the mineral’s resistance to scratching.

The Mohs scale is a set of 10 minerals whose hardness is known. The following is a listing of the
minerals of the Mohs scale and their rating:

Talc Orthoclase Feldspar

Gypsum Quartz
Calcite Topaz
Fluorite Corundum
Apatite Diamond

4. Cleavage & Fracture

Cleavage is defined using two sets of criteria. The first set of criteria describes how easily the cleavage
is obtained. Cleavage is considered perfect if it is easily obtained and the cleavage planes are easily
distinguished. It is considered good if the cleavage is produced with some difficulty but has obvious
cleavage planes. Finally it is considered imperfect if cleavage is obtained with difficulty and some of the
planes are difficult to distinguish.

The second set of criteria is the direction of the cleavage surfaces. The names correspond to the shape
formed by the cleavage surfaces: Cubic, rhombohedral, octahedral, dodecahedral, basal or prismatic.
These criteria are defined specifically by the angles of the cleavage lines as indicated in the chart below:

Fracture describes the quality of the cleavage surface. Most minerals display either uneven or grainy
fracture, conchoidal (curved, shell-like lines) fracture, or hackly (rough, jagged) fracture.

5. Transparency or Diaphaneity
Diaphaneity is a mineral’s degree of transparency or ability to allow light to pass through it. The degree
of transparency may also depend on the thickness of the mineral.

6. Tenacity
Tenacity is the characteristic that describes how the particles of a mineral hold together or resist
separation.

7. Magnetism
Magnetism is the characteristic that allows a mineral to attract or repel other magnetic materials. It can
be difficult to determine the differences between the various types of magnetism, but it is worth
knowing that there are distinctions made

8. Luster
Luster is the property of minerals that indicates how much the surface of a mineral reflects light. The
luster of a mineral is affected by the brilliance of the light used to observe the mineral surface.

9. Odor
Most minerals have no odor unless they are acted upon in one of the following ways: moistened, heated,
breathed upon, or rubbed.

10. Taste
Only soluble minerals have a taste, but it is very important that minerals not be placed in the mouth or
on the tongue. You should not test for this property in the classroom.

11. Specific Gravity

Specific Gravity of a mineral is a comparison or ratio of the weight of the mineral to the weight of an
equal amount of water. The weight of the equal amount of water is found by finding the difference
between the weight of the mineral in air and the weight of the mineral in water.

STUDY OF ROCK FORMING MINERALS

The rock-forming minerals
It is convenient to distinguish between minerals which are essential constituents of the rocks in which
they occur, their presence being implied by the rock name, and others which are accessory. The latter are
commonly found in small amount in a rock but their presence or absence does not affect the naming of
it. Secondary minerals are those which result from the decomposition of earlier minerals, often promoted
by the action of water in some form, with the addition or subtraction of other material, and with the
formation of mineral by-products.
Quartz Family
Quartz is a chemical compound consisting of one part silicon and two
parts oxygen. It is silicon dioxide (SiO2). It is the most abundant mineral
found at Earth's surface, and its unique properties make it one of the
most useful natural substances. Quartz is the most abundant and widely
distributed mineral found at Earth's surface. It is present and plentiful in
all parts of the world. It forms at all temperatures. It is abundant
in igneous, metamorphic, and sedimentary rocks

Where Quartz found?

Geological processes have occasionally deposited sands that are composed of almost 100% quartz
grains. These deposits have been identified and produced as sources of high purity silica sand. These
sands are used in the glassmaking industry. Quartz sand is used in the production of container glass, flat
plate glass, specialty glass, and fiberglass.

Name of the minerals Description/ Characteristics Location of minerals

1. Amethyst quartz Purple crystalline quartz is
known as "amethyst." When
transparent and of high
quality, it is often cut as a
gemstone.
This specimen is about four
inches (ten centimeters)
across and is from
Guanajuato, Mexico.

2. Flint Flint is a variety of This specimen is about four

3. Quartz flint arrowheads
microcrystalline or inches (ten centimeters)
cryptocrystalline quartz. It across and is from Dover
occurs as nodules and Cliffs, England.
concretionary masses and less
frequently as a layered
deposit. It breaks consistently
with a conchoidal fracture and
was one of the first materials
used to make tools by early
people. They used it to make
cutting tools. It is presently
used as the cutting edge in
some of the finest surgical
tools. This specimen is about
four inches (ten centimeters).
One of the first uses of quartz,
in the form of flint, was the
production of sharp objects
such as knife blades, scrapers,
and projectile points such as
the arrowheads shown above.

