Air Pollution

The Earth is surrounded by gases called air which forms the atmosphere. The atmosphere is a complex
dynamic natural system essential to support life on the Earth. The air interacts with water and land.
Acid rain falling on the ground is a result of air pollution. Many pollutants such as particulate matters,
heavy metal, and ozone are able to influence water quality and ecosystem functions. On the other
hand, polluted rivers/lakes and sewage systems can cause air pollution in their surrounding areas.
Therefore it is important for a water engineer to understand the air and its related quality issues, and
vice versa for an air quality engineer to understand water pollutions.

Composition of Air
The composition of dry air is listed in Table below. This table changes with time (e.g., CO2
concentration has been in increase with time). Air also normally contains water vapour (variable,
about 1% - 4% at surface), dust, pollen, spores, sea spray, volcanic ash, and various industrial
pollutants. The greenhouse gases include water vapor, carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, and
ozone. The air density at sea level is 1.2kg/m3 and it decreases with the increasing height.

Table 1:Cpmposition of dry air

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Structure of the Atmosphere

The atmospheric is divided into several layers based on temperature profiles as shown in Figure
below.

Troposphere

Troposphere is the layer of air nearest to the ground. Temperature decreases with height. The average
temperature drops from 15ºC at sea level to –56.5ºC at 11,000 m above sea level. Mixing of the air
molecules due to their constant movement (winds) keeps the composition of the gases more or less
same throughout the troposphere. An exception to this is water vapor. Most water vapor evaporates
from the surface of the Earth and is found in the lower troposphere. Most of the weather occurs in the
troposphere. Tropopause is the top of the troposphere, which is a transition layer between Troposphere
and Stratosphere

Stratosphere
Stratosphere is the layer of air above the troposphere where temperature increases with height. The
average temperature rises to –2.5ºC at 50,000 m above sea level. Ozone is found in higher
concentrations between 20 and 30 km above the surface. Hence sometimes this layer is referred
to as the “ozone layer”. Ozone absorbs radiant energy from the sun and hence warmer temperatures
are encountered in the stratosphere. Stratopause is the top of the stratosphere, which is a transition
layer between Stratosphere and Mesosphere.

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It has restricted turbulence and mixing due to its temperature profile (warmer air above colder air),
hence it is dynamically stable (i.e., no regular convection and turbulence). Airliners usually fly at the
bottom of the stratosphere to take advantage of the thin air for reduced drag and to avoid extreme
turbulence in the troposphere.

Mesosphere
Mesosphere is the layer of air above the stratosphere where temperature decreases with height. The
average temperature decreases to –90°C at 90,000 m. This is the coldest layer of the atmosphere.
Mesopause is the top of the mesosphere, which is a transition layer between Mesosphere and
Thermosphere.

Thermosphere
Thermosphere is the layer of air above the mesosphere. The temperatures in the thermosphere
increase with increasing height, but there are not many molecules in this layer. The air becomes
less and less dense as we reach space.

Transport of Air
The movement of air is divided in two categories: the outdoor environment (ambient air) and indoor
environment.

Outdoor Environment
a)Global transport: among the layers of the atmosphere, the two layers near the Earth surface are
more relevant to air pollution. The troposphere is the primary place to receive the pollution emissions
from human and nature. The processes of transport and transformation influence the fate of the
pollutant. Due to its stable temperature profile, there is little mixing in the stratosphere. The strong
solar radiation (especially ultraviolet) in this layer converts oxygen (O2) into ozone (O3) by
photochemical reaction to create the well known ozone layer. Over the globe, there exist large scale air
movements as shown in Figure below due to uneven solar radiation distribution and rotation of the
Earth. It can be seen that air does not obey geopolitical boundaries and air pollution can be trans-
boundary.

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Figure on Global air circulation.

b)Regional transport: High and low air pressures dominate regional air transport. Low pressure is
created when air is warmed to rise by surface heating. High pressure is created when air descends to
the ground. Air tends to move from a high pressure area to a low pressure area. In a low pressure
region, air quality may improve due to dispersion and precipitation cleansing.

