Sample page from Pianos Inside Out. Copyright © 2013 Mario Igrec.

Pianos
Inside Out

A Comprehensive Guide to
Piano Tuning, Repairing,
and Rebuilding

Mario Igrec


In Tune Press
 Sample page from Pianos Inside Out. Copyright © 2013 Mario Igrec.

Photo credits: Photographs, charts, and drawings are by the author unless Note to the reader:
otherwise indicated.
Pianos are large, extremely heavy instru-
ments that can cause severe injury or death
Epigraph sources: if not handled with care. Piano repair and re-
Introduction: David Dubal, The Art of the Piano: Its Performers, Literature, and building involves procedures that will ex-
Recordings, 3rd ed. Pompton Plains, NJ: Amadeus Press, 2004, p. 3. pose you to dust, mold, mildew, diseases,
and various toxic chemicals and their va-
Chapter 1: George Basalla, The Evolution of Technology. Cambridge: Cambridge pors. Continuous exposure to loud noises
University Press, 1988, p. 45. such as those generated by tools and ma-
Chapter 2: Nick Gravagne, RPT, “Downbearing: A Link in the Energy Chain,” chines, as well as by tuning, can be harmful
Piano Technicians Journal, April 1988, p. 29. to your hearing. Follow your local, state, and
federal regulations regarding the use, storage,
Chapter 3: Widely quoted as attributed to Jelly Roll Morton. See Alan Lomax, and disposal of toxic chemicals.
Mister Jelly Roll: the Fortunes of Jelly Roll Morton, New Orleans Creole and “Inven-
tor of Jazz”, 2nd ed. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1973, p. 45. The author assumes no liability for damages
or losses resulting from the use of the infor-
Chapter 4: pianotech forum, my.ptg.org, 25 August 2011. mation contained herein.
Chapter 5: Interview with Benjamin McKlveen, RPT, by the author, July 2011.
Chapter 6: Claude Montal, L’Art d’accorder soi-mème son piano, 1st ed. Paris:
J. Meissonnier, 1836, pp. 107–109. Translation by Fred Sturm, RPT.
Chapter 7: Matthew B. Crawford, Shop Class as Soulcraft: An Inquiry into the Value
of Work. New York: Penguin Press, 2008, p. 17.
Chapter 8: Larry Fine, The Piano Book, 4th ed. Boston, MA: Brookside Press, 2001.
Chapter 9: Walter Pfeiffer, The Piano Key and Whippen. Trans. Jim Engelhardt.
Frankfurt-am-Main, Germany: Das Musikinstrument, 1967, p. 73.
Chapter 10: Widely quoted, for ex. in Gerald Klickstein, The Musician’s Way:
A Guide to Practice, Performance, and Wellness. Oxford: Oxford University Press,
2009, p. 6.
Closing: George Leonard, Mastery: The Keys to Long-Term Success and Fulfillment.
New York: Dutton, 1991, p. 140.
Appendix A: Robert M. Pirsig, Zen and the Art of Motorcycle Maintenance: An
Inquiry Into Values. New York: William Morrow & Co., 1974, p. 5.

Copyright © 2013 by Mario Igrec

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced or transmitted in any
form or by any means without prior written permission from the publisher, ex-
cept for brief quotations embodied in critical articles or book reviews.

Edited by Richard Lehnert

Published by:
In Tune Press, LLC
P.O. Box 2653
Mandeville, LA 70470-2653
USA

http://www.pianosinsideout.com

Library of Congress Control Number: 2013901467

ISBN-13: 978-0-9827563-0-0
ISBN-10: 0982756305

Printed on acid-free paper

Sample page from Pianos Inside Out. Copyright © 2013 Mario Igrec.

To Seni and Doris,

for all your support,

understanding, and love

And in loving memory of my parents,

Alojzije and Dubravka Igrec,

who would have been so happy

to have seen this book

 Sample page from Pianos Inside Out. Copyright © 2013 Mario Igrec.
Trademarks:
3M, ScotchBlue, Scotch-Brite, and Wetordry are trademarks of
3M.
ABS Styran and ABS Carbon are trademarks of Kawai Musical In-
strument Mfg. Co.
Accu-Tuner is a registered trademark of Inventronics, Inc.
AcryliKey is a registered trademark of Wagner Technical, LLC.
Aleene’s Fast Grab Tacky Glue, Aleene’s Original Tacky Glue,
and Aleene’s Quick Dry Tacky Glue are registered trademarks of
Duncan Enterprises.
Amazing GOOP is a registered trademark of Eclectic Products,
Inc.
Apple, iPad, iPod, iPhone, iTunes Music Store, and Mac OS are
trademarks of Apple Inc., registered in the U.S. and other coun-
tries.
Avery and 5160 are trademarks of Avery Dennison Corporation.
Baldwin and Acu-Just are registered trademarks of Baldwin
Piano and Organ Company.
Borgato is a registered trademark of Borgato Company.
Bösendorfer and Bösendorfer CEUS are registered trademarks of
L. Bösendorfer Klavierfabrik GmbH.
CyberHammer is a trademark of Reyburn Piano Tech.
CyberTuner is a registered trademark of Reyburn Piano Service,
Inc.
Dampp Chaser is a registered trademark of Dampp-Chaser Cor-
poration.
Dremel is a registered trademark of Robert Bosch Tool Corpora-
tion.
Dupont is a trademark, and Mylar, Teflon, and TFL-50 are regis-
tered trademarks of E.I. du Pont de Nemours and Company.
Ecsaine is a registered trademark of Toray Industries, Inc.
Elmer’s is a registered trademark of Elmer’s Products, Inc.
Fazioli is a registered trademark of Fazioli Pianoforti srl.
Flitz is a registered trademark of Flitz International Ltd.
Hands Off Reserved for Performance is a registered trademark of
Pianotek Supply Company.
Heli-Coil is a registered trademark of Emhart Teknologies Inc.
IOS is a trademark or registered trademark of Cisco in the U.S.
and other countries.
Ivoplast and Tharan are registered trademarks of Kluge Klavia-
turen GmbH.
Key-Brite is a trademark of Cory Care Products.
LinkedIn is a registered trademark of LinkedIn Corporation.
Liquid Wrench is a registered trademark of Radiator Specialty
Company.
LOCK-N-STITCH is a registered trademark of Lock-N-Stitch
International.
LPS 1 is a registered trademark of LPS Laboratories.
Mason & Hamlin and Wessell, Nickel & Gross are registered
trademarks of Mason & Hamlin Piano Company.
Microsoft and Windows are registered trademarks of Microsoft
Corporation in the United States and other countries.
Mirror Glaze is a registered trademark of Meguiar’s, Inc.
The New Grove and The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Mu-
sicians are registered trademarks of Oxford University Press.
Piano Technicians Guild, Registered Piano Technician, and RPT
are registered trademarks of Piano Technicians Guild, Inc.
Plexiglas is a registered trademark of Arkema France Corpora-
tion.
Protek is a trademark of Pianotek Supply Company.
QuicKey Leveler is a trademark of The Leveler Company.
Simple Green is a registered trademark of Sunshine Makers, Inc.
Stanwood Adjustable Leverage Action, SALA, Precision Touch-
Design, and PTD are trademarks of Stanwood Piano Innovations
Inc.
Steinway, Steinway & Sons, the Lyre symbol, Accelerated Action,
and Diaphragmatic are registered trademarks of Steinway, Inc.
SuperJet is a trademark of Jet Glues, Inc.
System Three is a registered trademark of System Three Resins,
Inc.
Testors is a registered trademark of Testor Corporation.
Thera Cane is a registered trademark of Thera Cane Company.
Titebond, Titebond III, and Titebond III Ultimate Wood Glue are
registered trademarks of Franklin International Inc.
TransTint is a registered trademark of J.B. Jewitt Co., Inc.
TravelSmart is a registered trademark of Conair Corporation.
Verituner is a registered trademark of Veritune, Inc.
Vise-Grip is a registered trademark of American Tool Companies,
Inc.
WD-40 is a registered trademark of WD-40 Company.
Weldbond is a registered trademark of Frank & Ross & Sons Ltd.
West System is a registered trademark of Gougeon Brothers, Inc.
Wixey is a trademark of Barry Wixey Development.
X-ACTO is a registered trademark of Elmer’s Products, Inc.
Yamaha and Ivorite White Keytop are registered trademarks of
Yamaha Corporation.
YouTube is a registered trademark of Google Inc.
ZipWall is a registered trademark of ZipWall, LLC.
All other brand names or names of products are trademarks or
registered trademarks of their respective companies, organiza-
tions, or individuals.
Sample page from Pianos Inside Out. Copyright © 2013 Mario Igrec. vii

Table of Contents

Acknowledgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ix Piano Hammers 70

Dampers, Backaction, and Pedals 74
About the Author . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xiii How the Piano Mechanism Works 76
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xv Chapter 3 Maintenance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
How to Use This Book xvi Environment 83
Online Resources xvi Preventing Damage by Insects and Rodents 88
Patent Search xvi Preventing Corrosion 89
Precautions xvi Periodic Maintenance 89
Materials and Products xvii Institutional Maintenance 90
Terminology xvii
Conventions xviii Chapter 4 Tuning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
Theory 94
Chapter 1 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 Inharmonicity 101
The Early Piano 1 Stretch 103
Rising Popularity 1760–1800 8 Tuning Technique 107
Advances in Technology 1800–1850 11 Choosing a Tuning Hammer 109
Almost Modern 1850–1900 13 Learning to Tune 111
Steinway since 1880 16 Electronic Tuning 124
Market Trends 16 Special Tuning Techniques 128
Chapter 2 Construction and Design . . . . . . 19 Factors that Affect Tuning 129
Overview of Construction 19 Chapter 5 Regulating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
Structure 24 Protection 135
Generating Sound 33 Gaining Access 136
Strings 33 Cleaning the Interior of the Piano 141
Bridges 36 Work in the Piano or on the Bench? 141
Soundboard 43 Guide Notes 142
Plate 50 Friction 142
The Piano Mechanism 57 Grand Action and Keyboard: Evaluating and
Keyboard 58 Preparing for Regulation 148
Piano Action 63 Regulating Keyboard (Grands and Verticals) 158
viii Contents Sample page from Pianos Inside Out. Copyright © 2013 Mario Igrec.