Feldspar Family
Feldspar is the name of a large group of rock-forming silicate minerals that
make up over 50% of Earth’s crust. They are found in igneous, metamorphic,
and sedimentary rocks in all parts of the world. Feldspar minerals have very
similar structures, chemical compositions, and physical properties. Common
feldspars include orthoclase(KAlSi3O8), albite (NaAlSi3O8), and anorthite
(CaAl2Si2O8).
Feldspar minerals have many uses in industry. They are used to manufacture a wide variety of glass and
ceramic products. They are also widely used as fillers in paints, plastics and rubber. Several
popular gemstones are feldspar minerals. These include moonstone, sunstone, labradorite, amazonite
and spectrolite.

Name of the minerals Definition/ Characteristics

Feldspar minerals with compositions that range between NaAlSi3O8 and

1. The Alkali KAlSi3O8 are known as alkali feldspars. They include albite (NaAlSi3O8),
Feldspars anorthoclase ((Na,K)AlSi3O8), sanidine ((K,Na)AlSi3O8), orthoclase
(KAlSi3O8), and microcline (KAlSi3O8).
Form a solid solution series between NaAlSi3O8 and KAlSi3O8.
Anorthoclase, with a composition of (Na,K)AlSi3O8, occupies the
2. Albite and
intermediate position between them.
Sanidine

Usually have compositions that are very close to KAlSi3O8. Sanidine can
also have a composition very close to KAlSi3O8. These three
KAlSi3O8 minerals are polymorphs, meaning they have the same chemical
compositions but different crystal structures. Sanidine has a monoclinic
3. Orthoclase
structure, orthoclase is monoclinic, and sanidine is triclinic. The determining
and
factor for the formation of these three minerals with a KAlSi3O8 composition
Microcline
is temperature. Sanidine is the high-temperature form, orthoclase is the
intermediate-temperature form, and microcline is the low-temperature form.

4. Arkose Sedimentary rock that forms from the weathering of feldspar-rich igneous
and metamorphic rocks. It is a sandstone that contains at least 25% feldspar.

Augite

Augite has a chemical composition of (Ca,Na)(Mg,Fe,Al)(Si,Al)2O6 with

many paths of solid solution. Augite is usually green, black, or brown in color
with a translucent to opaque diaphaneity.

Augite does not have any physical, optical, or chemical properties that make
it especially useful. It is therefore one of the few minerals that has no
commercial use. The calcium content of augite has been found to be of
limited use in studies of the temperature history of igneous rocks.
Where augite found?
Augite is a rock-forming mineral that commonly occurs in mafic and intermediate igneous rocks such
as basalt, gabbro, andesite, and diorite.It is found in these rocks throughout the world, wherever they
occur. Augite is also found in ultramafic rocks and in some metamorphic rocks that form under high
temperatures.
Hornblende

Hornblende is a field and classroom name used for a group of dark-

colored amphibole minerals found in many types
of igneous and metamorphic rocks. These minerals vary in chemical
composition but are all double-chain inosilicates with very similar
physical properties.
Hornblende is a rock-forming mineral that is an important constituent in
acidic and intermediate igneous rocks such as granite, diorite,
syenite, andesite, and rhyolite. It is also found in metamorphic rocks such as gneiss and schist. A few
rocks consist almost entirely of hornblende.Amphibolite is the name given to metamorphic rocks that
are mainly composed of amphibole minerals. Lamprophyre is an igneous rock that is mainly composed
of amphibole and biotite with a feldspar ground mass.

Uses of Hornblende
The mineral hornblende has very few uses. Its primary use might be as a mineral specimen. However,
hornblende is the most abundant mineral in a rock known as amphibolite which has a large number of
uses. It is crushed and used for highway construction and as railroad ballast. It is cut for use as
dimension stone. The highest quality pieces are cut, polished, and sold under the name "black granite"
for use as building facing, floor tiles, countertops, and other architectural uses.