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c)Local transport: Due to the different temperatures between land and sea in the coastal area, the
wind direction changes during the morning and evening as shown in Figure below. In the morning,
cleaner air moves to the land and is then polluted by human activities. Pollutant concentration
increases as the air moves further inland. In the evening, the opposite wind movement occurs with the
polluted air moves to the sea (and with its impact on the sea aquatic ecosystem). Understanding such a
diurnal movement is important for coastal residents to cope with air pollution problems in the area.

Indoor environment
Indoor air: Indoor air quality has a significant impact on human health. Design of ventilation system
in a building influences temperature, humidity and pollutant movement. Natural ventilation systems
use outdoor wind and differences of indoor/outdoor temperature. They are based on the pressure
creased by outdoor air striking a building (positive on the windward and negative on the leeside), and
the pressure caused by temperature differences in different parts of the building (warmer air is lighter
than cold air). Such systems are usually suitable for mild or moderate climates with minimum ambient
air pollution.

Air Pollutants
Air pollution is the introduction of a substance (i.e., pollutant) in the air harmful to human and the
environment, which may be natural (e.g., volcano eruption) or man-made. Pollutants can be solid,
liquid or gaseous. The human health impact caused by air pollution may include difficulty in
breathing, wheezing, coughing and aggravation of existing respiratory and cardiac conditions, which
are reflected in increased medication use, increased doctor or emergency room visits, more hospital
admissions and premature death.

Major pollutants include

Nitrogen dioxide (NO2):
 this is a reddish-brown toxic gas with a characteristic sharp, biting odour.
 It is produced from fuel combustion that converts oxygen and nitrogen (78% of the air) to NO
and then quickly to NO2. Their combined presence is described as NOx.
 They may cause breathing problems in sensitive people and react with water vapour to form
nitric acid and fall as acid rain.

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  NO2 is also produced naturally during thunderstorms by electrical discharge.
 The WHO air quality standard for NO2 is 200mg/m3(1 hour average) and 40mg/m3
(annual average). The two thresholds represent both short term and long term effects of the
pollutant on human health.

Sulphur dioxide (SO2):

 Since coal and petroleum often contain sulphur, their combustion generates sulphur dioxide.
 Many raw materials such as aluminium, copper and iron ores contain sulphur, and their
extractions produce SO2.
 Naturally, SO2 is also produced by volcanoes.
 Like NO2, SO2 can be converted to sulphuric acid and fall as acid rain.
 SO2 can accelerate the decay of building materials and cause respiratory disease and death.
 The WHO air quality standard for SO2 is 20mg/m3(24 hour average) and 500mg/m3 (10
minute average).

Particulate matter (PM):

 It refers to fine particles (solid or liquid) with diameter of 10 micrometres or less, which can be
either man made or natural.
 Natural particulates include those from volcanoes, dust storms, forest and grassland fires,
living vegetation, and sea spray.
 Man-made particulates are produced by the burning of fossil fuels in vehicles, power plants,
construction and various industrial processes. They are not a uniform combination of
compounds (acids, organic chemicals, metals, soils etc).
 All particles with 10 mm or less in diameter are denoted as PM10 and those with 2.5mm or less
in diameter are denoted as PM2.5.
 Large particles are problematic for the respiratory system because they are trapped in the upper
respiratory system, producing clogged nose and scratchy throat.
 Fine particles make their way deeper into the lung to cause breathing problems and are
absorbed into the bloodstream to affect many organs.
 The WHO air quality standard for PM10 is 50mg/m3 (24 hr average) and 20 mg/m3 (annual
average), and for PM2.5 is 25mg/m3 (24 hr average) and 10 mg/m3 (annual average).