Regulating Action 166 Developing a Plan 323

Regulating Grand Action 166 Shop Requirements 327
Regulating Pedals in Grands 179 Equipment and Tools 329
Regulating Grand Damper System 180 Materials 334
Regulating Vertical Action, Pedals, and Dampers 189 Replacing Felts and Leathers 340
Rebuilding the Keyboard 342
Chapter 6 Voicing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199 Restoring Key Frame 344
Sanding Hammers 200 Replacing Key Bushings 347
Strings: Seating and Leveling 202 Replacing Key End Felts 353
Mating Hammers to Strings 207 Replacing White Key Tops 354
Functioning of the Piano Hammer 208 Replacing Sharps 365
Preparing for Voicing 208 Rebuilding Grand Backchecks 368
Voicing Down Dense Hammers 209 Rebuilding Grand Action 373
Voicing Up the Hammers 216 Replacing Wippens and Let off Buttons in Grands 379
Chapter 7 Repairs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221 Replacing Grand Hammer Shanks 380
Tool Kit 221 Replacing Hammers in Grand Pianos 383
Broken String 223 Rough-Regulating a Grand Action 394
Removing a Piece of Broken Metal 233 Adjusting Touchweight 396
Repairing Keys 234 Rebuilding Grand Damper System 400
Repairing Action 240 Rebuilding Vertical Action 408
Repairing Dampers 248 Measuring String Downbearing 416
Repairing Grand Pedals and Lyre 249 Restringing 418
Repairing Vertical Pedals 252 Restringing a Grand Piano 423
Repairing Cracked Plate 253 Restringing a Vertical Piano 430
Repairing Pinblock 254 Removing the Plate 433
Repairing Bridges 256 Agraffes: Reconditioning and Replacing 436
Repairing Rattling Soundboard 261 Regilding the Plate 439
Extracting a Broken Agraffe 262 Replacing Grand Pinblock 440
Touching up and Repairing Finish 263 Rebuilding the Soundboard 457
Rebuilding Bridges 472
Chapter 8 Moving a Grand Piano . . . . . . . . 267 Introduction to Refinishing 479
Music Rack, Fallboard, Key Slip 267
Grand Lids 268 Appendix A Troubleshooting . . . . . . . . . . . . . 489
Putting Piano on Skid Board 268 Buzzes and Rattles 489
Reassembling the Piano 270 Echo 490
Grand Lyre 271 Action Noises 490
Pedal Noises in Grands 492
Chapter 9 Touch, Geometry, Playability . . . 273 Pedal Noises in Verticals 493
How to Proceed 274 Missing Notes 494
Force or Weight? 274
Interrelated Aspects of Action and Keyboard 275 Appendix B Glossary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 495
Static Touchweight (TW) 276 Appendix C Selected Bibliography . . . . . . . 509
Action Leverage 279 Books, Articles, Videos, Online Resources 509
Hammer Weight 283 Journals 516
Other Weights and Weight Ratios 287 Online Groups and Forums 516
Leads: Measuring and Calculating 295
Inertia 298 Appendix D Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 517
Backaction 300
Keeping It All in Perspective 301 Appendix E Technicians’ Organizations . . . . 523
Diagnosing Playability Problems 303 Appendix F Measurement Conversions . . . . 525
Improving Playability 306
Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 527
Chapter 10 Rebuilding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317
Evaluating a Piano 321
Sample page from Pianos Inside Out. Copyright © 2013 Mario Igrec.
Acknowledgments
I could not have written this book without the help, en-
couragement, and support of my wife, Dr. Srebrenka
Igrec, who gave me countless comments and ideas,
helped me take photographs, and assisted me in research.
She proofread the manuscript more than once. Despite
my being late for more dinners than I am willing to admit,
Seni never stopped supporting this project. I also thank
my daughter, Doris Igrec, for reminding me countless
times that “everything is going to be fine.”
My special thanks go to Fred Sturm, RPT, for taking on
the role of mentor and for contributing more to this
project than I could have hoped for. He provided alterna-
tive perspectives, challenged me to broaden my views,
and encouraged me to learn new techniques. This book
would be vastly inferior without his countless ideas and
suggestions.
I must express my deepest gratitude to Dr. David
Culbert, who read several version of the draft, offered de-
tailed comments and suggestions, and provided invalu-
able support and encouragement throughout this project.
Thank you, David, for helping me learn so much about
writing and publishing.
Two people deserve special mention because they en-
couraged me to finish this project when it looked as if it
might never see the light of day. Mladen Janjanin, Dean
of the Zagreb University Academy of Music, kept remind-
ing me over the years that no one benefits from an unpub-
lished book, and has been adamant that I make it avail-
able. The final push came from David Erath Jr., who
made reaching the finish line look easy by suddenly pub-
lishing his own book. Although my finish line took much
longer to reach, David, I am glad I heard your “Just do it.”
Thank you both!
ix
I owe a deep gratitude to Wayne Stuart, who gave me a
much-needed dose of realism at a critical juncture, and
who encouraged me to take this project in a different di-
rection.
Special thanks to Larry Fine, RPT, for his eye-opening
yet encouraging comments throughout this project, and
for sharing information that has proven invaluable in the
editing, production, and publication of this book. Many
thanks to Stephen Brady, RPT; Jurgen Goering; and
Steven Taylor, for generously sharing their insights in
publishing and marketing.
I was extremely fortunate to have had as editor
Richard Lehnert, a poet, music critic, and master of lan-
guage and rhythm. He helped not only with copy editing,
but challenged the clarity and consistency of my thinking,
and taught me many fine points of typesetting. I also wish
to thank Julie Gallagher for her generous help with tech-
nical aspects of the production of this book.
My teachers have special places in my heart. I am for-
ever indebted to Martin Canin, Pavica Gvozdic, ´ Stanko
Horvat, Vera Kaic, ´ Gilbert Kalish, Richard Kramer,
Blanka Podreka, Bernard Ringeissen, and Charles
Rosen for strengthening my love for the piano and for mu-
sic in general.
This book would not be what it is without the help of
those who read the manuscript and generously contrib-
uted their comments, criticism, and suggestions: Alex-
ander Abel; Norbert Abel; Paul Badura-Skoda; Chris-
tian Bolduc; Stephen Brady, RPT; Wally Brooks, RPT;
Dave Carpenter, RPT; Branko Ciganovic; ´ Vince Cooke;
Gerry Cousins, RPT; David Culbert; Richard Dain;
George “Frank” Emerson, RPT; Dale Erwin, RPT; Del-
win Fandrich, RPT; Gerhard Feldman; Larry Fine, RPT;
x Acknowledgments Sample page from Pianos Inside Out. Copyright © 2013 Mario Igrec.
Robert Floyd; Edward Foote, RPT; Greg Frank; An-
thony Gilroy; Katherine Hoyenga; Greg Hulme, RPT;
Jim Ialeggio; Lynn Keisker; Lance Lafargue, RPT;
Daniel Levitan, RPT; Laurence Libin; Jean Lockwood;
Lloyd Meyer; Poppy Miles, RPT; Franz Mohr; Michael
Mohr; Peter Mohr; Mike Morvan; Rick Ohlendorf; Ruth
Phillips, RPT; Stewart Pollens; Paul Revenko-Jones,
RPT; Dean Reyburn, RPT; Paul Sanderson; Udo
Schmidt-Steingraeber; Teresa Severin; David Stan-
wood, RPT; Wayne Stuart; Fred Sturm, RPT; Marioara
Trifan; Kent Webb; Roger Weisensteiner; Allen Wright,
RPT; and John Zeiner Sr., RPT.
Many thanks to everyone who let me use their photo-
graphs and drawings. I am particularly thankful to the fol-
lowing piano manufacturers for letting me take photos in
their factories, some more than once: Bösendorfer, Mason
& Hamlin, and Steinway & Sons. Thanks to Darrell Fan-
drich, RPT, of Fandrich and Sons Pianos; Siegfried Hof-
mann, of Louis Renner GmbH; and Kent Webb, of Stein-
way & Sons for sending me action models. Lance Lafar-
gue, RPT, of Lafargue Pianos went out of his way to locate
and lend me several action models.
I also wish to thank everyone else who contributed to
this book with their invaluable ideas, comments, and en-
couragement, especially Jack Guerry, Lance Lafargue,
RPT, John Raush, Dubravka Rupnik, and Carmen
Scialla.
Various online resources have been extremely helpful
in my research. I would like to thank all the piano techni-
cians and designers who have shared their knowledge and
experience so generously over the years at the pianotech
and CAUT lists, and on pianoworld.com. The following
people have been particularly helpful to me: John Dela-
cour; Ed Foote, RPT; Dale Erwin, RPT; Delwyn Fan-
drich, RPT; Nicholas Gravagne, RPT; Jim Ialeggio;
David Love, RPT; Ron Nossaman, RPT; and Fred Sturm,
RPT. Thank you all!
The UK terminology is included in the Glossary thanks
to the generous involvement of Allen Wright, RPT; and
John Ross, former National Manager of Technical Ser-
vices, Steinway & Sons, London.
I would be remiss not to acknowledge Arthur A. Re-
blitz, RPT, for his immeasurable contribution to the field
of piano technology with his seminal book Piano Servic-
ing, Tuning, and Rebuilding: For the Professional, the Stu-
dent, and the Hobbyist. Originally published in 1976, this
book has educated at least two generations of piano tech-
nicians, including myself. The second edition, published
in 1993, is still remarkably relevant two decades later, and
is a valuable complement to this book.
The following people helped broaden my understand-
ing of piano history, technology, and market: Norbert
Abel, of Helmut Abel GmbH, for explaining the felt- and
hammer-making processes and sharing information I
could not otherwise have gotten; Roger Aycock, RPT, of
Roger’s Piano Shop, for sharing information on American
square pianos; Jack Brand, of Filzfabrik Wurzen GmbH,
for explaining the intricacies of making hammer felt, and
for providing information on the history of Weickert felt
and the felt industry; Wally Brooks, RPT, of Brooks, Ltd.,
for helping and generously sharing ideas and information;
Dave Carpenter, RPT, of Veritune, Inc., for helping me bet-
ter understand inharmonicity, tuning theory, and elec-
tronic tuning; Valentina Casasola, of the Fazioli show-
room in Milan, Italy, for arranging a visit and sharing in-
sights about Fazioli pianos; Vince Cooke, formerly of
Bösendorfer USA, for sharing his views on piano building
and rebuilding; Richard Dain, of Hurstwood Farm Piano
Studios and Phoenix Piano, for sharing his thoughts on pi-
ano design and the piano industry; Carl Demler, of
Beethoven Pianos, for giving me a primer in the piano
market, and letting me experience their rebuilding factory
and play on many interesting pianos; Peter Donhauser,
curator of musical instruments at the Technisches Mu-
seum in Vienna, for letting me see, hear, and look inside
many interesting historical instruments; George “Frank”
Emerson, RPT, for sharing his views on piano design and
his involvement with various manufacturers; Massimil-
liano Famoso, of Griffa & Figli in Milan, Italy, for sharing
his experience and translating; Irving Faust, of Faust Har-
rison Pianos, for sharing his thoughts on the piano indus-
try and for ruining his evening so that I could play on even
more pianos; Sara Faust, of Faust Harrison Pianos, for her
wonderful playing, for sharing her views on piano tone
and the piano industry, for showing me the Faust Harrison
rebuilding factory, and for letting me experience many in-
teresting and rare pianos; Greg Frank, of Yamaha USA, for
technical information regarding Yamaha pianos; Bill Gar-
lick, RPT, formerly of Steinway & Sons, New York, for shar-
ing his experience and ideas on rebuilding Steinway pi-
anos; Ljubomir Gašparovic, ´ of the Music Academy in
Zagreb, Croatia, for discussing rebuilding approaches, and
for showing and letting me experience several interesting
and unique instruments; Gianfranco Griffa, of Griffa &
Figli in Milan, Italy, for arranging a visit, and sharing his
views on piano tone; Sergio Griffa, of Griffa & Figli in Mi-
lan, Italy, a former president of the Italian association of pi-
ano tuners and rebuilders, for a lecture in psychoacous-
tics, for introducing me to the Pleyel grand action design,
and for an opportunity to play on many fascinating pianos;
Matt Grossman, RPT, for sharing his experience in heat-
treating the capo tasto bar in grand plates; Michael Harri-
son, of Faust Harrison Pianos, for sharing his thoughts on
tuning and his Harmonic Piano, and for letting me play on
many fine pianos; Alfons Huber, conservator of musical
instruments at the Kunsthistorisches Museum in Vienna,
for demonstrating historical instruments and for sharing
his knowledge on keyboard instruments and performance
practices; Eric Johnson, of PerARTS, for providing infor-
mation about European piano makers and for sharing his
views on the piano industry; Franz Jungbauer, formerly
of Bösendorfer, for an exhaustive tour of their Wiener
Neustadt factory; David Kirkland, RPT, of Steinway &
Sons, for sharing information on Steinway patents and the
history of Steinway pianos and factories; Dubravko Ko-
ˆ
´
vacicek, of Piano Centar Zagreb, for teaching me and gen-
Sample page from Pianos Inside Out. Copyright © 2013 Mario Igrec.
erously helping when I was starting to work on pianos;
Lance Lafargue, RPT, of Lafargue Pianos in New Orleans,
for sharing information about industry trends and discuss-
ing maintenance and rebuilding techniques; Peter Lemell,
formerly of Bösendorfer, for allowing me to experience the
complete manufacturing process in both Bösendorfer fac-
tories and for a long conversation; Laurence Libin, editor-
in-chief of Grove Dictionary of Musical Instruments, for
opening my eyes to the changing social role of the piano
throughout its history; Rupert Löschnauer, formerly of
Bösendorfer, for arranging a more recent factory visit,
sharing his views on the industry, and answering many
questions; Giampaolo Manera, of Griffa & Figli in Milan,
Italy, for sharing information about tuning equipment and
giving me an update on the market; Lloyd Meyer, of Ren-
ner USA, for generously sharing his insights into piano
technology and the piano industry, and for opening doors;
Poppy Miles, RPT, for demonstrating and allowing me to
photograph her ivory-repair procedure, and for the en-
couragement; Michael Mohr, of Steinway & Sons, New
York, for discussing factory procedures and providing in-
formation about servicing and repairing Steinway pianos;
Peter Mohr, formerly of Mason & Hamlin, for giving me a
tour of the factory and sharing his experience in piano
building and rebuilding; Mike Morvan, of Blackstone Val-
ley Piano, for discussing options and issues in keyboard
restoration, and for providing countless photographs;
Carlos Perez, of Beethoven Pianos, for sharing his experi-
ence in and war stories about damper and pedal regula-
tion; Stewart Pollens, of Violin Advisor, LLC, a former
Acknowledgments xi
conservator of musical instruments at the Metropolitan
Museum of Art, for being my mentor in the history of the
early piano and conservation of historical instruments;
Gabor Reisinger, of Klavierhaus, for sharing information
about piano rebuilding and for letting me experience
many interesting and rare pianos; Bill Shull, RPT, of the
Period Piano Center, for sharing information about the
early history of Steinway; David Stanwood, RPT, of Stan-
wood Innovations, for providing information about felt,
voicing, and various aspects of action geometry and de-
sign, and for letting me use his charts and illustrations;
Elena Turrin, of Fazioli Pianoforti in Sacile, Italy, for an-
swering many questions about Fazioli pianos, and for pro-
viding photographs; Joe Vitti, formerly of Stony Brook
University, for his generous help, teaching, and support;
John R. Watson, conservator and associate curator of
musical instruments at the Colonial Williamsburg Founda-
tion, for opening my mind to the concept of restorative
conservation, and for allowing me to experience a fasci-
nating collection of early keyboard instruments; Kent
Webb, of Steinway & Sons, for sharing information, clarify-
ing many fine points about the servicing and building of
Steinway and Baldwin pianos, and for allowing me to expe-
rience every step of the manufacturing process at Stein-
way’s New York factory; Allen Wright, RPT, for sharing
his research on Steinway’s short-lived London factory, and
for sharing countless photographs, rebuilding techniques,
and information about the restoration of modern and his-
torical instruments.
Sample page from Pianos Inside Out. Copyright © 2013 Mario Igrec.
About the Author
Mario Igrec was born in Zagreb, Croatia. He studied com-
position with Stanko Horvat and piano performance with
Pavica Gvozdic´ at the Zagreb Academy of Music, where he
received his Bachelor of Music degree in piano perfor-
mance and pedagogy in 1984. He continued his studies
with Martin Canin at the State University of New York at
Stony Brook, and received his Masters Degree in piano
