DNA

1950- Chargaff’s Rules

Experiment- Broke DNA with nucleotides, separated adenine, guanine, cytosine,
and thymine, and compared amounts of each.

Results-Found amount of Adenine equals the amount of thymine, and the amount
of cytosine equals the amount of guanine. A=T, C=G

1951- Rosalind Franklin

Experiment- took x- ray diffraction photos of DNA

Results- her photos gave Watson the clue he needed to describe the shape of DNA
SHE INVENTED THE XRAY

1953- Watson and Crick

Experiment- Drew the results of DNA, put molecules in 2 lines next to each other
And saw if adenine and thymine were lined up. Hydrogen bond could form to hold 2
strands together. Saw this form explains Chargaff’s rule, and that it explains Frankin’s
photos.

DNA Structure

1. 2 strings of nucleotides
2. held together by hydrogen bonds between adenine and thymine, cytosine and
guanine
3. Twisted into helixes (spirals) double helix= 2 spirals

DNA Structure: the backbones

-Consist of two five carbon sugar/phosphate backbones that are covalently bonded
to create the rungs of the twisted ladder
-Each of the backbones is antiparallel (they run in opposite ways).
-One strand is the 3’ (the phosphate bonds on the third carbon), the other is the 5’
(the phosphate bonds to the fifth carbon). The sugars are oriented in opposite directions.

DNA Structure: the rungs

• Each deoxyribose sugar is covalently bonded to a nitrogen base

• The bases in between the sugars are bonded through a hydrogen bond
-Adenine bonds to Thymine
-Cytosine bonds to Guanine

DNA REPLICATION

• The copying of 1 DNA double helix to create 2 identical double helixes.

Steps of DNA REPLICATION

• Helicase (enzyme) separates the double helix by breaking the hydrogen bonds
between the bases
• Spare nucleotides pair up with bases in the original chain.
• 3DNA Polymerase binds new nucleotides to the 3’ end of the new chain.
• DNA polymerase can ONLY add nucleotides in the 5’ direction, so it must start
from the 3’ end of the parent chain.
• The leading strand is the orginal strand that has the 3’ end and adds nucleotides
continuously
• The lagging strand is the original strand that has the 5’ end, therefore DNA
polymerase starts in the middle of the strand and creates fragments as it moves.
o These Ozaki Fragments are later put together by the enzyme DNA ligase.
END RESULT
• The new strands of DNA combine with histones (proteins) to form nucleosomes
that condense to form chromatin that form chromosomes.

Transcription
• DNA chains are separated just enough to copy 1 gene
• RNA nucleotides H bond to exposed DNA bases
– RNA nucleotide includes the sugar ribose, phosphate, and a RNA base
– RNA polymerase binds the single stranded mRNA together

• mRNA leaves the nucleus through pores in the nucleus and travels to the
ribosome

Translation

• End of mRNA binds to the ribosome at the start codon

– START CODON: AUG
– Each set of 3 nucleotides on the mRNA= 1 codon

• tRNA is in the cytoplasm and contains:

– The anticodon to the mRNA strand with the matching RNA nucleotides
– A bonding site that is specific for an amino acid within the cytoplasm

– tRNA will pick up the correct amino acid and take it to the ribosome to be
used to build protein

• As the mRNA moves along the ribosome, the corresponding tRNAs are drawn in.
• The tRNA drop off their amino acids and a peptide bond forms between the
amino acids

• After dropping of the amino acid, the tRNA leaves the ribosome and goes to pick
up more amino acids to continue the process
• Ribosome moves down the mRNA one codon at a time, bringing in tRNAs to
match. They drop off their AA until the stop codon is reached.
• Once the stop codon is reached, the protein is released into the cytoplasm.

Identifying Amino Acid Chains

• Each mRNA carries a code that calls for a specific amino acid.
• The sequence of amino acids bond together to form proteins

• Use a mRNA codon chart to name the different amino acids in the protein chain.
– START: AUG (everything before that doesn’t matter!)

DNA

• Nucleic acid
• Deoxyribose
• Double Chain of Nucleotides
o Adenine
o Thymine
o Guanine
o Cytosine
Codes-stores directions (genes)

RNA
o Nucleic Acid
o Ribose
o Single Chain of nucleotides
o Adenine
 o Uracil
o Guanine
o Cytosine
Code carries direction to ribosome (mRNA)

Mutation

1) Gene Mutations = Change in pattern of DNA bases

2) Chromosome Mutations =
a) Change in number of chromosomes
b) Pieces of chromosomes missing
e) Extra pieces of chromosome

Mutations…..
Can be fatal
Can be harmful = protein does not work or works poorly
Can be neutral = protein works or is not essential
Can be beneficial

Types of Mutation
I. Point Mutations = 1 base changed
a) Substitutions = trading bases
(May not change amino acid)

b) Frameshift mutations = change all codons that follow the mutation

1) insertions = add 1 base

2) deletions = remove 1 base

Frameshifts

Change all following codons: ruin protein

THE FAT CAT ATE THE RAT
THF ATC ATA TET HER AT = deletion

THH EFA TCA TAT ETH ERA = insertion

Faulty Proteins
1. End too soon
2. Do not fold properly
3. Do not function

Causes of Mutation
1. Spontaneous=error in replication
2) Mutagens = chemicals, radiation
a) Carcinogens
b) U-V radiation