Mine

Ventilation and
Occupational Health and Safety
Fundamentals of fluid mechanics
Objectives
Acquiring the knowledge of:
• Basic flow relationships
• Different types of pressure
• Various fluid flow regimes: laminar and turbulent
• Bernoulli’s equation
• Friction factor and frictional head losses
Fluid mechanics & thermodynamics in mine ventilation
• Fluid mechanics deals with forces and movements (kinetics and
kinematics) of fluids.
• Thermodynamics deals with the effect of heat and mechanical work
on the properties of substances (to be discussed in next lecture).
• Main purpose of a Mine Ventilation System is:
Providing the underground workings with suitable quantity of air
Fluid mechanics
at suitable quality (temperature, moisture and …)
Thermodynamics
 Mass & Volumetric flow rates
• Mining engineers usually work with volumetric flow rate which is expressed in (m3/s)
or [cfm] and is basically the volume of air (m3) passing through a section in unit of time 1
(sec).
There is no conservation of volume!! But, conservation of mass is a principal equation
in physics!!
• Therefore, for accurate measurements/calculations of air flows, it is necessary to work
with mass flow rate as opposed to volume flow rate. Mass flow rate is the amount of
mass (kg) passing through a cross section in unit of time 1 (sec) and is expressed (kg/s).
Density: ρ = mass/volume = M/Q (kg/m3) , or M = ρ Q (kg/s) [lb/min]
• It is also common for mining engineers to worth with the velocity of the air “u” (m/s)
[ft/min] for a given cross-section (A)
Q = u A (m3/s) [ft/min] In mines, uair does not usually exceed 30 (m/sec) or 100 (ft/sec)!
M = ρ Q = ρ u A (kg/s) [lb/min]
 Fluid pressure
If a liquid of density (ρ) is poured into a vertical container of cross- sectional area (A)
until the level reaches a height (h), the volume of the liquid is:
Volume = h A (m3) [ft3]

From the definition of density (ρ = mass/volume), the mass of the liquid is:
Mass = Volume x density = h A ρ (kg) [lb]

The weight of the liquid will exert a force (F) on the base of the tube equal to the mass
x gravitational acceleration (g):
F = Mass x g = h A ρ g (N) [lb. force]
Fluid pressure
Fluid pressure is defined as the force divided by the cross-sectional area (A):
P = F/A = (h A ρ g/A) = ρ g h (N/m2) or (Pa) [mm Hg]

So, if the density of the liquid, ρ, and gravitational acceleration g (9.8 m/s2 on earth)
are known, then the pressure, P, can be expressed as height of the liquid or head of
liquid, h.
Atmospheric pressure
• Atmospheric pressure on earth is caused by the weight of the air mass
surrounding the earth.
• At the surface of the earth, the atmospheric pressure is approx. 100,000 Pa
= 100 kPa (14.5 psi)
• The higher the elevation, the less the air weight
• In addition to the mass of air, the pressure at any point near the surface is
also influenced by variations in temperature, water vapor, wind currents.
• This is the pressure that is able to support a 0.76 m column of mercury
having a density of 13,595 kg/m3 in a standard earth gravitation field of g =
9.8 m/s2
“One standard atmosphere” = ρ g h = 13,595 x 9.8006 x 0.760 = 101.324 kPa
= 101,324 Pa (760 mm Hg = 29.92 in. of Hg)
Absolute and gauge pressures
Absolute pressure = Atmospheric pressure + Gauge pressure
Gauge pressure is the difference between the pressure of the
substance and the atmospheric pressure at that position.

Atmospheric pressure = ρ g h (Pa)

Notes
• Absolute pressure is always positive.
• Minimum absolute pressure possible is Zero (absolute vacuum).
• Gauge pressure can be negative (relative vacuum)
• Minimum gauge pressure possible is equal to atmospheric pressure.
 Viscous force and viscosity
Isaac Newton (1642-1727) proposed that, for parallel motion of streamlines in a moving
fluid, the shear stress, 𝝉 (Pa) or (N/m2), transmitted across the fluid in a direction parallel
(but reverse direction) of the fluid flow, is proportional to the rate of change of velocity,
du/dy (velocity gradient).
𝝉 =-µ du/dy (N/m2) or (Pa)

McPherson, 1993

Viscosity: resistance to flow due to the cohesion and interaction between its molecules
(frictional resistance between layers of the fluid moving at different velocities in relation to
another).
There are two types of viscosity: dynamic and kinematic.
• Dynamic viscosity, µ, is shear resistance of air to motion in N.s/m2 or Pa.s
• Kinematic viscosity, 𝝂 = 𝝁/𝝆, is the ratio of dynamic viscosity to density, measured in
m2/s.
Fluid flow regimes; Laminar vs. Turbulent
• Fluid flow is categorize into two basic types of fluid flow regimes.
Laminar flow : fluid flows smoothly, streamlines are parallel to each other
Turbulent flow : fluid flows in a chaotic manner

• Reynolds (1880s) established a method to characterize the type of flow

regimes through a combination of experiments.