Biotite
Biotite is a name used for a large group of black mica minerals that are
commonly found in igneousand metamorphic rocks. These include
annite, phlogopite, siderophyllite, fluorophlogopite, fluorannite,
eastonite, and many others. These micas vary in chemical composition
but are all sheet silicate minerals with very similar physical properties.
Biotite is a rock-forming mineral found in a wide range of crystalline
igneous rocks such as granite, diorite, gabbro, peridotite, and pegmatite.
It also forms under metamorphic conditions when argillaceous rocks are exposed to heat and pressure to
form schist and gneiss. Although biotite is not very resistant to weathering and transforms into clay
minerals, it is sometimes found in sediments and sandstones.It is a black mica with perfect cleavage and
a vitreous luster on the cleavage faces. When biotite is separated into thin sheets, the sheets are flexible
but will break upon severe bending. When held up to the light, the sheets are transparent to translucent
with a brown, gray, or greenish color.
Usage in field
Ground mica is used as a filler and extender in paints, as an additive to drilling muds, as an inert filler
and mold-release agent in rubber products, and as a non-stick surface coating on asphalt shingles and
rolled roofing. It is also used in the potassium-argon and argon-argon methods of dating igneous rocks.
Muscovite
Muscovite is the most common mineral of the mica family. It is an
important rock-forming mineral present in igneous, metamorphic, and
sedimentary rock. Like other micas it readily cleaves into thin transparent
sheets. Muscovite sheets have a pearly to vitreous luster on their surface.
In the 1700s it was mined for this use from pegmatites in the area around
Moscow, Russia. These panes were called "muscovy glass" and that term
is thought to have inspired the mineral name "muscovite”. Sheet muscovite
is an excellent insulator, and that makes it suitable for manufacturing
specialized parts for electrical equipment

Calcite
Calcite is a rock-forming mineral with a chemical formula of CaCO3. It
is extremely common and found throughout the world in sedimentary,
metamorphic, and igneous rocks. Some geologists consider it to be a
"ubiquitous mineral" - one that is found everywhere.Calcite is the
principal constituent of limestone and marble. These rocks are extremely
common and make up a significant portion of Earth's crust. They serve as
one of the largest carbon repositories on our planet. It is used as a
construction material, abrasive, agricultural soil treatment, construction
aggregate, pigment, pharmaceutical and more. It has more uses than almost any other mineral.
Names of minerals Description/ characteristic Usage in field
1. Limestone Limestone is a sedimentary rock Calcite in concrete used in a high-rise
that is composed primarily of building: Calcite in the form of
calcite. Limestone also forms as a limestone is used to make cement and
deposit in caves from the also used as the aggregate in most
precipitation of calcium carbonate. concrete.The construction industry is
the primary consumer of calcite in the
2. Marble Marble is a metamorphic rock that form of limestone and marble. These
forms when limestone is subjected rocks have been used as dimension
to heat and pressure. Marble that stones and in mortar for thousands of
has been subjected to higher levels years. Limestone blocks were the
of metamorphism will generally primary construction material used in
have larger calcite crystals. many of the pyramids of Egypt and
Latin America. Today, rough and
polished limestone and marble are still
an important material used in prestige
architecture. Modern construction uses
calcite in the form of limestone and
marble to produce cement and
concrete. These materials are easily
mixed, transported, and placed in the
form of a slurry that will harden into a
durable construction material. Concrete
is used to make buildings, highways,
bridges, walls, and many other
structures.
Garnet
Garnet is the name used for a large group of rock-forming minerals. Best
known as a red gemstone and birthstone of January. There are a variety of
different types of garnet, and each has a different chemical composition.
There are also solid solution series between most of the garnet minerals.
This wide variation in chemistry determines many of their physical
properties. As an example, the calcium garnets generally have a lower
specific gravity, a lower hardness and are typically green in color. In
contrast, the iron and manganese garnets have a higher specific gravity, a
greater hardness and are typically red in color.
Name of minerals Description/ Characteristics Usage in field
1. Almandine garnet Excellent cubic crystals of They are used in waterjet
almandine garnet in a fine- cutting, "sand" blasting,
grained mica schist from sandpaper, water filtration, and
Granatenkogel Mountain, a number of other uses.
Austria Almandine is the hardest garnet
and also the most abundant. It is
the garnet of choice for most
abrasive applications.

2. Andradite garnet Green andradite garnet of the

demantoid variety on a matrix
of marble.

PROPERTIES AND PROCESS OF FORMATION OF ALL MINERALS

 How do minerals form from magma and lava?
 How do minerals form from water solutions?

A geode is a rounded, hollow rock that is often lined with mineral crystals. It is formed in the way that
all minerals generally are formed—through crystallization, the process by which atoms are arranged to
form a material with a crystal structure.

One of the two ways minerals form is by:

1. Crystallization of magma (cools inside the crust) or lava (cools & hardens on the surface)
2. Crystallization of materials dissolved in water.