performance in 1986. He received a special prize from Jeu-
nesse Musicale at the 1982 International Piano Competi-
tion “Rina Sala Gallo” in Monza, Italy, and he won the Sun-
wood Piano Competition in Old Field, New York, in 1985.
Mario’s interest in piano technology was sparked at an
early age by his grandmother’s Trautwein upright, which
was too intriguing not to be explored in depth. He re-
ceived his first training a few years later, after acquiring an
old Petrof grand—a local technician, fed up with frequent
string-replacement visits to the Igrec household, decided
to teach Mario how to replace the strings himself. Mario
armed himself with books and trained with other techni-
cians to learn how to make the piano support, not limit his
pianism. This book is part of that journey.
Mario’s understanding of piano making and servicing
was deepened by his visits to and informal training at the
Bösendorfer factories in Vienna and Wiener Neustadt.
This is where he experienced the standards of workman-
ship that he has strived to reach ever since.
Mario continued learning as an assistant piano techni-
cian during his graduate studies in music at Stony Brook,
after which he became a full-time piano technician at Loui-
xiii
siana State University in Baton Rouge. During his tenure at
LSU School of Music he taught piano design, construction,
and the theory of tuning and temperament, and main-
tained over 120 of the school’s pianos, harpsichords, and
celestas. As a concert technician for the LSU Union The-
ater, First Baptist Church of Baton Rouge, and the Baton
Rouge Riverside Centroplex Theater, he worked for many
renowned artists, including Philippe Bianconi, Constance
Carroll, Richard Goode, Gilbert Kalish, Jon Kimura Parker,
Garrick Ohlsson, and Santiago Rodriguez. He rebuilt nu-
merous pianos during this period, including those used in
the aforementioned concert venues.
In the 1990s, Mario’s career took a turn toward informa-
tion technology. He became a Certified Expert for Adobe
FrameMaker and a Microsoft Most Valued Professional,
and has written on technology, managed long document
projects, designed books, and built database applications.
He partnered with Brian Gardner to form Selltis, LLC in
2000. The company develops Selltis Sales, a hosted, cloud-
based, customer-relationship management software solu-
tion. Mario is the creator of HyperLinking™ technology for
data contextualization. At Selltis, he heads the develop-
ment group as software architect and Chief Technology
Officer.
When he is not at Selltis, Mario restores pianos, focus-
ing on tone and touch, and studies historical keyboard in-
struments and performance practices. He welcomes com-
ments and suggestions. Please send them via the Contact
link at http://www.pianosinsideout.com.
Sample page from Pianos Inside Out. Copyright © 2013 Mario Igrec.
“ The pianoforte is the most important of all
musical instruments; its invention was to music what
the invention of the printing press was to poetry.
—George Bernard Shaw
Musical instruments have been involved in music making
since the dawn of mankind. While some have evolved
” builders who have dedicated their lives to perfecting their
modestly, others have been transformed into new instru-
ments that dwarfed and eventually replaced their prede-
cessors. No musical instrument better illustrates this pro-
cess than the piano. From the frail and delicate harpsi-
chord and clavichord, in only 170 years the piano
metamorphosed into a means of conveying a tremendous
range of musical expression. By the 1870s, the piano had
become so powerful that it could hold its own against a
large orchestra, while allowing the most nuanced articula-
tion in solo or chamber music. With an ever-improving
sustain, in skilled hands it could even emulate the human
voice.
But, as George Bernard Shaw astutely observed, the
real significance of the piano transcends its musical quali-
ties. By the late 19th century, public performance was no
longer the only way “big” music could be consumed—the
piano was ubiquitous, and almost everyone could enjoy
his or her favorite operas, symphonies, songs, marches, or
hymns in the privacy of the home. Soon, the need to learn
to play the piano was obviated by the introduction of the
reproducing or player mechanism. Although the phono-
graph and radio eventually took over, it was the piano that
ushered in a new model of personal consumption of enter-
tainment, democratizing access to music and changing the
entertainment industry forever.
Unlike electronic instruments, the acoustic piano re-
wards us with a sound that’s alive, never the same, never
completely predictable. But the prize is not without a
price. Built from living materials, the piano is in a constant
state of flux and requires care and attention. This has been
the province of professional tuners, technicians, and re-
xv
Introduction
craft through lengthy apprenticeships, training courses,
and membership in professional organizations. Although
the piano technician is without doubt the most qualified
person to work on the piano, there is no reason for pia-
nists and piano owners to remain in the dark. While own-
ers of other musical instruments replace strings, make
their own reeds, change pads, and tune their instruments,
most pianists leave all aspects of piano maintenance to the
piano technician. As a result, they never learn about their
instruments and don’t know how to communicate their
needs. This should change. At the very least, pianists
should know how the piano works and what they can ex-
pect from it. A pianist who understands his or her instru-
ment is a more flexible performer and a better-informed
consumer. For those who have some mechanical aptitude
and sufficient physical strength, there is no reason not to
regulate the action, adjust the pedals, replace a broken
string, or even tune the piano. Yes, all this work requires a
lot of practice, but isn’t this what you are already so good
at?
As much as a pianist can learn from this book, it is the
technician and student of piano technology who will bene-
fit the most from it. The skills required for piano restora-
tion are exceedingly diverse, and few people can afford a
complete, systematic training and apprenticeship. Pianos
Inside Out aims to satisfy that need by offering comprehen-
sive and concise instructions for practical work. It pro-
vides an overview of piano history, and in-depth discus-
sion of all aspects of piano construction, design, and main-
tenance, followed by step-by-step instructions on tuning,
regulation, voicing, repair, and rebuilding.
xvi Introduction Sample page from Pianos Inside Out. Copyright © 2013 Mario Igrec.
The book was written with the novice in mind; no pre-
vious knowledge or experience is expected. It will be eas-
ier for you to follow tuning instructions if you can play the
piano and have an elementary understanding of mathe-
matics, acoustics, and music theory, but that’s not re-
quired. For repair and rebuilding, prior experience in
working with wood, metal, and glues will be helpful, al-
though, again, this is not a prerequisite.
You can learn to tune, regulate, and voice pianos with a
minimal toolkit, but for complex repairs and rebuilding
procedures you will need an appropriate, climate-con-
trolled shop space and a number of tools and machines.
Do not underestimate the cost and the time needed to set
up such a shop.
As complete as this book may be, it is only a book. I
encourage you to learn from an experienced piano techni-
cian or a rebuilding shop. Unless you can afford to attend
a school such as North Bennett Street School, in Boston,
or the Chicago School for Piano Technology, explore the
opportunities for learning in your community—from ap-
prenticing at a local piano shop, to individual training, to
seminars or workshops at a local college. Consider a cor-
respondence school such as the Randy Potter School of
Piano Technology. Become a member of an association of
piano technicians, such as the Piano Technicians Guild
(PTG) or Europiano (see Appendix E, “Technicians’ Orga-
nizations,” on page 523), and learn from classes at your lo-
cal chapter and at regional and national conferences. This
way, you will also gain access to a vast array of resources
and publications. Attend manufacturers’ training semi-
nars. Participate in online forums such as pianoworld.com
and those available through the Piano Technicians Guild.
Attend conferences and visit music trade shows, such as
NAMM (http://www.namm.org) and Musikmesse Frankfurt
(http://musik.messefrankfurt.com).
An inherent danger with a book such as this is that it
can to be viewed as a substitute for systematic training, ei-
ther self-instruction or training in a shop or school. The
truth, of course, is that although this book will give you
guidance, becoming competent in piano work will depend
on how committed you are to learning each skill. Pianos
Inside Out is not intended to encourage a casual attitude
toward piano work. I hope that the book will increase your
awareness not only of how to do things, but also of how
not to do them. Toward that end, you will be constantly re-
minded of the ramifications of not performing the work
completely or up to certain standards. Ultimately, though,
you are the one responsible for your own standards;
whether the book will empower you or make you danger-
ous depends on you alone.
How to Use This Book
Pianos Inside Out is organized in ten chapters. The first
chapter, “History,” provides an introduction to the devel-
opment of the piano. It is followed by “Construction and
Design,” which discusses all the elements of the piano, in-
cluding their design and manufacture, and lays the foun-
dation for understanding the rest of the book.
Chapter 3, “Maintenance,” covers various aspects of pi-
ano maintenance and provides solutions for climate con-
trol, piano cleaning, and servicing. Although written with
the piano owner in mind, this chapter should interest all
readers: proper maintenance and climate control are pre-
requisites for the successful long-term upkeep of every pi-
ano. Climate control is of critical importance in piano re-
building and should be used in every piano shop.
Chapters 4 through 10 are intended for those who want
to tune, regulate, voice, repair, and rebuild pianos. These
chapters have many cross references and shared illustra-
tions, reflecting the fact that all piano work is highly inter-
related. To avoid inadvertently damaging one thing while
fixing another, I recommend at least skimming all of them
before proceeding with any work. Chapter 9, “Touch, Ge-
ometry, Playability,” is of special importance because it
discusses, from theoretical and practical standpoints, the
key aspects of action design and how they affect playabil-
ity. Here you will learn how to improve playability, and
how to avoid perpetuating or compounding previously
made mistakes.
As a printed book, Pianos Inside Out is just the begin-
ning. Much more awaits you at www.pianosinsideout.com,
including search, downloads, updates, expanded cover-
age, and additional materials.
Online Resources
Web links (URLs) and e-mail addresses change. You will
find a complete, up-to-date list of all Internet resources
mentioned in this book at:
http://www.pianosinsideout.com/Links.
If a link on that page is invalid, please send us a note from:
http://www.pianosinsideout.com/Contact.html.
Patent Search
U.S. patents can be searched and downloaded from
http://www.google.com/patents and from the U.S. Patent
and Trademark Office at http://www.uspto.gov/patents/
process/search/.
Precautions
There are three important precautions you should take,
especially if you will be working on pianos without the su-
pervision of an experienced technician: with grands, be
sure the legs are sturdy and are firmly in place. With verti-
cals, be careful not to tip the piano over! Many repair and
rebuilding procedures, as well as the tuning itself, require
Sample page from Pianos Inside Out. Copyright © 2013 Mario Igrec.
physical strength. Do not overestimate your physical capa-
bilities—always get help when lifting a piano or its plate,
when stringing a piano, or even when removing and carry-
ing an action and keyboard.
Stay Healthy
As you work on pianos, you will be exposed to dust, mold,
and mildew, as well as toxic substances, from oxidized key
leads and verdigris (page 246) to chemicals used for ro-
dent and insect control. There are biological dangers as
well (see “Rodents and Diseases” on page 136). The best
way to protect yourself is to wear a dust mask for fine par-
ticulate. A pair of cotton gloves won’t protect you from
chemicals (wear nitrile or similar gloves in those cases),
but will reduce exposure and protect you from splinters,
scrapes, and small wounds that could lead to exposure.
Other sources of toxicity are the chemicals you will
use—lubricants, glues, solvents, and finishes. Breathing
toxic fumes and clogging up your lungs with dust, wool fi-
bers, and lubricant powders will undermine your long-
term health and your ability to do this work.
Chemicals enter your body not only through the lungs,
but also through the skin. Just consider how quickly an
analgesic cream works—that’s how quickly your body will
absorb a glue or solvent. It may take years for your liver to
recover from careless exposure to such chemicals.
Tuning and rebuilding involve repeatedly using certain
groups of muscles, which can lead to injury and chronic
pain. I can’t overemphasize the importance of rest and fre-
quent breaks. Regular stretching and exercise are just as
important. If you do develop pain, a self-applied trigger-
point massage may help.1
Protect Your Hearing
Working on pianos can be very loud. Just as you protect
your eyes or hands when using power tools, you should
protect your ears from damaging noises. Particularly tough
on your hearing are tuning, hammering tuning pins during
restringing, and working with loud power tools and ma-
chines.
Use earplugs with 30 decibel protection when you
work with power tools or when you hammer tuning pins.
You will find disposable foam earplugs in pharmacies (Fig-
ure 1) and corded ones in hardware stores.
See “Protecting Your Hearing and Health” on page 112
for recommendations that apply to tuning.
Protect the Environment
As you work on pianos, you will accumulate chemicals
and generate waste, some of which will be flammable and
toxic. Be careful how you store these substances. Dispose
1 Clair Davies, NCTMB, a former piano rebuilder, explains his
method for treating pain with self-applied massage in The Trigger
Point Therapy Workbook. Self-massage tools such as the Body Back
Buddy and Thera Cane® massager are widely available.
Materials and Products xvii
Figure 1 Foam earplugs. Tapered plugs are
easier to insert.
of toxic wastes responsibly. In the United States, toxic-
waste disposal is regulated by the Environmental Protec-
tion Agency (http://www.epa.gov/osw/hazard/tsd), but in-
dividual states may impose even stricter standards.
Some communities organize hazardous waste collec-
tions a few times a year. Many stores and private organiza-
tions will take paints and other chemicals. Contact your lo-
cal authorities to learn what is available.
Materials and Products
I don’t endorse any products mentioned in this book—
competing products may be just as good or better. I re-
ceived no compensation from any of the vendors or man-
ufacturers mentioned.
I encourage you to try as many different products and
materials as practical, especially those that represent
promising new technologies. Be careful, though, and test a
new product extensively before using it for an important
repair or rebuilding procedure. Make testing conditions
(materials, environment, methods of application, etc.) as
similar as possible to the actual application. Keep in mind
that certain products vary from batch to batch, and can be
affected by transportation and storage.
Terminology
The terms used in this book are based on those currently
in use in the U.S. See pages 22–23 for a cross-section dia-
gram and a list of parts in the grand piano, and Figures 162
and 163 on page 64 for the names of parts in grand and
vertical actions.
Terms used in the UK are listed in the Glossary. They
are based on input from UK technicians, on the definitions
in Herbert A. Shead’s The Anatomy of the Piano, and on in-
teractive nomenclature diagrams in H.J. Fletcher & New-
man’s online catalog.2
2 Go to http://www.fletcher-newman.co.uk/frameset.html and click
“Piano Parts Catalogue,” then “Visual Product Identifier.” Grand and
vertical action diagrams are available.
xviii Introduction Sample page from Pianos Inside Out. Copyright © 2013 Mario Igrec.

