Reproductive System - Caused by bacteria Neisseria gonorrhoeae

- For procreation and development of - Green to yellow genital discharge

secondary characteristics - Pain when urinating
MAIN REPRODUCTIVE ORGANS  Syphilis
MALE FEMALE - Caused by bacteria Treponema pallidium
Testes Ovaries - Stage 1 – painless sore (1-5 weeks)
- Produces - Produces egg - Stage 2 – rash, hair loss, flu-like symptoms,
sperm cell and cell, estrogen, swollen glands
testosterone and Disorders of the Reproductive System
- Suspended by progesterone  Epididymitis
the spermatic - Inflammation of the epididymis
cord - Pain and hardness in the affected testicle
- Sperm is - Discharge and blood in the semen
manufactured in  Prostate Cancer
the  Cancer cells grown in the prostate
seminiferous  No obvious signs or symptoms
tubules within  Frequent painful urination
the testicle  Cervical Cancer
Transport Organs: Transport Organs:  Cancer cells grown in the cervix
Epididymis > Vas Fallopian Tube/Oviduct  Bleeding: after sexual intercourse, after a pelvic
Deferens > Ejaculatory > Uterus > Cervix examination, between regular menstrual period
Duct > Urethra Infertility vs. Sterility
Organs for Intercourse: Organs for Intercourse: Infertility – unsuccessful at becoming pregnant for a
Penis – contains Vagina – birth canal, year or more, causes: hormonal imbalance
erectile tissues that elastic wall that (particularly with estrogen), reproductive causes
make the penis larger expands during (birth defects, PCOS, endometriosis, scarred
and stiffer childbirth and ovaries), environmental causes (workplace
intercourse hazards, pesticides, lead), lifestyle choices
External Organs: External Organs: Sterility – inability to have any children
Penis; Scrotum – Vulva – Mons veneris, Menstrual Cycle Disorders
pouch containing the Labia minora, Labia  Dysmenorrhea – severe pain during
testes, provides the majora, Clitoris, menstruation
ideal temperature for Vaginal orifice
 Amenorrhea – abnormal absence of
spermatogenesis
menstruation
Accessory Glands:
 Oligo menorrhea – abnormal and infrequent
Seminal Vesicles –
menstrual period (irregular)
secrete seminal fluid
Early Human Development
Prostate & Cowper’s
I. First Trimester (1st – 3rd months)
Gland – secretes
1. Fertilization – fusion of two haploid gametes
nutritional fluid for the
 Identical twins/Monozygotic twins – comes
sperm
from a single zygote whose cells separate
Sexually Transmitted Diseases (STDs)
after the first cell division; Identical genetical
 Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) characteristics and a common placenta
- Can only infect human beings
 Fraternal twins/Dizygotic twins – two eggs
- Attacks your t-cells and uses them to make
are fertilized by different sperms; different
copies of itself
genetic characteristics
- Leads to AIDS
2. Cleavage – zygote undergoes a series of
- Transmission: sex without condom, passed
mitotic divisions to develop into a blastocyst
from mother to baby, sharing injecting
 Morula > Blastula (vegetal > placenta,
equipment, contaminated blood transfusions
animal > fetus)
and organ transplants
3. Implantation – blastocyst adheres itself to
- Condoms protect you from HIV, other sexually
the uterine lining embryotic stage starts
transmitted infections and unplanned
pregnancy  Blastula > Gastrula
4. Gastrulation – embryo undergoes cell
 Chlamydia
migration patterns to form the germ layers
- Caused by bacteria called Chlamydia
trachomatis  Mesoderm – muscular, skeletal, circulatory
- White genital discharge  Endoderm – digestive, respiratory, urinary
- Pain when urinating system
 Genital Herpes 5. Placentation – formation of the connections
- Caused by herpes simplex virus (HSV) between the mother and the developing
- HSV-1 – causes cold sores around the mouth embryo
and lips  Miscarriage – Placenta detaches from the
- HSV-2 – causes cold sores around the genitals uterine wall, deficiency in progesterone and
 Gonorrhea estrogen
 6. Organogenesis – cell differentiation and  Progesterone – gonads; uterus maintenance
formation of all major organs and development
II. Second Trimester (4th to 6th months) Endocrine System – system of checks and
7. Fetal Stage – fetus undergoes continuous balances (thermostat-like)