When these liquids cool to a solid state, they form crystals.

The size of these crystals depends on several factors:
1. The rate at which magma cools
 Slow cooling leads to the formation of large crystals. If the crystals remain
undisturbed while cooling, they grow according to a regular pattern. Magma
closer to the surface cools much faster than magma that hardens deep below
ground. With rapid cooling, there is no time for magma to form large crystals. If
magma erupts to the surface and becomes lava, the lava will also cool quickly
and form minerals with small crystals.
2. The amount of gas magma contains
3. The chemical composition of magma

Some minerals form from solutions

Sometimes the elements and compounds that form minerals can be dissolved in water to form solutions.
A solution is a mixture in which one substance is dissolved in another. When elements and compounds
that are dissolved in water leave a solution, crystallization occurs. Minerals form in this way
underground & in bodies of water.

Minerals form when solutions evaporate

For example, deposits of the mineral halite, or table salt, formed over millions of years when ancient
seas slowly evaporated. This occurs in the Midwest, Southwest and Gulf coast. Other useful minerals
that can form by evaporation include gypsum and calcite.

Some minerals form from hot water solutions.

Pure metals that crystallize from hot water solutions underground often form veins. A vein is a narrow
channel or slab of a mineral that is different from the surrounding rock.
Magma heats the water underground elements & compounds dissolve in hot water to form solutions
the solutions follow cracks within the rock elements & compounds leave the solution during cooling and
crystallize as minerals these minerals form a narrow channel or slab in the rock called a vein.

Where minerals form: Both occur through crystallization

Minerals can form on the surface through evaporation of solutions containing dissolved minerals.
Minerals can form beneath the surface when dissolved elements and compounds leave a hot water
solution or when materials melted in magma/ lava then cools & hardens.

Silicate Minerals
Silicate minerals are the most common of Earth's minerals and include quartz, feldspar, mica,
amphibole, pyroxene, and olivine. Silica tetrahedra, made up of silicon and oxygen, form chains, sheets,
and frameworks, and bond with other cations to form silicate minerals.
The mineral quartz (SiO2) is found in all rock types and in all parts of the world. It occurs as
sand grains in sedimentary rocks, as crystals in both igneous and metamorphic rocks, and in veins that
cut through all rock types, sometimes bearing gold or other precious metals. It is so common on Earth's
surface that until the late 1700s it was referred to simply as "rock crystal." Today, quartz is what most
people picture when they think of the word "crystal."
Quartz falls into a group of minerals called the silicates, all of which contain the elements silicon
and oxygen in some proportion. Silicates are by far the most common minerals in Earth's crust and
mantle, making up 95% of the crust and 97% of the mantle by most estimates. Silicates have a wide
variety of physical properties, despite the fact that they often have very similar chemical formulas. At
first glance, for example, the formulas for quartz (SiO2) and olivine ((Fe,Mg)2SiO4) appear fairly
similar; these seemingly minor differences, however, reflect very different underlying crystal structures
and, therefore, very different physical properties. Among other differences, quartz melts at about 600° C
while olivine remains solid to temperatures of nearly twice that; quartz is generally clear and colorless,
whereas olivine received its name from its olive green color.
The variety and abundance of the silicate minerals is a result of the nature of the silicon atom,
and even more specifically, the versatility and stability of silicon when it bonds with oxygen. In fact,
pure silicon was not isolated until 1822, when the Swedish chemist Jöns Jakob Berzelius finally
succeeded in separating silicon from its most common compound, the silicate anion (SiO4)4-. This anion
takes the shape of a tetrahedron, with a Si4+ ion at the center and four O2- ions at the corners (see Figure
1); thus, the molecular anion has a net charge of -4.
Figure 1: Three ways of drawing the silica
tetrahedron: a) At left, a ball & stick model,
showing the silicon cation in orange surrounded
by 4 oxygen anions in blue; b) At center, a space
filling model; c) At right, a geometric shorthand.