Conventions Articulation
The touch with which you strike keys is indicated with the
Units of Measurement following articulation phrases:

All measurements are expressed in standard U.S. units, legato tied hold each note until sounding
with metric measurements appearing in square brackets. the next note
For example, four feet is written as 4' [1.2 m], one inch as staccato sharply play and bounce off the key
1" [25 mm], and thirty-two thousandths of an inch as detached
0.032" [800 µm or 0.8 mm]. tenuto held but press the key and release it at
detached approximately half the duration
Bibliographical References between the notes

Throughout the book, bibliographical references are given Musical Nomenclature

in an abbreviated format; complete references are in the
Selected Bibliography on page 509, and online at http:// This book uses scientific pitch notation: the lowest note on
www.pianosinsideout.com. the piano is A0, “middle C” is C4, and the highest note is
C8. To convert the names to the notation commonly used
Dynamic Markings in Europe and by musicians in the U.S., see Figure 2 be-
low.
The force with which you strike keys in various diagnostic In European pitch notation, middle C is called “c1”.
and regulation procedures is expressed in terms of its Each C above middle C is written in lowercase followed by
tonal effect, and is notated using the following dynamic a number in superscript (“c2”, “c3”, “c4”, or “c5”), and is
markings: read as “C two,” “C three,” etc. The Cs descending from c1
are: small C (“c”), great C (“C”), contra C (“C1”), and sub-
ppp pianisissimo Extremely soft contra C (“C2”). Helmholtz notation is similar, except that
pp pianissimo Very soft the numbers are substituted by prime symbols. For exam-
ple, c3 is written as c''' and A2 as A .
p piano Soft ''
In all three notation systems, the chromatic notes (all
mp mezzo piano Medium soft white and black keys) within the major 7th up from any
mf mezzo forte Medium loud note C have the same number (or number of apostrophes)
f forte Loud as that C. For example, E above C6 (c3) is E6 (e3).
Intervals are expressed as codes, such as “M3” or
ff fortissimo Very loud
“m6,” but are spoken in full, spelled-out form; e.g., “major
fff fortisissimo Extremely loud third” or “minor sixth,” not “em three” or “em six.” See
“Intervals” on page 95 for more on this.

8va
Q
Q Q
& w Q
q
?
q
q q q
8vb

Scientific: A0 C1 C2 C3 C4 A4 C5 C6 C7 C8
European: A2 C1 C c c1 a1 c2 c3 c4 c5
Octaves:

Figure 2 Names of notes and octave ranges. Notes under “8va” (“ottava”) are played an octave higher, those under “8vb” (“ottava bassa”)
an octave lower.
Sample page from Pianos Inside Out. Copyright © 2013 Mario Igrec. 1

Chapter 1

History
“ Any new thing that appears in the made world
is based on some object already in existence.
—George Basalla, author of The Evolution of Technology
”
The Early Piano
Cristofori and Followers
Although the first stringed keyboard instruments in which
the strings are struck1 were described as early as 1440,2
the invention of the first pianoforte is credited to Barto-
lomeo Cristofori, a designer and curator of musical instru-
ments at the court of Prince Ferdinand de’ Medici, in Flo-
rence. Around 1700, Cristofori fitted a harpsichord with a
mechanism that utilized small hammers instead of the
usual plectra.3 With this mechanism a player could pro-
duce tones of varying volume. A prominent writer, Scipi-
one Maffei, published a description and diagram of Cristo-
fori’s new instrument, which he called the gravicembalo
col piano e forte (harpsichord with soft and loud), in
1711.4 This invention, further refined by Cristofori in his
later instruments (such as the earliest surviving one, built
in 17205—see Figures 1, 2, and 4), initiated an extraordinary
new chapter in the history of music.
Photo by the Metropolitan Museum of Art, the Crosby Brown
Collection of Musical Instruments, 1889

1 As opposed to plucked (harpsichord), struck with tangents that
remain in contact with the strings (clavichord), or excited by friction
belts (Geigenwerk instruments).
2 In a manuscript by Henri Arnaut de Zwolle. See Stewart Pollens,
The Early Pianoforte, pp. 7–26.
3 http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/cris/hd_cris.htm
4 In Giornale de’ letterati d’Italia. See Stewart Pollens, The Early Piano-
forte, pp. 57–62.
5 Cristofori’s 1720 piano is in the Metropolitan Museumof Art in New
York, his 1722 piano in the Museo Stumenti Musicali in Rome, and
his 1726 piano in the Musikinstrumenten Museum in Leipzig.
Figure 1 Cristofori’s gravicembalo col piano e forte,
made in 1720.
Pianos continued to be made in Cristofori’s tradition in
Florence,6 but they enjoyed much greater popularity in
Portugal and Spain, where, by the mid-1700s, they were
made by several makers. It may have been the Italian com-
6 A 1746 pianoforte/harpsichord by Cristofori’s student Giovanni Fer-
rini is described in Stewart Pollens, The Early Pianoforte, pp. 96–107.
2 History Sample page from Pianos Inside Out. Copyright © 2013 Mario Igrec.

poser and keyboardist Domenico Scarlatti who introduced

Cristofori’s piano in that region.7
Scipione Maffei’s letter was published in German trans-
lation in 1725.8 Whether he learned about the new instru-
ment from this source or earlier, Gottfried Silbermann, a
Dresden organ and clavichord maker, started building it in
the 1730s. J.S. Bach is said to have criticized his efforts in
1736, but approved of a presumably improved design in
1747, and by 1749 had become Silbermann’s agent.
The concept of a harpsichord “with piano and forte”
had inspired music written expressly for the instrument
by 1732.9 Harpsichords were converted to the hammer ac-
tion possibly as early as 1726 (Figure 3).10 But although the
new pianoforte was popular among aristocrats11 and cog-
noscenti, it had to become much simpler, much cheaper,
and much more portable before it would gain wider ac-
ceptance.

Pantalon and Square Piano Photo by the Metropolitan Museum of Art, the Crosby Brown
Collection of Musical Instruments, 1889
In the early 1700s Europe was swept by the expressive and
apparently very dynamic playing of a hammer-dulcimer Figure 2 Cristofori’s 1720 piano action is surprisingly similar to the
virtuoso, Pantaleon Hebenstreit. The dulcimer,12 a folk modern action. Note that the hammers were replaced at a later date
instrument, was very popular in Middle Europe, but few and do not reflect the original design, in which paper cylinders were
people had the skills to play it well. Hebenstreit’s style of covered with short strips of soft leather on top.
performing generated demand for a similar instrument,
but equipped with a keyboard that would make playing it
easier. The hammer action, although crude, made the new
keyboard instrument, often referred to as a Pantaleon or
Pantalon, appeal to a wider audience.

7 Michael Cole, The Pianoforte in the Classical Era, p. 15. See also
David Sutherland, “Domenico Scarlatti and the Florentine piano,”
p. 250. The traditional view has been that Scarlatti wrote his key-
board works for the harpsichord. However, considering that he was
a teacher of Queen Maria Barbara of Spain, and the inventory at her
death shows that five of her 12 keyboard instruments were pianos
(although two of those were converted to harpsichord), it is very
likely that Scarlatti was at least exposed to—and influenced by—the
new instrument. See also footnote 9.
8 Published in Mattheson’s Critica musica.
9 Lodovico Giustini of Pistoia used dynamic markings, including più
piano and più forte, in his 12 Sonate Da Cimbalo di piano, e forte, pub-
lished in Florence in 1732 (http://imslp.org/wiki/). It is interesting
to note that Giustini dedicated his sonatas to Maria Barbara’s uncle,
Don Anthonio da Braganza, who was also a student of Scarlatti. A
performance by Andrea Coen on a Cristofori piano replica is avail-
able on a 3-CD set (Brilliant 94021).
10 A 1696 harpsichord in the Kunsthistorisches Museum in Vienna
(SAM catalog no. 845), depicted in Figure 3, was converted to the
Stossmechanik (push) action, but it is not clear when. There are two
inscriptions on the underside of the soundboard, indicating that
some work was done in 1703 and 1726. Though the 1726 date is plau-
sible, the conversion is more likely to have taken place later in the
18th century. See Alphons Huber, ed., Das Österreichische Cembalo,
pp. 124–126, 269–286.
11 Frederickthe Great of Prussia, for example, purchased several
Figure 3 Harpsichord built in 1696 and converted to hammer
pianos from Silbermann.
action, possibly in 1726. The insert shows the hammers (front),
12 InGerman-speaking countries, the hammer dulcimer is known as and the harpsichord jacks (back), which were converted to
the Hackbrett, or “butcher block.” dampers (Kunsthistorisches Museum, Vienna).
Sample page from Pianos Inside Out. Copyright © 2013 Mario Igrec.
Christoph Gottlieb Schröter (see page 6) claimed that
pantalons were made as early as 1721.13 The earliest
known German-made instrument with strings and ham-
mers, also inspired by Hebenstreit, was advertised for sale
in 1731.14 Though this early pantalon was shaped like a
harpsichord, pantalons soon appeared in the shape of the
clavichord, a keyboard instrument that was very popular
in Germany and Austria. Essentially a zither15 on a stand,
with keys that struck the strings with small metal blades
(tangents),16 the clavichord was capable of graduated dy-
namics (piano e forte), but its sound was faint.
Schröter stated that pantalons had a downstriking ac-
tion,17 but the term was also used for instruments with up-
striking actions18 and for vertical pianos.19
The pantalon came from a tradition of playing on the
open strings of a dulcimer, in which the strings were
damped only occasionally. A sophisticated damper sys-
tem was not a priority, if it was installed at all. By contrast,
Cristofori’s pianos, which were rooted in the harpsichord
tradition, didn’t even allow the lifting of all the dampers.
Bear in mind that early pantalons were not loud and had a
very short sustain, which made playing them without
dampers quite satisfying.20
A similar instrument with an upstriking hammer action,
called the Tafelklavier or square piano, became popular
in the second half of the 18th century.21 Its tone, produced
by leather-covered hammers, was somewhat softer and
fuller than that of pantalons, which emulated the bright
sound of the dulcimer with wooden hammers. The square
piano was simple, inexpensive, and portable, and was
able to satisfy the rising demand during the coming de-
cades. The pantalon died out by the end of the 18th cen-
13 Schröter claimed in 1764 that instrument makers in “more than
twenty towns and villages” had been making pantalons since 1721.
See Friedrich Marpurg, Kritische Briefe, Vol. III, part I, p. 85, quoted
in Arthur Loesser, Men, Women and Pianos, p. 107.
14 The advertisement by Wahlfried Ficker of Zeitz, in a Leipzig news-
paper, was for a metal-strung Flügel (“wing-shaped”) instrument of
his own invention with down-striking hammers, which would imitate
the effects of “the famous Pandalon [sic].” He called it “Cymbal-
Clavir.” See Michael Cole, “The Pantalon,” p. 69; Michael Cole, The
Pianoforte in the Classical Era, p. 28; or Michael Cole, “The Twelve
Apostles,” p. 22.
15 The zither and dulcimer are from the same family. Dulcimers have
speaking lengths of strings on both sides of a centrally placed bridge,
whereas the zither is laid out like a guitar, with an oversized body
and more strings.
16 The tangent excites the string to vibrating and remains in contact
with it, becoming its speaking-length termination.
17 Arthur Loesser, Men, Women and Pianos, p. 107.
18 Stewart
Pollens, Early Pianoforte, p. 169.
19 Michael
Cole, “The Pantalon,” p. 69.
20 See Michael Cole, “The Pantalon.” I wish to thank Alfons Huber for
broadening my understanding of this topic, and for letting me play
on his replica of a pantalon.
21 A
harp-shaped version was made in southwestern Germany. See
Sabine Klaus, “German Square and Heart-shaped Pianos.”
The Early Piano 3
tury, while the square piano continued on for another
hundred years.
Possibly the earliest surviving square piano, made by
Johann Socher in 1742,22 has an action of rudimentary sim-
plicity. Socher hinged the hammers on a rail in the back,
pointing them toward the player, and had them pushed up
by a rigid block at the end of the key.23 Mechanically, this
is similar to hanging the hammer on the end of Cristofori’s
intermediate lever and forgoing his real hammer, back-
check, and movable jack (see Figure 4). Pianos like
Socher’s square, with a “jack” push action (Stoss-
mechanik) and hammers pointing toward the player, were
made in southern Germany throughout the 18th century.
The more sophisticated instruments of this type had a
movable (escaping) jack that allowed the hammer to re-
bound from the strings, but they were a far cry from Cris-
tofori’s advanced design.
In another primitive action arrangement, the jack
would push the hammer shank or butt directly (Figure 5).
This design is more reminiscent of Cristofori’s action be-
cause the hammers point away from the player, but it
lacks the intermediate lever and backcheck, and has a
rigid, non-escaping jack. Dominant in northern Germany
and England, this action type was improved and became
the basis for the modern grand action.
Yet another style of action was popular in southern
Germany and Austria, not only in square pianos but in
grand pianos as well: the Prellmechanik or bumping ac-
tion, in which the hammer was attached to the key and
the other end of its shank would bump against a fixed rail
(Prellleiste).24 This type of action, later known as the “Ger-
man action,” was perfected by Johann Andreas Stein of
Augsburg, who replaced a fixed bumper rail with individ-
ual escapements for every hammer (Figure 12). In 1777,
Mozart wrote enthusiastically to his father about Stein’s pi-
anos with this new action.25 Stein’s design was subse-
quently enhanced, by his daughter Nannette and son-in-
law Johann Andreas Streicher, into the form that became
known as the “Viennese action” (Figure 13). Bösendorfer
and other Austrian piano makers used Viennese actions
throughout the 19th century.
Likely influenced by the playing of Hebenstreit Panta-
leon26 and by the growing desire for expressiveness and
dynamics,27 the French inventor Jean Marius applied in
1716 for a royal privilege—a patent of sorts—with the Ac-
adémie Royale des Sciences to make his new invention,
the clavecin à maillets. His privilege was challenged in
court by the guild of master instrument makers in Paris, of
which he was not a member, and he never made the in-
strument.28 In 1759, another French builder, Weltman (or
22 The authorship and date are disputed; see Stewart Pollens, The
Early Pianoforte, p. 202. The piano is in the Germanisches National-
museum, Nuremberg.
23 Rosamond Harding, The Piano-Forte, p. 39.
24 Walter Pfeiffer, The Piano Hammer, Figs 1–3, pp. 22–23.
25 Robert Spaethling, ed., Mozart’s Letters, 17 October 1777, p. 77.
26 Edwin Good, Giraffes, p. 45.
...
Sample page from Pianos Inside Out. Copyright © 2013 Mario Igrec.
...
oso, Franz Liszt, enthusiastically endorsed Érard pianos
with the new action after his 1824 London concert.71 Al-
though the concert was organized by Pierre Érard, it is
reasonable to believe that Liszt’s endorsement was at least
partially sincere; he continued performing on Érards for
years to come. Johannes Brahms had Viennese-action pi-
anos in his home72 and commented favorably on them in
his correspondence, but for his concert performances he
preferred Érard73 and, later, Bechstein74 and Steinway pi-
anos,75 all of which had double-escapement actions.76
From today’s perspective it may be surprising that it
took decades for the new action to be universally adopted.
Pleyel, Érard’s rival, whose pianos were preferred by
Frédéric Chopin,77 retained a single English action until
the 1870s.78 After using a single-escapement and at least
two variations of repetition-assisted English actions, Stein-
way began offering their double-escapement action
around 1865, but did not discontinue their older action
styles for at least 10 more years.79 Most European piano
makers switched to the double-escapement action by
1900, while Austrian makers continued using the Viennese
action for another decade or two.80
The first half of the 19th century was a ferment of activ-
ity:
• Sébastien Érard invented the agraffe in 180881 (Figure
150 on page 58)
• Pierre Érard patented his harmonic bar in 183882
• Antoine Bord of Paris patented the capo tasto bar in
184383
• Henri Pape introduced cross-stringing in 182884
71 Arthur Loesser, Men, Women and Pianos, p. 349; see also
http://www.pianosromantiques.com/erardhistory.html.
72 George Bozarth and Stephen Brady, “Johannes Brahms,” p. 42.
73 Walter Frisch, Brahms and His World, p. 75.
74 Ibid.,
pp. 73, 74, 86.
75 George Bozarth and Stephen Brady, “Johannes Brahms,” pp. 49–
51.
76 It’s likely that Brahms also preferred these pianos for their volume
of sound.
77 SeeJean-Jacques Eigeldinger, “Chopin and Pleyel”; Arthur
Loesser, Men, Women and Pianos, p. 363.
78 http://real.uwaterloo.ca/~sbirkett/pleyel_info.htm.
79 Presumably Albert Steinway would not have patented a sostenuto
mechanism for both the double- and single-escapement actions in
1875 (see sidebar, “Myth/Truth,” p. 76) if his company weren’t com-
mitted to making pianos with the single-escapement action for at
least another several years. 1865 is proposed as the start of the dou-
ble-escapement action in Steinway & Sons’ poster “The Touch: The
Development of Action Mechanisms” [publication information
unknown].
80 See
Walter Pfeiffer, The Piano Hammer, pp. 30–31. The diagram in
Fig. 11 shows that August Kögler, a designer from Graz, Austria, was
still trying to improve the Viennese action in 1931.
81 Edwin Good, Giraffes, p. 167.
82 Aremovable capo tasto bar. See Rosamond Harding, The Piano-
Forte, pp. 187–188.
83 Ibid., p. 188.
13
Almost Modern 1850–1900
Myth: New inventions were adopted quickly
because they were technologically superior.
Truth: As Edwin Good points out in Giraffes, Black Drag-
ons, and Other Pianos, many successful designs took
a long time to be widely adopted. Whereas designs
like the compensation frame, which could be pat-
ented or used with small modifications without
infringing on an existing patent, were adopted
quickly, complex designs like Érard’s double-escape-
ment action took decades to become widespread.
Cost was a big factor in such decisions—manufac-
turers didn’t want to pay royalties or reduce their
profits with a complex and expensive design.
• Henri Pape started using felt for hammers in 1826; he
patented a technique for preparing felt for hammer
heads in 184485
• The soundboard grew in square pianos, first extending
over a few keys, and eventually over all of them (see
“Evolution of the Square Piano,” page 10)
• Machine covering of hammers with felt was intro-
duced around 1835; Alfred Dolge patented an improved
machine in 188786
Almost Modern 1850–1900
By 1850, America was a vibrant and growing market hun-
gry for music and pianos. Skilled craftsmen were paid well
and, unlike their European counterparts, weren’t bound
by long apprenticeships and strangling guild rules. Ma-
chinery was sophisticated and plentiful, and pianos were
made on an industrial scale.
Steinways—the Engine of Innovation
Although this environment would seem to guarantee suc-
cess for any newcomer, it took the diligence, business acu-
men, and marketing genius of the Steinways to challenge
the established heavyweight, Chickering of Boston. Engel-
hardt Steinweg, a piano maker from Germany, formed
Steinway & Sons with his four sons in 1853 in New York.
By 1860 the Steinways had gained a reputation for innova-
tion and quality, employed 350 men, and produced 35 pi-
anos per week.87 To showcase the powerful yet singing
tone of their pianos, they opened Steinway Hall in 1866.
Seating 2,500, the venue served as a major concert hall un-
til Carnegie Hall opened in 1891. After Steinway won la
première médaille at the 1867 Exposition in Paris, their
popularity grew in Europe, and they opened a factory in
Hamburg in 1880.
84 Arthur Loesser, Men, Women and Pianos, p. 401.
85 Rosamond Harding, The Piano-Forte, p. 182; Edwin Good,
Giraffes, p. 177.
86 Alfred Dolge, Pianos and their Makers, pp. 99–103.
87 Ronald Ratcliffe, Steinway, p. 40.
14 History Sample page from Pianos Inside Out. Copyright © 2013 Mario Igrec.