• Fluid flow regimes can be better understood based on:

Turbulence ∝ Fluid momentum (Velocity) / Viscous force
Fluid flow regimes continued
• Reynold’s number represents the ratio between the fluid momentum and viscos forces:
Re = ρuD/μ = uD/𝝂
Where:
ρ = density of fluid, u = velocity, d = hydraulic diameter and μ = viscosity of the fluid.
μair = (17+ 0.045 T) x 10-6 Ns/m2
where, T is the temperature (oC) and is between 0-60 (oC).
Notes:
• Reynold’s number is dimensionless
• For pipe flow, Re < 2,000 leads to laminar flow regime
• 2,000<Re<2,500 is the transition between laminar and turbulent flow regimes
• Re>2,500 is usually deemed to be turbulent
Example 1
Main ventilation fans of an underground mine are capable of moving 1,000,000 cfm of fresh
air through its main shaft which is 8 (m) in diameter. In a summer day with 20 (oC) ambient
air temperature and density of 1.1 (kg/m3), what is the Reynold’s number of the flow? Is it
turbulent or laminar?

Answer
Volumetric flow: Q= 1,000,000 (ft3/min) × 0.30483 (m3/ft3) × 1/60 (min/sec) = 471.95 (m3/sec)
Cross sectional area of mine shaft: A= πD2/4 = 50.26 (m2)
U=Q/A = 9.93 (m/sec)
μair = (17+ 0.045 T) × 10-6 (N.s/m2) = 1.79 × 10-5 (N.s/m2)
Re = ρuD/μ = 1.1 (kg/m3) × 9.93 (m/sec) × 8 (m) / (1.79 × 10-5 (N.s/m2)) =4.88 × 10+6
Re >> 2,500 → The flow is turbulent.
Fluid flow energy
Assume a mass (m) of fluid moving in a duct at velocity (u) at an elevation (Z) and barometric
pressure (P).

Three forms of mechanical energy should be considered and quantified:

‒ Kinetic Energy
‒ Potential Energy
‒ Mechanical work of the fluid

We will quantify each form of energy by assessing how much “energy” is needed to do in
order to raise the “total energy of fluid” from “zero” to its actual value in the duct.
Total Mechanical Energy = Kinetic Energy + Potential Energy + Flow Work
Kinetic energy
If we apply a force (F) to a mass (m) at rest and accelerate it to velocity (u) in a time-frame of
(t), the mean velocity is: (0 + u)/2 = u/2 (m/s)

Distance traveled: d = mean velocity × time = (u/2) × t (m)

Acceleration is defined as: a = (increase in velocity)/time = u/t (m/s2)

The force is given by: F = mass × acceleration = m × u/t (N)

The Mechanical Work Done, WD, to accelerate mass (m) from rest to velocity (u):
WD = force × distance (N.m) = (m × u/t) × (u/2) × t = (mu2)/2 (N.m) or (J)
WD = Kinetic Energy = (mu2)/2 (Nm) or (J)
Potential energy
Any coordinate (i.e. reference) point can be used to measure the elevation for “potential
energy”.

A mass (m) located at the reference point is assumed to have “zero” potential energy relative
to the reference point.

However, when a force (F), sufficient enough to overcome the gravity force, is applied, it can
be expressed as:
F = mass × acceleration = mg (N)

When moving upward (i.e. against the gravity) to the final elevation (Z) above the point of
reference, the Work Done can be defined as: WD = force × distance = mg × Z (J)

Potential energy of mass (m) at elevation (Z) is: Potential Energy = mgZ (J)
Flow work

Assume we have a horizontal pipe open at both ends of cross sectional area (A) - We insert a
plug of fluid of volume (v) and mass (m) into the pipe.
Even in the absence of friction there is a resistance in the pipe due to the pressure (P) of the
fluid that already exists in the pipe.
Our intent is to determine the work done (WD) to move the plug of fluid a distance (s) - We
need to exert a force (F) to overcome the resisting pressure (P) distributed over area (A)
F = PA (N), WD = force × distance
Volume swiped: v = A × s → Work Done = WD = Flow Work = P × v
ρ = m/v or v = m/ρ, so WD = Pm/ρ
Work Done to move the plug of fluid of mass (m) along the pipe is: WD = Flow Work = Pm/ρ (J)
Bernoulli’s Equation for ideal fluid
We can now quantify the total mechanical energy of mass (m) of fluid.
Total mechanical energy = Kinetic Energy + Potential Energy + Flow Work
where: Kinetic Energy = (mu2)/2 (J) & Potential Energy = mgZ (J) & Flow Work = Pm/ρ (J)
→ Total mechanical energy = (mu2)/2 + mgZ + mP/ρ (J)

If no mechanical energy is added or subtracted from the fluid, the total mechanical energy must
remain constant along the pipe: m(u2/2 + Zg + P/ρ) = Constant (J)
Or, between two points (1 and 2) along the pipe:
m(u12/2 + Z1g + P1/ρ1) = m(u22/2 + Z2g + P2/ρ2)
Dividing by “m”, we will have:
u12/2 + Z1g + P1/ρ1 = u22/2 + Z2g + P2/ρ2
If the fluid is incompressible: ρ1 = ρ2 = ρ , then:
Bernoulli's equation for incompressible ideal (frictionless) fluid flow:
(u12-u22)/2 + (Z1-Z2)g + (P1-P2)/ρ = 0 (J/kg)
Example 2
Assuming that the air flow of Example 1 is incompressible and frictionless, how much would
be the pressure change in a cross-section which is 7 (m) in diameter and located 100 meters
below the intake.