The Si-O bonds within this tetrahedral structure are partially ionic and partially covalent, and
they are very strong. Silica tetrahedra bond with each other and with a variety of cations in many
different ways to form the silicate minerals. Despite the fact that there are many hundreds of silicate
minerals, only about 25 are truly common. Therefore, by understanding how these silica tetrahedra form
minerals, you will be able to name and identify 95% of the rocks you encounter on Earth's surface.
The most common silicate minerals fall into four types of structures, described in more detail
below: isolated tetrahedra, chains of silica tetrahedra, sheets of tetrahedra, and a framework of
interconnected tetrahedra.
Isolated tetrahedra: Olivine
The simplest atomic structure involves individual silica anions and metal cations, usually iron
(Fe) and magnesium (Mg), both of which exist most commonly as ions with charge of +2. Therefore, it
takes two atoms of Fe2+ or Mg2+ (or one of each) to balance the -4 charge of the silica anion. Olivine
(see Figures 2a and 2b below) is the most common silicate of this type, and it makes up most of the
mantle. Because these minerals contain a relatively high proportion of iron and magnesium, they tend to
be both dense and dark-colored. Because the tetrahedra are not polymerized, there are no consistent
planes of internal atomic weakness, so they also have no cleavage. Garnet is another common mineral
with this structure.

Figure 2b: A picture of

Figure 2a: Depiction of a olivine (the green crystals),
single silicate tetrahedron an example of a silicate
structure composed of
isolated tetrahedrons, with
a vein of basalt (the gray
material.)
Chains of tetrahedra: Pyroxenes and Amphiboles
When silicate anions polymerize, they share an oxygen atom with a neighboring tetrahedron.
Commonly, each tetrahedron will share two of its oxygen atoms, forming long chain structures. These
chains still have a net negative charge, however, and the chains bond to metal cations like Fe2+, Mg2+,
and Ca2+ to balance the negative charge. These metal cations commonly bond to multiple chains,
forming bridges between the chains. Single-chain silicates include a common group called the
pyroxenes, which are generally dark-colored (see Figures 3a and 3b). Because the bonds within the
tetrahedra are strong, planes of atomic weakness do not cross the chains; instead, pyroxenes have two
cleavage planes parallel to the chains and at nearly right angles to each other.

Figure 3b: Pyroxene is one

of the dominant minerals in
this sample of gabbro. It is
Figure 3a: A schematic diagram of a the dark mineral and can
single chain silica structure. Where two be hard to recognize.
tetrahedral touch, they share an oxygen
ion.
Double chains form when every other tetrahedron in a single chain shares a third oxygen ion
with an adjoining chain (see Figure 4a). Like single chains, double chains still maintain a net negative
charge and bond to cations that can form bridges between multiple double chains.

Figure 4a: A schematic diagram of the double

chain silica structure.

Double chain silicates, called amphiboles, host a wider variety of cations, including Fe2+, Mg2+,
Ca2+, Al3+, and Na+, and have a wide variety of colors. The most common amphibole is hornblende, a
black mineral found in igneous rocks like granite and andesite (see Figures 4b and 4c). Amphiboles tend
to form prismatic crystals with two cleavage planes at 120 degrees to each other.

Figure 4b: Individual Figure 4b: Hornblende

hornblende crystals where is the dark mineral in
the characteristics cleavage the rock
can be seen.

Pyroxenes and amphiboles can be difficult to distinguish from one another, as they are both dark-
colored, blocky minerals. A careful examination of the angle between cleavage planes, described above,
is required to identify them.
Sheets: Micas and Clays
When every tetrahedron shares three of its oxygen ions with neighboring tetrahedra, sheets are
formed (see Figure 5a). Micas such as muscovite and biotite (see Figure 5b) are both common sheet
silicates, notable for their one perfect cleavage. This perfect cleavage results from the type of bonds that
occur between sheets – van der Waals bonds. Because van der Waals bonds are weak, cleavage occurs
between sheets, never across sheets. Clays are another very important sheet silicate that incorporate
water into their atomic structure. The presence of water lubricates the sheets and is what makes clays
easy to work with in forming pottery; the firing process heats the minerals to the point where the water
is driven off, resulting in a rigid, durable structure such as a pot.

Figure 5b: An example of

Figure 5a: An example muscovite. (Both biotite and
of biotite muscovite are micas, which
are one kind of sheet silicate.

Framework: Quartz and Feldspar

Figure 6a: An example of the 3-dimensional structure

formed by a framework silicate.

When each tetrahedron shares all of its oxygen atoms with adjacent tetrahedra, a very strong 3-
dimensional framework of Si-O bonds is formed (see Figure 6a). Quartz is pure SiO2; note that the
charge is now exactly balanced and no other bonding ions are needed. In the feldspars, one or two out of
every four Si4+ ions is replaced by an Al3+ ion, creating a charge imbalance that must be solved through
the presence of additional cations: K+, Na+, and Ca2+. There are two kinds of feldspars upon which
cations are incorporated into the structure. Feldspars that contain the K+ cation are called K-feldspars, or
alkali feldspar, whereas those that contain Na+ and Ca2+ are called plagioclase feldspars (see Figure 6b).
This separation occurs because K+ is a much larger cation than either Ca2+ or Na+, and its presence
creates a slightly expanded framework structure.