Steinway & Sons innovated relentlessly, receiving 49

patents from 1860 to 1880. During this period they intro-
duced almost all the main features that define the “mod-
ern” piano, such as the capstan screw, the full-size plate
with a transverse plate bar, the nose bolt, the continuous
laminated rim and metal shoe, and the laminated long
bridge.88 Steinway exhibited their new concert grand at
the Centennial International Exhibition in Philadelphia in
1876.89 This piano, known as the “Centennial grand,” was
the precursor of the modern Steinway concert grand
model D. Improved in 1884 with the continuous laminated
rim, the new concert grand completed the journey to the
completely modern grand piano.

Other Inventions
Steinway & Sons was not the only manufacturer to inno-
vate during this period:
• Manufacturers and action makers on both continents
experimented with various action designs aimed at
improving reliability and repetition. French makers
were particularly industrious, making remarkable ad-
vancements that culminated in the “Schwander” wip-
pen design, which was used in many European and
early Asian grands until the late 20th century.
• As mentioned earlier, in 1887 Alfred Dolge patented a Figure 25 This 1878 Steinway 8'6" [259 cm] Style III concert
hammer-covering machine, which made possible the grand is among the last “antique” Steinways with composite rim,
pressing of large, modern felt hammers open-face pinblock, and three-quarter plate. This model was made
• Mason & Hamlin produced screw stringer pianos (see in parallel with the 8'9" [267 cm] “Centennial” concert grand,
which had a full-size plate and was first made in 1875. Both were
below) superseded by the composite-rim model D in 1878, and by the
• Richard Gertz of Mason & Hamlin patented his Ten- rescaled model D in 1884, which had a continuous, laminated rim
sion Resonator in 1900 (see page 25). and a full-size double cupola plate.
American piano makers, including Chickering, Knabe,
and Steinway & Sons, fully modernized the piano by the
1880s, and, aside from relatively minor improvements,
that’s the form in which they have been made ever since.
While overall American and German piano production
increased sharply during the late 1800s,90 the French and
British shares of the market began to decline. This trend
continued during the 20th century.

Screw Stringer Pianos

Since they started building pianos in the early 1880s, the
Boston-based keyboard-instrument maker Mason & Ham-
lin had utilized a system with screw tuning pins sus-
pended by a massive plate flange (Figure 27). This system,
referred to as a “screw stringer,” dispensed with the need

88 Capstan screw: U.S. patent no. 170,645 (1875). Full-size plate with a
transverse plate bar: U.S. patent no. 170,647 (1875). Nose bolt: U.S.
patent no. 178,565 (1876). Continuous laminated rim and metal shoe
(“tone collector”): U.S. patent no. 204,106 (1878) (both inventions
were first introduced in the model A). Laminated long bridge: U.S.
patent no. 233,710 (1880).
89 See Richard Lieberman, Steinway & Sons, pp. 63–72. An illustration Figure 26 Modern 52" [132 cm] upright by Yamaha (model U3).
of the Steinway booth is on p. 69.
90 Edwin Good, Giraffes, p. 217.

...
Sample page from Pianos Inside Out. Copyright © 2013 Mario Igrec.
“ Have you noticed that when you’ve got a piano on its back and are installing
a new set of casters, that someone will walk by and ask if you are tuning the piano?
Then, when you are actually tuning the piano, they say, ‘What are you doing?’
—Barbara Richmond, RPT
Tuning the piano means adjusting the pitches of the
strings so that all notes sound well when played, whether
individually or together in various intervals and chords.
To tune, one turns a tuning pin (or other tuning device) to
alter the tension of the string and thus adjust the pitch.
In J.S. Bach’s time (early 18th century), harpsichords,
clavichords, and early pianos were tuned by the per-
former. Piano tuning became a profession in the 19th cen-
tury, when piano’s keyboard compass grew to over six oc-
taves and triple stringing became prevalent. An increase
in string tension caused corresponding increases in tuning
pin torque and string friction, requiring a special tech-
nique to “set” the pin and the string. Equal temperament,
which gained popularity during this period, required
more precision, and therefore skill and experience, than
had earlier temperaments.
Although piano tuning is clearly not something that can
be mastered in an afternoon, anyone with normal hearing
and coordination, a basic understanding of music theory,
and adequate physical strength can learn to tune pianos
with reasonable accuracy in a few months. Learning to
tune is not unlike learning to play the piano—it requires a
lot of practicing. If you aspire to tune on a professional
level, be prepared for lengthy training.
This chapter, like the rest of this book, is written with
the novice in mind. It contains detailed information about
tuning aurally (“by ear”) and with the help of a simple or
advanced electronic tuning device (ETD). The chapter be-
gins by explaining musical nomenclature, intervals, and
equal temperament. Inharmonicity is discussed next, in-
cluding its effects on coincident partials and interval
stretch. Information about aural tuning is presented in the
form of lessons, which should be practiced separately and
93
Chapter 4
Tuning
”
systematically. The emphasis is on keeping things simple
and getting results as quickly as possible, while providing
enough information to develop your own system, and to
explore more advanced techniques when you are ready.
Tuning lessons are followed by instruction in electronic
tuning and a discussion of special tuning techniques, such
as raising and lowering pitch. The chapter closes with a
list of issues that commonly affect piano tuning, and solu-
tions to those problems.
To practice tuning, you will need a piano in a reason-
ably good condition. If the piano will be used between
your practice sessions, you may need to hire a piano tuner
to “undo” your work. Ironically, the type of piano you are
most likely to have access to—a short grand or a vertical—
is much harder to tune than a concert grand. Avoid pianos
with very short strings, if possible.
I recommend learning from a piano tuner/technician.
Even simply observing an experienced tuner at work will
give you a clearer idea about recognizing beats, working
with the tuning hammer, and setting the strings and tuning
pins than will studying entirely on your own.
Be careful not to damage the piano, the floor, or the fur-
niture, and avoid wearing clothes or apparel that could
damage the piano’s finish. If you need to remove pictures,
vases, and other objects from the piano, return them in
the same positions. Don’t drag the bench across the floor.
Lift it, or place a folded mover’s blanket under it.
For instructions on removing case parts, see “Gaining
Access” on page 136. If you need to open up the piano and
do any work inside the action cavity, or on the baseboard
in a vertical piano, look for signs of rodent infestation. If
you find any, decontaminate and clean the piano before
proceeding (see page 136).
...
Sample page from Pianos Inside Out. Copyright © 2013 Mario Igrec. Inharmonicity 101