growth and becomes more specialized and  Slow acting response and transmission time
complex
III. Third Trimester (7th – 9th months) Female Reproductive Cycle
8. Labor and Delivery – childbirth  Ovarian Cycle
 Labor (rhythmic contractions of the uterus) >  Uterine Cycle
dilation (opening of the cervix) > expulsion  Menstrual Cycle
(delivery of the baby) > delivery of the placenta  Follicular Phase
 Premature babies are born before the eight  Ovulation
month of development  Luteal Phase
Raging Hormones corpus luteum – produces the progesterone
 Epinephrine – adrenal gland; fight or flight Role of Hormones in the Female Reproductive
response Cycle
 Insulin – pancreas; lowers blood glucose, Follicular Phase
initiates glucogenesis FSH & LH Increased to allow a few follicles
 Metabolic Disorders: to develop to maturity
1. Type 1 Diabetes (cannot produce insulin) Estrogen Slowly rises mid-phase to
2. Type 2 Diabetes (insulin resistance) promote FSH & LH production
 Thyroxine – thyroid gland; calorigenic effect Progesterone Very low to none; no corpus
 Hypothyroidism (Goiter) – deficiency in thyroid luteum yet
hormones; enlargement of the thyroid gland
 Calcitonin – thyroid gland; lowers blood Ovulation
calcium; promotes bone development FSH & LH Sudden increase rupture the
 Growth Hormone – pituitary gland; promotes follicle, thus releasing the egg;
growth sudden drop
 Gigantism/Acromegaly – excess amounts of Estrogen Sudden decline
growth hormone; abnormally fast growth of the Progesterone Very low to none; no corpus
bones luteum yet
 Dwarfism – growth hormone deficiency;
abnormally small height Luteal Phase
 Anti-diuretic Hormone – pituitary gland; FSH & LH Inhibited due to high amounts of
regulates water in the body progesterone
 Adreno-corticotrophic Hormone – pituitary Estrogen Sudden decline but will slightly
gland; promotes cortisol production to reduce rise mid-phase
stress Progesterone Sudden increase to allow the
 Cushing’s syndrome – excess amounts of thickening of the endometrium;
cortisol; tumor in the pituitary gland level drops when no fertilization
 Glucagon – pancreas; increases blood glucose; occurs
promotes glycogenesis
 Parathyroid Hormone – parathyroid gland;
increases calcium in the blood; inhibits bone
development
 Thymosin – thymus gland; immune defenses
 Estrogen – gonads; sex drive and secondary
sex characteristics
 Luteinizing Hormone – pituitary gland; regulates
estrogen and testosterone
 Aldosterone – adrenal gland; increases the Nervous System – controls and coordinates the
uptake of Na and water in the kidneys functions throughout the body
Other Hormones and Glands Neurons – cells that transmit electrical signals or
 Thyroid-stimulating Hormone – pituitary gland; impulses
regulates the thyroid  Types of neurons:
 Follicle-stimulating Hormone (FSH) – pituitary 1. Motor Neurons – from brain to organs
gland; stimulates ovulation and sperm 2. Sensory Neurons – from organs to brain
production  Parts of Neurons:
 Prolactin – pituitary gland; stimulates milk 1. Dendrite – short extensions (toward)
production 2. Axon – long extensions (away)
 Oxytocin – pituitary gland; promotes uterine 3. Myelin Sheath – insulating membrane for
contractions increased transmission
 Testosterone – gonads; sex drive and
secondary sex characteristics
Synapse – junction between a neuron and another  Epilepsy – uncontrolled jerking movement
cell; chemical – neurotransmitters, electrical – NaK because of a disorder on the Na-K action
action potential potential activity
Central Nervous System  Polio – a crippling and potentially deadly
 Cerebrum – largest section of the brain infectious disease caused by the poliovirus
which is divided into two hemispheres that which can invade an infected person’s brain
control the opposite sides of the body and spinal cord, causing paralysis
 Parts of Cerebrum: Homeostasis
1. Frontal Lobe – motor function - coordinated function of the endocrine and
2. Parietal Lobe - sensory nervous systems
3. Occipital Lobe – eyes, visual info, upper - existence of a stable internal environment
nape - adjustments in the physiological systems
4. Temporal Lobe – auditory information sides Homeostatic Regulation