Ground level ozone (O3):

 It is produced by complex chemical reactions driven by sunlight. Reactive hydrocarbons
(benzene, propane, components of gasoline) and nitrogen oxides (notably NO and NO2) react
under sunlight. The concentration of ozone builds up during the day with its peak in early
afternoon (along with the air temperature). In the night, the ozone concentration drops when
photochemical actions stops and ozone removing processes dominate.
 Ozone is a powerful oxidising agent readily reacting with other chemical compounds to make
many possibly toxic oxides.
 Ozone is detrimental to ecosystems by damaging sensitive plants (and some crops) and
reducing biodiversity.
 It is a strong respiratory irritant causing lung inflammation, breathing difficulties, aggravated
asthma and permanent lung damage from repeated exposures.
 The WHO air quality standard for O3 is 100mg/m3 (8 hr average).

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Carbon monoxide (CO):
 It is produced from incomplete combustion of fuels and vehicular exhaust is a major source of
carbon monoxide.
 CO is colourless, odourless, non-irritating but very poisonous.
 It can be easily absorbed into blood and may impair victim’s ability to function and lead to
cardiovascular problems.
 At high levels, asphyxiation can occur in indoor environment due to poor heating system and
inadequate ventilation.
 The WHO air quality standard for CO is 30mg/m3(1 hr average) and 10mg/m3(8 hr average

Others:
 there are also many other pollutants in the air such as odours, radioactive pollutants, volatile
organic compounds, carbon dioxide (CO2), Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), ammonia (NH3),
peroxy acetyl nitrate (PAN), persistent organic pollutants (POPs), toxic metals (lead, cadmium,
copper), etc.

Emission Estimation
Emission is the amount of pollutant a source releases into the air. Emission rate is expressed as mass
per time, such as g/s, kg/day or tonnes/year.

Some of the methods used to quantify air pollutant emissions are:-

1. Direct measurement (either stationary sensors or mobile sensors);
2. Mass balance (an indirect way by the conservation of mass from the difference between
the measured inflow and outflow in a system);

3. Expert judgement (subjective estimation by experience and knowledge).

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Control of air pollution.

1) Prevention (green chemistry, green engineering)(Green chemistry, also called sustainable

chemistry, is an area of chemistry and chemical engineering focused on the designing of products and
processes that minimize the use and generation of hazardous substances)
2) Regulatory solutions (permit for allowable emissions, monitoring)
3) Market solutions (a total allowable emission cap is set and emission allowances can be
traded in the market)
4) Voluntary solutions (voluntary emission reduction by individuals, communities and firms
encouraged by easy access of air quality information); and
5) Emission control technologies (thermal oxidiser to oxidise pollutants using high temperature,
absorption by passing polluted air through water soaked media etc).

Effect of air pollution

Heath effects

People exposed to high enough levels of certain air pollutants may experience:
Irritation of the eyes, nose, and throat
Wheezing, coughing, chest tightness, and breathing difficulties
Worsening of existing lung and heart problems, such as asthma
Increased risk of heart attack
 In addition, long-term exposure to air pollution can cause cancer and damage to the immune,
neurological, reproductive, and respiratory systems. In extreme cases, it can even cause death.

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ii) Environmental effects
i) Global Warming.The Earth's atmosphere contains a delicate balance of naturally occurring
gases that trap some of the sun's heat near the Earth's surface. This "greenhouse effect"
keeps the Earth's temperature stable. Unfortunately, evidence is mounting that humans have
disturbed this natural balance by producing large amounts of some of these greenhouse
gases, including carbon dioxide and methane. As a result, the Earth's atmosphere appears to
be trapping more of the sun's heat, causing the Earth's average temperature to rise - a
phenomenon known as global warming. Many scientists believe that global warming could
have significant impacts on human health, agriculture, water resources, forests, wildlife, and
coastal areas.

i) Acid rain is precipitation containing harmful amounts of nitric and sulfuric acids. These
acids are formed primarily by nitrogen oxides and sulfur oxides released into the
atmosphere when fossil fuels are burned. These acids fall to the Earth either as wet
precipitation (rain, snow, or fog) or dry precipitation (gas and particulates). Some are
carried by the wind, sometimes hundreds of miles. In the environment, acid rain damages
trees and causes soils and water bodies to acidify, making the water unsuitable for some
fish and other wildlife. It also speeds the decay of buildings, statues, and sculptures that are
part of our national heritage