... Table 3: Frequencies of Equal Temperament

Octave
Note
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
#
C/B 16.352 32.703 65.406 130.813 261.626 523.251 1,046.502 2,093.005 4,186.009
#
C /D
b 17.324 34.648 69.296 138.591 277.183 554.365 1,108.731 2,217.461 4,434.922
D 18.354 36.708 73.416 146.832 293.665 587.330 1,174.659 2,349.318 4,698.636
# b
D /E 19.445 38.891 77.782 155.563 311.127 622.254 1,244.508 2,489.016 4,978.031
E/F
b 20.602 41.203 82.407 164.814 329.628 659.255 1,318.510 2,637.020 5,274.041
F/E # 21.827 43.654 87.307 174.614 349.228 698.456 1,396.913 2,793.826 5,587.652
# b
F /G 23.125 46.249 92.499 184.997 369.994 739.989 1,479.978 2,959.955 5,919.911
G 24.500 48.999 97.999 195.998 391.995 783.991 1,567.982 3,135.963 6,271.927
# b
G /A 25.957 51.913 103.826 207.652 415.305 830.609 1,661.219 3,322.438 6,644.875
A 27.500 55.000 110.000 220.000 440.000 880.000 1,760.000 3,520.000 7,040.000
# b
A /B 29.135 58.270 116.541 233.082 466.164 932.328 1,864.655 3,729.310 7,458.620
B/C
b 30.868 61.735 123.471 246.942 493.883 987.767 1,975.533 3,951.066 7,902.132

tuning lessons below. See page 100 for information on how The classical explanation for inharmonicity is that the
to calculate the frequencies and beat rates within the vibrating string breaks up into partial-generating segments
equal temperament. For your convenience, Table 3 lists that behave as virtual strings—shortened, but just as thick
the theoretical frequencies of all notes on the piano. You as the whole string. The segments are increasingly stiffer,
will learn to tune equal temperament in “Lesson 7” on and the stiffer they are, the more their ends resist bend-
page 117. ing. This, in turn, reduces each segment’s effective length,
and that causes the pitch to rise.197
As Dave Carpenter, RPT, points out, a more accurate
Inharmonicity explanation is that vibrations move through the string as
periodic (repeating) waves of energy, at a certain speed or
wave velocity. Each partial has its own wavelength, which
The difficulties imposed by equal temperament are fur-
is in inverse relationship with its frequency—the higher
ther aggravated by inharmonicity, which raises the pitch of
the partial, the shorter the wavelength. In an ideal string
overtones. Instead of being true multiples of the string’s
with no stiffness, wave velocity would be constant for all
primary frequency, as they theoretically should be, over-
partials, and they would coincide with the harmonics
tones get progressively higher (Figure 210). This has far-
(mathematically perfect partials). However, an actual pi-
reaching consequences.
ano string is stiff to a certain degree (the thicker it is, the
stiffer it will be), and stiffness makes it resist bending. This,
Cents in turn, creates bending force, which increases the speed
deviation: b=0.21
with which the wave moves through the string. To under-
+20 stand bending force, imagine bending a short and a long
15 wire of the same thickness. The short wire will resist the
8
10 7
6 bending more and spring back with greater force and
5 5
A3 3
4 b=0.00 speed than the longer wire. Bending force increases as
0 2
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 wavelength decreases, which means that wave velocity in-
5 creases toward high partials. In effect, the wire exhibits
– 10 greater stiffness at shorter wavelengths. This is why the
frequency shift is progressive—the higher the partial, the
more inharmonic it is. See the sidebar “Calculating Pitch
Raise of Partials” on page 106 for sample data.
Whereas the prominence of partials defines tone qual-
ity or timbre, inharmonicity imparts its own “flavor,”
which can make the piano sound noisy and jarring
(greater inharmonicity) or focused and clear (lower inhar-
Figure 210 Inharmonicity raises the frequency of partials exponen- monicity). High inharmonicity can make low bass notes
tially. As the curved line illustrates, the eighth partial of note A3 in sound downright gong-like.
a 1923 6'4" [193 cm] Steinway A is over 13 cents higher than it
would be without inharmonicity. It is not unusual for the inharmo- The tonal effect of inharmonicity changes during the
nicity of that note to be twice as high in some pianos. (The visual- life of the note because high partials die out more quickly
ization is based on inharmonicity charts in Daniel Levitan, The
Craft of Piano Tuning.) 197 See W.V. McFerrin, The Piano: Its Acoustics, pp. 38–40.
102 Tuning Sample page from Pianos Inside Out. Copyright © 2013 Mario Igrec.

Table 4: Inharmonicity and How Much It Raises Partialsa

(1923 6' 4" [193 cm] Steinway A III)

Partial
Freq. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.
Note b
(Hz)
cents bps cents bps cents bps cents bps cents bps cents bps cents bps
A0 27.5 0.370 1.50 0.05 3.50 0.17 6.50 0.41 12.50 1.00 14.0 1.34 19.0 2.12 23.5 3.01
A1 55 0.160 1.00 0.06 3.60 0.34 3.70 0.47 5.60 0.89 5.60 1.07 7.60 1.69 8.20 2.09
A2 110 0.055 0.20 0.03 0.40 0.08 0.30 0.08 0.80 0.25 1.90 0.73 2.90 1.29 3.70 1.88
A3 220 0.210 0.84 0.21 1.89 0.72 3.36 1.71 5.25 3.34 7.56 5.77 10.29 9.18 13.43 13.71
A4 440 0.707 2.83 1.44 6.36 4.86 11.32 11.54 17.68 22.58 25.46 39.11 34.65 62.27 45.26 93.24
A5 880 2.294 9.18 9.36 20.65 31.68 36.71 75.44 57.36 148.22 82.60 258.02
A6 1760 6.484 25.94 53.14 58.36 181.02 103.75 434.79
A7 3520 21.561 86.25 359.62 194.05 1252.53 344.99 3,104.87
a Bass string values (notes A0–A2) are averages of multiple readings with Verituner® 4.2.3 on an Apple® iPhone® 4S (the lowest partials, which couldn’t be
measured, were estimated; an average coefficient of inharmonicity, b, was estimated from the measurements); steel string (A3–A7) values were calculated
using the formula in Robert Young, “Inharmonicity of Plain Wire Piano Strings,” Equation 9. The calculations were confirmed to be very close to mea-
surements with Verituner. For supporting data and calculations, see “Inharmonicity Measurements” at http://www.pianosinsideout.com/bonus.

than low ones. This gives the piano tone a dynamic qual-
ity in which the decrease in loudness is accompanied not
only by a decrease in brightness but also a slight change
in perceived pitch. The effect is especially noticeable in
low bass strings, which, as Daniel Levitan, RPT, points out,
have “a curious quality of continuously going flat without
ever changing pitch.”198
Inharmonicity is lower overall in long pianos than in
short ones. It tends to be low in the middle section, and to
increase rapidly toward the top note. It also increases,
though typically to a much smaller degree, from the high-
est to the lowest wrapped strings. Pianos that have a signif-
icant break in inharmonicity between wrapped and plain
strings in the low tenor (the highest wrapped strings hav-
ing lower inharmonicity than the lowest plain strings) are
hard to tune in that section.
Inharmonicity is not fully predictable in the bass sec-
tion because bass strings are made by wrapping a copper
wire around a steel core (in many pianos, the lowest
strings are wrapped with two copper windings), and the
wrap is subject to variations in length, tightness, and elon-
gation of the copper wire. Other factors that make inhar-
monicity unpredictable are length of unwrapped ends,
length of single-wrapped segments in double-wrapped
strings, and length and extent of swaging—as well as fac-
tors outside of the string, such as stiffness and mobility of
string terminations, and soundboard and case resonances.
Effects on Tuning
Figure 211 illustrates a typical progression of inharmonic-
ity in a well-scaled, medium-size grand piano—it increases
from fairly low values at the lowest plain steel strings in
the tenor (Bb2 in this piano) to very high values in the tre-
ble (“b” values indicate the coefficient of inharmonicity,
which is used to calculate the pitch shift of all partials—see
198 Daniel Levitan, The Craft of Piano Tuning, p. 46.
the sidebar “Calculating Pitch Raise of Partials” on
page 106). This causes a corresponding increase in stretch
toward the top note.
Although inharmonicity shifts partials by a large
amount in the treble, this is not as much of a problem as it
may seem. As you can see in Figure 213, treble notes gen-
erate few partials, even when played loudly. Those par-
tials decay rapidly, and only the first and second partials
remain audible. As a result, the treble octaves can be
tuned on the 2:1 level. When those pairs of partials are
tuned beatless there are no other coincident pairs to gen-
erate beats, and the interval sounds in tune.
It is much more important that the prominent coinci-
dent partials of all octaves form a smooth, uninterrupted
curve. When they do, tuning is easy because all audible
coincident partial pairs are nearly beatless. Compare, for
example, the prominent partials of the notes A4 and A5, in-
dicated by the dots on the A4 and A5 curves in Figure 211.
The curves are difficult to discern because they practi-
cally cover each other. As you can see, the two notes are
tuned beatless on the 4:2 level, but the 2:1 and 6:3 levels
are also almost beatless. A scale design with such closely
matched inharmonicity curves permits the tuning of oc-
taves of exceptional purity. The other intervals, such as
P5s, P4s, M3s, etc., are also easy to tune because their beat
rates are clearly discernible. In our sample piano, the
curves “fit” almost perfectly in all notes from A2 to A7.
Note the curve in Figure 212, which connects the first
partials of the notes charted in Figure 211.199 If it were
practical for the strings in the bass section to continue in-
creasing in length and thickness at the rate at which they
do from the treble to the tenor, this curve would continue
flattening out toward the lowest string, which would have
199 This curve looks just like the curve that O.L. Railsback presented
to the American Acoustical Society in 1938, plotting average frequen-
cies of first partials measured in multiple pianos with a chromatic
stroboscope. See W.V. McFerrin, The Piano: Its Acoustics, pp. 41–42.

...
106 Tuning Sample page from Pianos Inside Out. Copyright © 2013 Mario Igrec.

...
A: Positive interval inharmonicity
Calcu l ati ng Pi tch Raise o f Pa r t i a ls Deviation
(cents) 8:4
If you know a string’s coefficient of inharmonicity (b), which can be + 35
measured with some electronic tuners or calculated using Robert 30 6:3
Young’s formula (available at http://www.pianosinsideout.com/ 25
bonus), you can calculate the amount of pitch raise for each par-
20
tial, in cents, with this formula: 8:4
15
2 Positive
25 r(cents) Z b × partial number 10 6:3
stretch 4:2
5
For example, knowing that in the above piano the note A3 has a b
0
of 0.21, we can quickly find out that its third partial is raised by 1.89
cents: 5 4:2
2
10 2:1
26 r Z 0.21 × 3 Z 0.21 × 9 Z 1.89 cents – 15

To translate that to beats per second, we first calculate the theo-

retical frequency of the third partial with this formula:

27 f(Hz) Z f first partial × partial number B: No interval inharmonicity

+30 8:4
Without inharmonicity, the frequency of the third partial would be 25
660 Hz: 20
6:3
28 f Z 220 × 3 Z 660 Hz 15
10 Same stretch
Next, we use Equation 15 on page 100 to calculate the frequency
5 on all levels
increase of the third partial from the number of cents (1.89) we
calculated in Equation 26, and we get 660.721 Hz: 0
5
1.89-
-----------
4:2
29 f Z 660 Hz × 2
1200
Z 660 Hz × 1.00109 Z 660.721 Hz
10 2:1
– 15
And finally, we calculate the beat rate between the inharmonicity-
raised and theoretical frequencies of the third partial of A3 using
Equation 21 on page 100: C: Negative interval inharmonicity
30 n Z 660.721 Ó 660.000 Z 0.721 bps
+30
See Table 4 for pitch-raise values for up to eight prominent par- 25
tials of each note A in the above piano. These values are plotted in 20
Figure 211 on page 104. To calculate the frequency of each partial, 15 4:2
add bps to the theoretical frequency calculated with the formula in
2:1
10
Equation 27.
5
0
Negative 4:2 8:4
5 6:3
In the octave between A2 (b=0.055) and A3 (b=0.210) stretch 6:3
10 8:4
the multiplier is 3.82, very close to 4. There is practically
– 15
no interval inharmonicity (see Figure 214B), and almost
no stretch between A2 and A3 (Figures 211 and 212).
But what if the multiplier was 5, 6, or more? In our sam-
ple piano, A2 is the highest note strung with wrapped
strings on the tenor bridge,203 but the speaking length of
those strings is almost identical to the speaking length of
A#2. Because the wrapped strings of A2 have a thinner
steel core than the unwrapped strings of A#2, their inhar- Octave played
monicity coefficient, b, is significantly lower than the coef-
ficient of the A#2: 0.055 vs. 0.155. This sudden drop in in-
Figure 214 Interval inharmonicity and octave stretch. The black
harmonicity across the break between steel and wrapped curve indicates the lower note, and the gray curves show four possi-
strings causes negative interval inharmonicity and a ble tunings of the upper note. A: coefficient of inharmonicity b of
negative stretch, which means that instead of being wid- upper note is less than 4 × b of the lower note. B: upper note b =
4 × lower note b. C: upper note b > 4 × lower note b. Note that in
203 The
five lowest unisons in the tenor section are strung with case C the stretch is positive at the 2:1 level, but negative for the
wrapped bichords. 4:2, 6:3, and 8:4 levels.