 Cerebellum – reflex center that controls,  Stimulus – change that deviates from the
posture, balance, and coordination of the normal
skeletal muscles  Receptor – sensitive to a particular
 Brain Stem change/stimulus
 Midbrain – vision and eye movement  Control – integrates the information from the
 Pons – breathing and eye movement receptor
 Medulla – respiratory, cardiac, and  Effector – responds to the control
vasomotor control center Body Temperature Regulation
 Limbic System – inner part of Cerebrum  Stimulus: change in temperature
 Hypothalamus – hormones  Receptor: skin
 Amygdala – emotional reactions  Control: brain (constant)
 Hippocampus – long-term memory  Effector: sweat glands
 Thalamus – relay station for almost all Types of Feedback
information of the senses (including pain  Negative – effector opposes/inhibits the
and memory) stimulus
 Spinal Cord – reflex center and conduction  Positive – effector reinforces/amplifies the
pathway within the vertebral canal; has 31 stimulus
segments divided into 5 parts Feedback Loop:
Peripheral Nervous System
1. Sensory Division (Afferent Division)
 Collects information (touch, pressure,
vision, taste, etc.) from outside (somatic
senses) and inside (visceral sensory) of the
body and carries them to the CNS
2. Motor Division (Efferent Division)
 Conduct impulses from the CNS and PNS
to the muscles, organs and glands’ effecting
what happens in those tissues
 Divisions of Motor Division:
a. Somatic Division (SNS) – voluntary
Negative Feedback:
movements by activating skeletal muscles
 Also includes reflexes
b. Autonomic Division (ANS) – involuntary
responses involving the organs, glands, and
smooth muscles
 Divisions of ANS:
i. Sympathetic Division – “fight or flight”
response
ii. Parasympathetic Division – “rest or
digest”
Diseases and Disorders of the Nervous System Positive Feedback:
 Meningitis – a rare infection that affect the
delicate membranes
 Parkinson’s Disease – progressive lack of
movement control
1. Unilateral
2. Bilateral
3. Loss of balance and slowness of movement
4. Severe disabling
5. Inability to rise
Molecular Basis of Inheritance
 History of DNA
- 1866 – Gregor Mendel discovers the basic
principles of Genetics
- 1869 – Friedrich Miescher found unexpected
properties of leucocytes that did not match the
properties of proteins. He called it nuclein.
- 1869 – Griffith concluded that the R-strain
bacteria must have taken up what he called a
“transforming principle” from the heat-killed S
bacteria, which allowed them to “transform” into
smooth-coated bacteria and become virulent
- 1944 – Hershey and Chase concluded that
DNA, not protein, was the genetic material
- 1950 – Erwin Chargaff discovers that DNA
composition is species specific A. Replication
- 1952 – Rosalind Franklin photographs  Initiation
crystallized DNA fibres - Helicase untwists the double helix at the
- 1953 – James Watson and Francis Crick replication forks, separating the two parental
discover the double helix structure of DNA strands
DNA - deoxyribonucleic acid - Primase synthesizes the RNA primers using the
- The hereditary material in eukaryotic organisms parental DNA as a template
- The order, or sequence, of these bases  Elongation
determines the information available for building - DNA polymerase III synthesizes new DNA
and maintaining an organism nucleotides in a 5’ to 3’ direction
- Components: - The complementary strands:
1. Phosphate  Leading strand is synthesized using the
2. Sugar 3’ to 5’ template
3. Nitrogenous Base – anti-parallel (parallel  Lagging strand is synthesized using the
but different directions) 5’ to 3’ template
 PyrCUT (1 ring)  Okazaki fragments are multiple
o Pyrimicide: Cytosine, Uracil, Thymine discontinuous segments of the
 PurGA (2 rings) complementary DNA produced
o Purine: Guanine, Adenine by the multiple primers in the
lagging strand
 Termination
- DNA polymerase I proofreads the DNA
molecule and removes the primers in a 3’ to 5’
direction
- Ligase seal the nicks or breaks left by the DNA
polymerase I
B. Product
- One DNA strand produces two semi-
conservative strands
Chargaff’s Rule – the DNA of all organisms are - In each strand, one is original strand and the