Environmental effect of Acid Rain

a) Damage to aquatic life
 Reproduction is the most sensitive stage in the life cycle: Eggs and fry of many fish species
are killed at pH 5.0
 Disrupt the food chain by killing:Phytoplankton population are reduced, and many
common water, dowelling invertebrates such as may flies and stone flies cannot survive
when the pH falls below 5.5.
 Acid dead lakes have pH below about 3.5

b) Deterioration of buildings and monuments

Most glorious buildings and works of art are being destroyed by air pollution:
• Smoke and soot coat buildings
• Paintings
• Textiles
• Lime stone and marble are destroyed by atmospheric acid at an alarming rate
Air pollution also damages
• Ordinary buildings
• Corroding steel
• Weakens buildings, roads, bridges
• Rubber deterioration

c) Mobilization of toxic metal

Acid rain can cause lightly bound toxic metals such as aluminium which can kill fish by
damaging their gills and causing asphyxiation. It also cause leaching of heavy metals:Hg,
Cd in to drinking water and results in Bio accumulation

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 d) Damage to forest productivity
• Lack of seeding growth
• Premature tree death
• Growth reduction
• Defoliation
High altitude forests are subjected to especially intense doses of these acids because clouds
saturated with pollutants tend to hang on, mountain tops, bathing forests in a toxic soap for
days even weeks at a time

ii) Eutrophication is a condition in a water body where high concentrations of nutrients (such
as nitrogen) stimulate blooms of algae, which in turn can cause fish kills and loss of plant
and animal diversity. Although eutrophication is a natural process in the aging of lakes and
some estuaries, human activities can greatly accelerate eutrophication by increasing the rate
at which nutrients enter aquatic ecosystems. Air emissions of nitrogen oxides from power
plants, cars, trucks, and other sources contribute to the amount of nitrogen entering aquatic
ecosystems.

iii) Haze is caused when sunlight encounters tiny pollution particles in the air. Haze obscures
the clarity, color, texture, and form of what we see. Some haze-causing pollutants (mostly
fine particles) are directly emitted to the atmosphere by sources such as power plants,
industrial facilities, trucks and automobiles, and construction activities. Others are formed
when gases emitted to the air (such as sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides) form particles as
they are carried downwind.

iv) Effects on wildlife. Toxic pollutants in the air, or deposited on soils or surface waters, can
impact wildlife in a number of ways. Like humans, animals can experience health problems if
they are exposed to sufficient concentrations of air toxics over time. Studies show that air
toxics are contributing to birth defects, reproductive failure, and disease in animals. Persistent
toxic air pollutants (those that break down slowly in the environment) are of particular
concern in aquatic ecosystems. These pollutants accumulate in sediments and may
biomagnify in tissues of animals at the top of the food chain to concentrations many times
higher than in the water or air.

v) Ozone depletion. Ozone is a gas that occurs both at ground-level and in the Earth's upper
atmosphere, known as the stratosphere. At ground level, ozone is a pollutant that can harm
human health. In the stratosphere, however, ozone forms a layer that protects life on earth
from the sun's harmful ultraviolet (UV) rays. But this "good" ozone is gradually being
destroyed by man-made chemicals referred to as ozone-depleting substances, including
chlorofluorocarbons, hydrochlorofluorocarbons, and halons. These substances were formerly
used and sometimes still are used in coolants, foaming agents, fire extinguishers, solvents,
pesticides, and aerosol propellants. Thinning of the protective ozone layer can cause
increased amounts of UV radiation to reach the Earth, which can lead to more cases of skin
cancer, cataracts, and impaired immune systems. UV can also damage sensitive crops, such as
soybeans, and reduce crop yields.

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 vi) Crop and forest damage. Air pollution can damage crops and trees in a variety of
ways.Ground-level ozone can lead to reductions in agricultural crop and commercial forest
yields, reduced growth and survivability of tree seedlings, and increased plant susceptibility to
disease, pests and other environmental stresses (such as harsh weather). As described above,
crop and forest damage can also result from acid rain and from increased UV radiation caused
by ozone depletion.

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