...
118 Tuning Sample page from Pianos Inside Out. Copyright © 2013 Mario Igrec.
...
Fourths down, A Fifths down,
Fifths up Fourths up
E D
B G
# 12-tone
F
temperament
C half cycle. If the P4 D#4-G#4 beats at less than 1 beat in 2
# decrease the beat rates of the P4s and P5s. Make correc-
C F
# #
G
# A /Bb
D /Eb
Figure 233 The 12-tone temperament circle (circle of fifths).
beating intervals as octave tests; Lesson 9 shows you how
to use them to improve your temperament tuning.
To tune this sequence successfully, you need to tune
quickly. You will need to tune six intervals in one direction
and five in the other to learn whether your beat rates are
too slow or too fast. That is a lot of intervals. Your tuning
technique is likely to add instability, and you may need to
repeat this sequence several times. Limit the amount of
time you spend on each note, even if you know you are ac-
cumulating errors. Establish a rhythm to outpace fatigue
and frustration. Adjust the pitch, set and pound, and test.
Repeat if needed and move on.
Sit at the piano comfortably and don’t move your head
while listening to beat rates. Keep in mind that you are
learning several skills simultaneously—listening to inter-
vals is just one of them. If you get frustrated, step away,
and return to the piano after some rest.
Press and hold the damper pedal, and insert the strip
mute throughout the middle section (approximately E3 to
C5, see Figure 227 on page 113). Check the A4 against the
tuning fork or an electronic tuner. If it beats under 2 bps,
tune it beatless to the fork; otherwise, either settle for the
existing pitch, or first pull up/lower the pitch of the entire
piano with an ETD (page 128). Changing the pitch by more
than a few cents will destabilize the tuning and undermine
your efforts.
The tuning sequence is listed step by step in “Simple
Temperament Tuning Sequence Using Slow-beating Inter-
vals.” The sequence starts by tuning the middle A to the
fork (see Lesson 2 above), and establishing a P5 and P4 in
the octave below (steps 1–3). The octave should be just
slightly wide but without perceptible beats, and the P4
should beat just slightly faster than the P5, both under
1 bps. You can spend a little more time on these two notes
because they will serve as aural templates for the beat
rates of the other P5s and P4s you will tune. Tune the next
five notes to D#4 by tuning P4s up P5s down (steps 5–9).
Make the beat rates the same as the P5 and P4 you tuned
initially. Next, start at the middle A again and tune the five
notes in the opposite direction of the temperament circle
(steps 10–15). Compare the last note, G#4 with D#4 (step
15). If this P4 is wider than beatless but beats under 1 bps,
congratulations! If it beats at more than 1 bps, it is too
wide—increase the beat rate of the P4s and P5s a touch in
both directions. This will narrow the P5s and widen the
P4s, and raise the notes tuned during the first half cycle,
including the D#4, while lowering the notes in the second
seconds, doesn’t beat at all, or is narrower than beatless,
tions until all the P4s beat at approximately the same rate,
slightly faster than the P5s.
Lesson 8: Complete Tuning Procedure—
Aural Tuning
First, tune the temperament as explained in Lesson 7 or
Lesson 9. Leave the strip mute in place and tune the oc-
taves up chromatically from the temperament to the top
note, then down to the lowest note. More detailed instruc-
tions and test intervals for each section are given below.
When tuning the octaves, tune all the strings in a uni-
son before moving to the next note. Use a rubber mute or
a Papps mute to mute the unwanted string(s). Use test in-
tervals to improve the precision of your octave tuning
(page 120).
When you finish, check the temperament and correct it
if necessary, then correct all the corresponding octaves.
Remove the strip mute and tune the unisons in the tem-
perament section. Recheck the tuning by playing the inter-
vals you used to tune the temperament, and make correc-
tions as necessary. Use rubber or felt mutes to isolate indi-
vidual strings and “repair” the unisons, always double-
checking the temperament.
Which String to Tune First in Unisons?
When you tune whole trichord unisons, tune the shortest
string first: the left string in grands, the right string in verti-
cals. The shorter the string between the tuning pin and its
speaking length, the more readily it responds to tuning
hammer movements.217 The short string also isn’t affected
when the middle and longest strings bend around it (see
Figure 244 on page 132). Tune the middle string to the
short string next, then tune the remaining string to the first
two. For the notes next to plate struts, it is more practical
to start with the string that is closest to the strut, regard-
less of its length.
You can tune the bichords (all of which are typically
wound strings) from right (longer) to left (shorter), in both
grands and verticals. String lengths matter less in bi-
chords, whereas reducing how much you handle the mute
saves time.
217 In verticals it may be affected more than the left string by temper-
ature swings during tuning.
Sample page from Pianos Inside Out. Copyright © 2013 Mario Igrec. Learning to Tune 119

S i m pl e Tem p e r a me nt Tu n in g S e qu e n c e Us in g S l ow - be a t in g I nt e r va l s

˙ Note to tune
(note to which the arrow points)

œ Note from which to tune

œœ Test interval
(check tuning against the note
to which the arrow points)

1 2 3 4
[a1]
& ˙ œ˙ œ̇ œ
1 Tune to fork
A4
2 [a1-d1] P5 slower than P4 in 3
D4

œ
3 [d1-a] P4 faster than P5 in 4
A3
Temperament circle direction:

4 [a-a1] P8 beatless to wide

Clockwise

A4
(adjust 2 and 3)
D4
5 6 7 8 9 5 [d1-g1] P4 compare to 3

& œ˙ œ˙ œ̇ œ #
G4
6 [g1-c1] P5 compare to 2
C4

# ˙ # œ̇
7 [c1-f1] P4 compare to 3 and 5
[f1-a#]
F4
A#3
8 P5 compare to 2 and 6
[a#-d#1]
D# 4
9 P4 compare to 3 and 5
10 11

& ˙œ œ
A4
10 [a1-e1] P4 faster than P5 in 11
Counterclockwise

E4
11 [e1-a] P5 slower than P4 in 10
œ 12 [e1-b]
A3
E4
P4 compare to 3
[b-f#1]
B3
12 13 14 15 16 13 # P5 compare to 2 and 6
[f #1-c#1]
F4
& œ # ˙ # œ̇ # ˙ # #œœ 14
[c#1-g#1]
C#4
P4 compare to 10 and 3

˙ œ# #œ G#4
15 P5 compare to 2
[g#1-d#1]
D# 4
16 Compare to 10 and 5

Stretching the Octaves blend those notes with the rest of the piano, test them us-
When you tune octaves in the middle section to sound ing multiple octaves and other compound intervals (for
pure and beatless, double and triple octaves will sound example, P5s and P4s over two octaves).
narrow in all but the longest pianos. Address this by
slightly stretching the single octaves, but without making Tuning the Middle and Tenor Sections
them beat perceptibly. Use octave-stretch test intervals to At first, use P4s and P5s as your main test intervals. When
check the octave width (page 120). The stretch is more a a P4 is above a P5 within an octave, it should beat slightly
sense of widening an otherwise pure octave than detuning faster than the P5. When it is below a P5, they should have
it. With somewhat wide octaves, a piano’s sound is richer, about the same beat rate.
more resonant, more “open.” Start using fast-beating test intervals, such as contigu-
Of course, not only are multiple octaves affected by in- ous M3s, adjacent M3s, and octave tests, such as the
sufficient stretch, but the beat rates in all narrow intervals M3/M10. Lesson 9 introduces some of these and “Test In-
(P5s, m3s, and m6s) become objectionable. On the other tervals” on page 120 explains how they work.
hand, overstretching the octaves will make the wide inter-
vals (P4s, M3s, and M6s) too noisy. Tuning the Bass
The amount of stretch increases toward the high treble Tune the bass section using descending octaves as the
not only because inharmonicity increases most in that primary interval. Listen for the underlying beats, heard as
section, but because we perceive high pitches as lower relatively long waves, and ignore the confusing rapid beats
than they really are. Some tuners tune the highest notes among the higher partials. Whenever in doubt, drop the
so sharp that the last few octaves sound like m9s. Most pi- pitch of the lower note in an octave until you can clearly
anists don't find overstretching the top to be satisfying. To hear the low beats (“woo woo”), pull it up until the beats

...
Sample page from Pianos Inside Out. Copyright © 2013 Mario Igrec.
“ We are Sancho Panzas to pianistic Don Quixotes.
—Benjamin McKlveen, RPT
In pianos, the term regulation applies to adjusting the func-
tioning of the mechanism, which consists of the action,
keyboard, damper system, and pedals. The mechanism is
regulated by repositioning, aligning, or shimming parts, by
turning their regulating screws or buttons, and/or by alter-
ing the thickness of various felts and leathers.
Every piano should be regulated periodically. In mod-
erately used pianos, the action should be regulated every
few years, and the keyboard as part of every other action
regulation. Regulate the pedals as part of every tuning.
The damper mechanism remains in regulation for a long
time, but should be regulated if the initial regulation was
poor or when the damper system is rebuilt. If the piano is
used heavily or is exposed to adverse climate conditions,
check its regulation as part of each tuning.
Although this chapter is presented in sections that fo-
cus on one subsystem at a time (keyboard, action, damp-
ers, pedals), I suggest reading the entire chapter first to get
a sense of how these systems interact with each other. For
specifications and procedures specific to the piano you
are regulating, consult the manufacturer’s service manual.
Protection
When you work in a customer’s home, be careful with the
furniture, rugs, and carpets, and make sure you do not
damage the piano case. Never put your tools or parts on a
finished surface without padding it with cloth, felt, or a
mover’s blanket. Always put a sheet or mover’s blanket
under the keyboard or action on the floor (the lubricants
on the bottom of the key frame could transfer to the floor
and get contaminated). Remove all fragile objects from the
135
Chapter 5
Regulating
”
Recom m en dat i ons
• Condition: Parts must be in good condition or the regulation
will not hold.
• Clean and lubricate all contact points.
• Do not realign worn action parts unless they rub against each
other.
• Light: Use a dispersed, strong source of light for general work;
shine a pointed light at an angle when shadows help you deter-
mine distances; e.g., when regulating let off in the piano.
• Use visual and tactile checks.
If you need to remove any parts:
• Mark the numbering and label the parts (with masking tape,
for example) before removing them.
• Take notes and photos that will help you realign the parts
later.
• Don’t mix wood screws, even when they appear to be the
same—small imperfections and burrs can wear out the wood.
piano and near it, and be sure you have enough space to
comfortably remove the keyboard and action. Put a
mover’s blanket under the piano bench to protect the
floor. If you need to perform any repairs during the regula-
tion, turn to Chapter 7, “Repairs.”
I suggest wearing thin cotton inspection gloves for most
piano work. The gloves not only protect your skin, but also
protect delicate parts in the action, keyboard, and damp-
ers from the oily acids and moisture on your skin. Tip:
When the gloves get dirty, and only if they are not contam-
inated with chemicals, turn them inside out to double
their use time. Avoid touching uncoated metal parts, such
as strings and springs, with bare hands.233
...
142 Regulating Sample page from Pianos Inside Out. Copyright © 2013 Mario Igrec.
...
Christopher Brown, RPT, available from TPR Tools LLC
(www.tprtools.com). Not only does this device allow you to
reproduce the curvature of the key bed, it is also a com-
prehensive jig for regulating the action, hanging hammers,
adjusting shank travel, and more (see Figure 263).
Guide Notes
Guide notes are the notes you measure and regulate first
to get a quick idea of the regulation in different sections of
the piano. Usually the end notes in each section and a
middle note in long sections, these notes provide refer-
ences for observing and regulating the notes between
them. For example, if you first set the blow distance (ham-
mer height at rest) on guide hammers in a grand action,
you can visually adjust the hammers to form a line be-
tween them. Guide notes are also useful in rebuilding:
guide hammers (hammers on guide notes), for example,
act as templates for gluing the rest of the hammers (Figure
594 on page 392).
Guide notes allow you to quickly test multiple interre-
lated regulation steps in several areas of the keyboard. In
verticals, for example, regulating the key dip, let off, blow
distance, and jack gap of a few guide notes may reveal dis-
crepancies in aftertouch between the bass and treble in
just minutes.
If guide notes require excessive turning of regulating
screws and buttons or you run out of range of adjustment,
check to ensure that the action rails have not moved, the
brackets are intact and fastened down firmly, and the ac-
tion geometry is satisfactory (see Chapter 9, “Touch, Ge-
ometry, Playability” on page 273). In a grand piano, if ham-
mers block on strings or drop screws bind on the pin-
block, suspect expanding action brackets (page 149).
Friction
Since every part of the piano mechanism is affected by
friction, this is one of the most important—and most over-
looked—aspects of piano regulation. The main sources of
friction in the mechanism are:
• Metal and felt parts (e.g., between center pins or key
pins and their bushings)
• Metal and wood (e.g., between key frame glides and
key bed)
• Wood and felt or leather (e.g., between jacks and
knuckles; key end felts and damper underlevers)
• Wood and wood (e.g., between key frame and key
bed).
Addressing friction between strings and their bearings
is discussed in “Lubricating String Bearings” on page 113.
238 The Grandwork™ Regulation Station is protected under U.S.
patent no. 8,227,674 (2012).
Friction is a huge factor in the performance of the ac-
tion, keyboard, and dampers. Excessive friction causes
premature wear and noises throughout the piano, and
negatively affects touchweight and the piano’s overall
playability. Too little friction, on the other hand, makes
the action feel bouncy, and may cause the hammers to
bobble (double and triple repeat) on hard blows (see side-
bar, “Myth/Truth.”).
Inconsistent friction makes the action feel uneven.
Evening it out is a prerequisite for adjusting touchweight
and improving playability.
Friction affects not only the performance of action
parts but also their wear. Keeping friction within its nor-
mal range increases the life span of key pins, bushings,
knuckles, key end felts, key frame glides, and trapwork
leathers. Friction increases as parts wear out and felts and
leathers harden. The increase is especially pronounced
between the jack and the knuckle, which need to be lubri-
cated periodically. Center pins tend to bind in their felt
bushings due to the oxidation of the pins and the swelling
of the felt, especially in high-humidity climates. Lowering
friction is discussed below. If ends of center pins are
green, see “Verdigris” on page 246.
Myth: All action centers should have as little fric-
tion as possible without looseness.
Truth: Until recently this view has been widely held, even
among physicists (see, for example, W.V. McFerrin,
The Piano: Its Acoustics, p. 153), but friction in fact
acts as a shock absorber, and provides the needed
amount of mechanical damping that reduces the
unwanted movement of action parts. Without fric-
tion, shanks and wippens would continue bouncing
for a prolonged period of time, during which repeti-
tion would be unpredictable and the hammer might
hit the strings several times.
Center pin friction decreases during the heating season
due to low humidity.239 This may be accompanied by
clicking noises caused by loose center pins or key pins.
These are separate problems that should be addressed be-
fore the piano is regulated.
Assessing Friction
To assess the overall friction, quickly measure down-
weight and upweight on a few keys, and calculate friction
(see “Static Touchweight (TW)” on page 276). If the fric-
tion is outside the ranges in the “Touchweight Worksheet”
on page 277, you will need to reduce or increase it. Both
cases are discussed below.
If the piano is in a humid climate and has not been
played for a long time, playing it will tend to somewhat re-
duce friction. Move the shanks and wippens through their
range of motion a few times before measuring friction.
239 In low humidity the bushing holes actually shrink somewhat, and
tighten around the bushing cloth; as the wood shrinks, the bushing
holes become elliptical, shrinking in diameter across the grain.
Sample page from Pianos Inside Out. Copyright © 2013 Mario Igrec. Friction 143