the same bases; the proportion of the four bases other one is a new strand
differs from organism to another organism - Transcription
- %A = %T - Synthesis of RNA in the nucleus using the
- %G = %C information in the DNA
Central Dogma of Molecular Biology – the - Start of gene expression
process in which hereditary info from the DNA is - RNA (ribonucleic acid) – genetic material of
used to synthesize proteins prokaryotes; difference with DNA:
a. Sugar: ribose
b. N-bases:
o C=G
o A = U (uracil)
 Initiation
- RNA polymerase bind to the promoter and
initiates RNA synthesis at the start point on
the template strand
 Elongation
- RNA polymerase moves downstream,
unwinding the DNA and elongating the RNA
transcript 5’ to 3’
 Termination
- The RNA transcript is released, and the
polymerase detaches from the DNA
C. Translation – synthesis of a polypeptide chain
in the cytoplasm using the mRNA
 Initiation
- The ribosome gets together with the mRNA
and the first tRNA so translation can begin
 Elongation
- Amino acids are brought to the ribosome by
tRNAs and linked together to form a chain
 Termination
- The finished polypeptide is released to go
and do its job in the cell
Mutations – changes in the genetic information
which are responsible for the huge diversity of
genes found among organisms
Point Mutations – mutations which happen on the
nucleotide level
- Silent – same amino acid
- Missense – different amino acid
- Non-sense – premature stop codon
- Frameshift – leads to missense
Chromosomal Mutations – mutations which
happen on the chromosomal level
Insertion – a segment from another chromosome
was added to another chromosome
(BEAST > BREAST)
Deletion – a segment of the chromosome was
removed (BEAST > BEST)
Inversion – two or more segments switched places
in the chromosome (BEAST > BEATS)
Translocation – different segment/s from two
different chromosomes were exchanged (BEAST
and FEAR > FEAST and BEAR)
Duplication – a segment of a chromosome was
repeated on the same chromosome
Genetic Disorders
 Recessive Disorders – occurs due to 2
defective genes
- Sickle-Cell Anemia – abnormally shaped
red blood cells
- Tay-Sachs – absence of enzyme which
breaks down fat in the brain
- Phenylketonuria – inability to breakdown
phenylalanine > mental retardation
- Cystic Fibrosis – overproduction of mucus >
clogs and damages the lungs
 Sex-Linked Disorders – genes that are
carried by either sex chromosome
- Color Blindness – difficulty in distinguishing
colors
- Hemophilia – lack of sufficient blood-clotting
proteins (clotting factors)
 Chromosomal Disorders – due to structural
abnormalities
- Cri Du Chat (cry of the cat) – deletion of a
segment of chromosome #5
- William Syndrome – deletion of a segment
of chromosome #7
- Down Syndrome (Trisomy 21) – mongolism;
mental retardation
- Edward Syndrome (Trisomy 18) – mental
retardation
- Patau Syndrome (Trisomy 13) – very low
chance of survival
- Klinefelter Syndrome (XXY) – infertility;
underdeveloped testes and prostate
- Turner Syndrome (XO) – infertility;
underdeveloped feminine characteristics
Evolution – the change in the characteristics of a
species over several generations
Ideas of Evolution:
 Carolus Linnaeus – Father of Taxonomy;
developed a system of classification to group
organisms by their similarities (binomial system)
- Binomial System – each species of
organism is given a genus name followed
by a specific name (species), with both
names being in Latin
 Erasmus Darwin – all living things were
descended from a common ancestor
 Jean-Baptiste Lamarck – Lamarckism (Theory
of Transformation); all organisms evolved
toward perfection and complexity
(orthogenesis)
 Alfred Russel Wallace – father of biogeography;
independently conceived the theory of evolution
through natural selection
 Charles Darwin – the branching pattern of
evolution resulted from a process that is called
natural selection
Evidences of Evolution
 Fossil Records – shows that past organisms
differed from living organisms, that many
species gave become extinct, and that
species have evolved over long periods of
time
 Embryology – indistinguishable
characteristics of vertebrate embryos are
results of shared common ancestry