Figure 6b: The white, blocky minerals in the rock on the

left are plagioclase feldspar; the pink minerals in the rock
on the right (granite) are K- feldspar.

Like olivine, quartz also has no cleavage, because there is no natural weakness within that 3-
dimensional framework. The feldspars, on the other hand, have two good cleavage planes at ~90 degrees
to each other, due in part to the way that the aluminum ion changes the structure slightly, opening up
planes of weakness. Quartz and feldspar are generally light-colored as well, making them easily
distinguishable from darker minerals like olivine and pyroxene.
Quartz and feldspar together make up the bulk of the rocks we see at the surface. Plagioclase
feldspar is the single most common mineral in Earth's crust, making up an estimated 39% of both
continental and oceanic crust. Quartz only makes up an estimated 12% of the entire crust, but it is by far
the most common mineral we see on the surface because of its resistance to weathering.
Familiarity with these few minerals – olivine, garnet, pyroxene, hornblende, muscovite, biotite,
K-feldspar, plagioclase, and quartz – prepares you to identify and interpret the vast majority of rocks
you will see on Earth's surface.
Origin of Coal and Petroleum
Coal and petroleum have organic origin, being decomposed plant and animal matter buried deep inside
the earth. Coal is mined like any other mineral.
The chief coal producing countries in the world are China, U.S.A., U.S.S.R., U.K., Germany, Poland,
Australia and India. In India, coal is mainly mined in Bihar, West Bengal, Madhya Pradesh and to some
extent in Andhra Pradesh.
Petroleum occurs deep inside the Earth at depth ranging from a few hundred to few thousand meters.
The name petroleum has been given to the crude oil because it occurs under the Earth's crust entrapped
in rocks (petra = rocks oleum = oil). Crude oil (petroleum) is pumped out of Earth by drilling oil wells.
Petroleum is obtained by drilling a hole through the crust till it reaches the oil reserve. The oil gushes
out of its own due to high pressure of the gas over its surface. However, when the pressure falls, it is
pumped out with the help of pumps. Large quantity of natural gas is generally associated with
petroleum. Petroleum is often referred to as liquid gold, due to its importance in transportation,
commerce and industry. Prosperity of any country depends upon its petroleum reserves.
The chief petroleum producing countries are, U.S.A., U.S.S.R., Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, Iraq, Iran, Libya,
Nigeria, Algeria, Venezuela, China and Mexico.
Composition of Coal and Petroleum
Coal is mainly composed of carbon. It is classified into different varieties depending upon its carbon
content. Common varieties of coal are,
Variety of coal: Peat Lignite Bituminous Anthracite Carbon content:10-15% 40% 60-70% 80-90%
Coal also contains arenes or aromatic hydrocarbons like benzene, toluene, xylene, naphthalene and
anthracene. It also has some organic compounds of Sulphur and nitrogen.
Crude oil (or petroleum) is a dark brown viscous liquid sometimes having a greenish tinge. It is a
mixture of about 150 different organic compounds. Crude oil is largely made up of aliphatic
hydrocarbons, with much lesser amounts of aromatic compounds and organic compounds of Sulphur
and nitrogen.
Formation of Coal and Petroleum in nature
It is believed that coal in nature was formed from the remains of the trees buried inside the earth some
500 million years ago. Due to the bacterial and chemical action on the wood, it got converted into peat.
Then, as a result of high temperature and high pressure inside the earth peat got transformed into coal.
It is believed that the petroleum was formed from the partial decomposition of the sea animals and
prehistoric forests under high temperature and pressure conditions inside the earth.
Appendix A

Elementary knowledge on Symmetry elements of Crystallographic Systems

http://xrayweb.chem.ou.edu/notes/symmetry.html

Physical Properties of Minerals

https://www.rocksandminerals4u.com/properties_of_minerals.html

Families of Rock Forming Minerals

https://geology.com/minerals/

Properties and Process of Formation of all Minerals

https://www.visionlearning.com/en/library/Earth-Science/6/The-Silicate-Minerals/140

Origin of Coal and Petroleum

https://chem-guide.blogspot.com/2010/04/origin-of-coal-and-petroleum.html?m=1