Answer
Conservation of mass implies that: 𝒎̇ 𝟏 = 𝒎̇ 𝟐 → ρ1Q1= ρ2Q2 → ρ1 u1 A1 = ρ2 u2 A2
Knowing that the fluid is incompressible (i.e. ρ1 = ρ1 = ρ), then u1A1 = u2A2
A2 = π D22/4 = 38.48 (m2)
u2 = u1 A1/ A2 =12.26 (m/s)
Bernoulli's equation: (u12-u22)/2 + (Z1-Z2)g + (P1-P2)/ρ = 0
P2-P1 = ρ(u12-u22)/2 + ρ(Z1-Z2)g = 1.1 × (9.392- 12.262)/2 + 1.1 × (100-0) × 9.8
= -68.35 (Pa) + 1078 (Pa) = 1009.65 (Pa)
Note: P2-P1>0, therefore the pressure has increased, not because of changes in area (i.e. velocity), but due to fluid head
(elevation).
Pressure in fluid flow
• In position (a), one end of the U- tube is
connected perpendicular through the wall of the
duct - The gage pressure indicated is known as
“static” pressure (Ps).
• In position (b), the left tube is extended into the
duct and directly faces the fluid flow - Pressure in
the tube reflects the sum of static pressure and
kinetic effect an it is called “total” pressure” (Pt).
• In position (c), the gauge pressure indicated is
known as “velocity” pressure (Pv).
Bernoulli’s Equation for frictional fluid flow
Bernoulli's equation was derived on the assumption of ideal fluid, namely flow without
frictional resistance.
However, in an underground ventilation system almost all the work performed by the
fans is utilized against frictional effects
Consequently, Bernoulli's equation needs to be amended for frictional flow of real
fluids.

To take into account the frictional loss of mechanical energy, Bernoulli's equation
becomes:
u12/2 + Z1g + P1/ρ1 = u22/2 + Z2g + P2/ρ2+F12 (J/kg)
F12 represents the conversion of total mechanical energy of the fluid to “heat” due to
friction (J/kg), or “the work done to overcome the friction” (J/kg).

Note: F12 is different for “laminar” and “turbulent” flow regimes.

Bernoulli’s Equation for frictional fluid flow
Bernoulli’s equation for incompressible frictional laminar flow is:
u12/2 + Z1g + P1/ρ = u22/2 + Z2g + P2/ρ + (8μumL)/ρR2 (J/kg) Poiseuille’s equation
where F12 = (8μumL)/ρR2 (J/kg) is the work done against friction (μ = viscosity of the fluid, um =
mean velocity, R = Pipe radius, L = length, ρ = density).

Bernoulli’s equation for incompressible frictional turbulent flow is:

u12/2 + Z1g + P1/ρ = u22/2 + Z2g + P2/ρ + (4f)(L/d)(u2/2) (J/kg) Chezy-Darcy equation
where F12 = (4f)(L/d)(u2/2) (J/kg) is the work done against friction (f = coeff. of friction, L =
length, u = velocity, d = hydraulic diameter)

Note: If the duct is not circular, then the hydraulic diameter is:
Dh=4 × Cross sectional surface/Peripheral length = 4A/per
Turbbulent frictional fluid flow
Darcy determined that the head loss (h) along a pipe of length (L) to be:
h = (4f)(L/d)(u2/2g) (m of fluid)

The head loss (h) can be converted to a frictional pressure drop (p) using the following
equation: p = ρgh (Pa) to give:
p = (4f)(L/d)(ρu2/2) (Pa) Darcy-Weisbach equation

By substituting the hydraulic diameter d = 4A/per and u= Q/A, Darcy-Weisbach equation

becomes:
p = (fL/2) × (per/A3) × (ρQ2) (Pa)
p =RtρQ2 (Pa)
Rt=(fL/2) × (per/A3) (m-4)

where, p = pressure drop (Pa) & Rt = Rational turbulent resistance

Coefficient of friction, f
Coefficient of friction, f
Homework (due on Friday Sept. 15th, 2017)
A vertical shaft is 400 m deep, 5 m diameter and has wall roughening of height 5 mm. An
airflow of 100 m3/s passes at a mean density of 1.2 kg/m3. Taking the viscosity of the air to be
17.9 x 10-6 Ns/m2 and ignoring changes in kinetic energy, determine:
‒ the coefficient of friction, f
‒ the turbulent resistance, Rt (m-4)
‒ the frictional pressure drop, p (Pa)
‒ the work done against friction, F12 (J/kg)
‒ the barometric (i.e. atmospheric) pressure at the shaft bottom, if the shaft top pressure is 100
kPa.
Questions?