 Genetics – despite the great diversity of life
on our planet, the simple language of the
DNA code is the same for all living things
 Comparative Anatomy
1. Homologous Structure – physical structures
of the organisms have the same
evolutionary origin and positions but
different in function
2. Vestigial Structure – a structure of an
organism with few or no function but is
clearly homologous to the structure of
another organism
3. Analogous Structure – structured evolved
independently in different organisms
because the organisms lived in similar
environments or experience similar
selective pressures
Mechanisms of Evolution
No evolution when there is:
 No mutation
 Random mating
 No gene flow
 Infinite population size
 No selection
1. Gene Flow – movement of genes into or out of
a population, due to either the movement of
individual organisms or their gametes
2. Genetic Drift – change of allele frequencies in a
non-infinite population due to “sampling error” in
selecting the alleles for the next generation
from the gene pool of the current generation
3. Mutation Population Ecology – study of the factors which
4. Sexual Selection affect the population and how and why a population
- Intersexual – males display unique traits changes over time
that attract females Population – group of organisms of the same
- Intrasexual – competition among males species living together in the same time
5. Natural Selection Data Needed in Population Ecology:
Darwin’s Theory of Natural Selection 1. Density – number of organisms which live
 Selection – individuals with the best trait or in a certain area
adaptations will survive and have the 2. Dispersion/Distribution – geographical
opportunity to pass on its traits to offspring arrangement
 Natural Selection – acts on the phenotype Density changes due to this factors:
not the genotype; survival of the fittest (births-deaths) + (immigration – emigration)
Principles of Natural Selection
1. Overproduction Gases exert constant uniform pressure in all
2. Variation directions on the walls of their containers.
3. Adaptation
4. Descent for Modification Volume: 22.4 L
5. Enhanced Survival Pressure: 1 atm
Reproductive Isolation – the existence of Temperature: 273.15 K
biological factors (barriers) that impede members of Amount: 1 mol
two species from interbreeding (pre-zygotic) and *1 mol of a gas at STP is 22.4 L
producing viable, fertile offspring (post-zygotic)
Speciation – formation of two or more new species Conversions:
from one existing species Pressure: 1 atm = 760 torr = 760 mmHg
 Allopatric Speciation – “other homeland” Volume: 1 L = 1000mL = 1000 cm^3
- Gene flow is interrupted when a population Celsius > Kelvin: Celsius + 273.15
is divided into geographically isolated
subpopulations Gas Laws
- Geographical Isolation – two species that  Boyle’s Law Formula: 𝑃1 𝑉1 = 𝑃2 𝑉2
occupy different habitats within the same
area may encounter each other rarely 𝑉1 𝑉2
o Barriers  Charles’ Law Formula: =
𝑇1 𝑇2
o Distance
o Event
𝑃1 𝑃2
 Sympatric – “same homeland”  Gay-Lussac’s Law Formula: =
 Speciation occurs in populations that live in 𝑇1 𝑇2
the same geographic area
 Temporal Isolation – species that breed  Combined Gas Law Formula:
during different times of the day, different 𝑃1 𝑉1 𝑃 𝑉
seasons, or different years cannot mix their = 22
𝑇1 𝑇2
gametes 𝑉1 𝑉2
 Behavioral Isolation – courtship rituals that  Avogadro’s Law Formula: =
𝑛1 𝑛2
attract mates and other behaviors unique to
a species
 Mechanical Isolation – mating is attempted,  Ideal Gas Law Formula: 𝑃𝑉 = 𝑛𝑅𝑇
but morphological differences prevent its
successful completion
 Gametic Isolation – sperm of one may not
be able to fertilize the eggs of another
species 𝐿·𝑎𝑡𝑚
 Reduced Viability – the genes of different R = 0.0821
𝐾·𝑚𝑜𝑙
parent species may interact in ways that
impair the hybrid’s development or survival 𝑚
in its environment MM =
𝑛
 Reduced Fertility – if the chromosomes of
the two parent specie differ in number or 𝑚
structure, meiosis in the hybrids may fail to d=
𝑣
produce normal gametes
 Hybrid Breakdown – some first-generation
hybrids are viable and fertile, but when they
mate with one another or with either parent
species, offspring of the next generation are
feeble or sterile