Traditional center pins are made of German silver and Table 5: Acceptable Friction Values for Center Pins
are not plated. The plated center pins used in newer Asian
pianos exhibit a reverse trend: Moving the parts causes Distance from Friction Torque
Part
center pin (g) (mm-g)
center pin friction to increase, sometimes so much that the
parts seize up. The solution is to repin or rebush the parts Hammer shank flange 25 mm 1.5–4.0 37–100
(page 244). Repetition lever Buckskin at drop 2.0–6.0 120–360
(spring disengaged) screw (58 mm)

Measuring Center Pin Friction Wippen flange 25 mm 1.5–4.0 37–100

Underlever flange 25 mm 1.0–4.0 25–100
Center pins contribute significantly to the overall friction Underlever top flange 25 mm 1.0–4.0 25–100
in the action—for an action to feel “fast,” their friction Sostenuto tab Tip (15 mm) 1.0–6.0 15–90
should be toward the low end of the ranges listed in (spring disengaged)
Table 5. Center pin friction also contributes to the even- Jack (spring disengaged) Tip of tender 0.5–4.0 12–100
ness of action response, and should be measured pre- (25 mm)
cisely when diagnosing friction issues and repinning or re- Vertical damper lever (ca. 50 mm) 1.0–8.0 50–400
bushing action parts.
specifications assume approximately 32 mm. To calculate
torque, use the following formula:
31 Torque Z Force × Distance
25 mm
At the radius of 25 mm, for example, a measurement of
4 grams indicates a torque of 100 mm-grams:
32 25 × 4 Z 100

The Torque column in Table 5 allows you to compare fric-

Figure 264 Measuring center pin friction of a shank flange with a
10 gram tension gauge. The photograph is taken from above.
The most precise way to measure center pin friction is
with a 10-gram spring tension gauge (for less formal meth-
ods, see sidebar, “Other Ways to Test Center Pin Fric-
tion”). Hold the part (e.g., a hammer shank or wippen) so
the center pin is vertical, to eliminate the effects of gravity.
Push the part you are measuring (e.g., the flange) with the
tip of the gram gauge probe at a spot that is as far from the
center pin as indicated in Table 5. Hold the gauge lightly
and follow the rotation of the part with it (see Figure 264).
To avoid a false high reading, keep the probe pointed at
the center pin.240 Don’t slide the probe, and don’t let it
bind on grooves or ridges—temporarily affix a piece of
tape to the flange, if necessary. Read the highest value dis-
played and compare it with the values in Table 5.
Because you’re measuring the force needed to over-
come the resistance to circular motion, you really are
measuring torque. The advantage of expressing center pin
friction as torque is that you can compare measurements
taken at different distances from the center pin. WNG, for
example, measures flanges at 20 mm,241 while Steinway’s
240 Gregory Graham provides instructions for building a jig that main-
tains the angle between the gauge and the part. Search
http://my.ptg.org for “Gram Gage Jig Instructions.”
tion values for different distances.
Conventional wooden parts shrink and swell, and your
readings will differ somewhat from season to season. To
reduce sideplay, friction may need to be higher in parts
with softer bushings, and lower in parts with firmer bush-
ings. Consult the manufacturer’s specifications, if avail-
able. Steinway & Sons, for example, recommends torque
on the low end of the ranges in Table 5.242
Repeat the measurement in the opposite direction. If
the resistance is off by more than 50 mm-grams, check for
debris and microscopic splinters between parts. Just slid-
ing a piece of paper a few times between the parts may
help. If it doesn’t, remove the center pin and smooth the
bird’s eye (a circular protrusion around the center pin
hole) on both sides of the part with a few light, circular
passes with 1000-grit or finer sandpaper. If the wood is
smooth, the center pin itself may turn more smoothly in
one direction than the other. Install a new center pin, one
half size thicker, as explained in “Repinning Action Parts”
on page 244.
Shank Center Pin Friction Affects Tone
High friction in hammer shanks dulls the tone by increas-
ing the amount of time the hammer remains in contact
with the strings. Reducing shank friction, aside from mak-
ing the action perform better, can open up the tone appre-
ciably.
241 http://www.wessellnickelandgross.com/media/pdfs/
gram_gauge_usage.pdf.
242 Steinway& Sons, Worldwide Technical Reference Guide, “Grand
Preparation,” p. 21.

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 Sample page from Pianos Inside Out. Copyright © 2013 Mario Igrec.
Grand Action and Keyboard: Evaluating and Preparing for Regulation
...
Figure 282 Brushing the knuckles with a soft suede brush.
Photo by Allen Wright, RPT
Figure 283 Applying powder lubricant with a cosmetics brush.
Figure 284 Rubbing a powder lubricant onto the knuckles with
the top stack tilted forward.
157
(page 145). This is easiest to do with the top stack re-
moved and tipped forward 90° (Figure 284). Cover the sur-
face under the knuckles with paper towels to catch excess
lubricant. Apply the lubricant with a small brush (Figure
283), a pipe cleaner, or by dabbing it on with your finger,
wearing cotton gloves (Figure 284). Work it in with the fin-
ger or a felt block. If you are in a hurry, use a technique
taught by André Oorebeek: work the lubricant into a felt
block, support the hammers so the knuckles form a line,
and rub the knuckles with the block from one end to the
other in each section. Burnish the lubricant with a small
spatula or a metal shank (e.g., a screwdriver). Carefully re-
move and dispose of the paper towels. Combined with the
lubrication of other friction points, a powder lubricant will
reduce the overall action friction to very low levels (6 to
8 g). For an even greater reduction, you could mask every-
thing but the graphited areas of the repetition levers, and
spray them with a dry-film lubricant. Some pianists will
then complain that the action doesn’t provide enough
feedback.
Caution: Wash your hands thoroughly before playing the pi-
ano, to avoid spreading the lubricant on the key tops. If the
keys get slippery, wash them with alcohol. If the owner or per-
former still complains, protect the fallboard and the rest of the
piano, and mist them with a very small amount of hair spray
(don’t spray directly).
45 Sluggish or loose wippens: Tilt the top stack for-
ward, as depicted in Figure 284, so that the wippens hang
loosely or barely sit on the wippen rail. Move the wippens
in groups toward the shanks, and let go. Repeat in the op-
posite direction. If any wippens return slowly, remove
them and measure center pin torque on their flanges. If
the torque is high, lubricate them (page 148). Also mea-
sure the torque on jack and repetition lever center pins—
when one center is sluggish, usually all of them are. Next,
grasp each jack tender and gently move it left/right a few
times. If you feel any looseness, repin the jack and/or the
wippen flange. Check the repetition lever pinning for
looseness.
46 Wippen heel felts: Turn the top stack upside down
and lightly brush wippen heel felts with a brass bristle
brush. If they are dented, steam them lightly (though not
so much as to compromise the glue), then iron them at
low temperature with circular motions. Rub a powder lu-
bricant into the felt (Figure 285) and burnish it with a
metal shank. Vacuum excess lubricant.
47 Lubricate repetition spring/repetition lever notch:
This applies to Steinway and similar designs. Remove the
top stack from the key frame and turn it upside down. Dis-
lodge all repetition spring hooks and, reaching between
the wippens, scrape the old, caked lubricant from repeti-
tion lever notches with a thin, pointed hardwood dowel
(Figure 273 on page 151). If there is a lot of lubricant in the
notches or the lubricant is still greasy, wipe the notches
with cotton swabs dipped in a 90% alcohol. Allow to dry,
158 Regulating Sample page from Pianos Inside Out. Copyright © 2013 Mario Igrec.
Figure 285 Applying and rubbing powder lubricant into wippen
heel felts with a cotton glove.
L ub ri c a t e S pr in g N o t c hes
w i th Fi l m o r G re a s e ?
Spring ends and repetition lever spring notches traditionally
have been lubricated with mutton tallow. Manufacturers chose
this heavy grease to act as a brake to slow the motion of the
repetition lever. Combined with the friction of the repetition
lever center pins, the grease allowed stronger adjustment of the
springs, thus improving the reliability of repetition (see “Increas-
ing Friction” on page 148). Unfortunately, this lubricant quickly
caked up and oxidized the springs, rendering the action sluggish
or unplayable. We cringe today as we clean it from the springs
and notches of almost every grand made in America before
WW II. Modern, synthetic grease lubricants are much better:
they are stable and noncorrosive, and promise great longevity.
However, before you use one for this application, consider that,
over time, every grease lubricant loses effectiveness as it traps
dust, lint, and wool fibers. A dry-film lubricant doesn’t suffer
from that problem. Unless the friction of the repetition lever
center pins is exceedingly low and hammers are particularly
heavy, the benefits of a grease lubricant may be outweighed by
the long-term effectiveness of a dry-film lubricant.
then apply a dry-film or grease lubricant to the notches
with a folded pipe cleaner (see sidebar, “Lubricate Spring
Notches with Film or Grease?”). Turn the top stack back
up, and clean old lubricant from the spring hooks with
very fine steel wool (#0000) dipped in alcohol or lacquer
thinner, then polish them with a rotary tool and a small
buffing wheel (use a chrome buffing compound or tripoli).
Wipe the buffing compound from the springs, lubricate
them with dry-film lubricant, and reposition them in the
notches. Squeeze each repetition lever. If you feel in-
creased resistance at the start of the travel, the springs
have dented the notches—if the dents are deep, replace
the wippens.
48 Let off button cloth: If the cloths on let off buttons are
dimpled, lightly brush the cloths with a brass-bristle
brush, sand them lightly, then iron them at low tempera-
ture. This will improve the stability of let off regulation.
Rub a small amount of powder lubricant into each cloth
and burnish with a metal shank.
49 Lubricate jack tenders: Lubricating let off buttons is
usually sufficient lubrication for jack tenders, but if they
feel rough or were treated with a greasy lubricant, clean
them with alcohol and apply liquid dry-film lubricant to
them with a bottle brush.
50 Vacuum excess powder lubricant.
51 Reinstall the shank rest rail (if you removed it earlier)
and, if you don’t intend to regulate the keyboard, fasten
the top stack onto the key frame.
Regulating Keyboard
(Grands and Verticals)
Functionally, the keyboard is part of the action and should
be regulated with it. I treat the two as separate units be-
cause the keyboard tends to stay in regulation longer than
the action top stack. If you’re pressed for time, focusing on
the action will generally yield greater improvement for the
player than perfecting key level and key dip or adjusting
key spacing. For ultimate results, however, the keyboard,
action, and damper system should be regulated together.
For example, if the aftertouch is shallow after you regulate
the let off and hammer-blow distance, you will have to de-
cide whether to reduce blow distance (action) or increase
key dip (keyboard). You can’t adjust the damper stop rail
before you define key dip, and even the damper lift timing
depends on the hammer-blow distance and key dip.
Please note that, for purposes of regulation, I treat back-
checks as part of the action, not the keyboard.
Since the regulation of the keyboard is mostly the same
in grands and verticals, it is described for both designs un-
der this heading. Procedures that are unique to either de-
sign are explained as necessary.
The regulation of the keyboard involves the following
procedures, in this order:
• Bedding the key frame
• Spacing the keys
• De-slanting the keys
• Squaring the keys
• Setting white key level
• Setting black key level
• Setting key dip (white and black keys)
In vertical pianos, the key frame is affixed to the key
bed with screws, and the regulating is quite straightfor-
ward. In most grands, though, the key frame shifts side-
ways with the soft (una corda) pedal, and bedding it to the
key bed is critical. Poor contact between the two causes
knocking or rattling noises, and the accumulation of dust
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Sample page from Pianos Inside Out. Copyright © 2013 Mario Igrec.
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Figure 315
Regulating
the drop
(Steinway).
Let off
Drop Backchecked
Figure 316 Regulating the backchecking against the
drop of the neighboring hammer.
sistance that the pianist has to overcome toward the bot-
tom of key travel as the tip of the repetition lever pushes
against the drop screw.
How: To adjust the drop, pull out the action and work
either with the keyboard halfway on your lap (see “Tip”
below), or place the keyboard and action on top of the
(padded) front lid. Depress the key slowly, controlling its
movement, and look for the vertical distance between the
hammer at let off and the position to which it drops just af-
ter let off. This distance is the “drop.” Ignore the hammer’s
rise as the key continues moving toward the bottom of the
key travel. The rise may be substantial if aftertouch is ex-
cessive, but if the hammer doesn’t drop at all, reduce the
blow distance to increase aftertouch (see step 4). Adjust
the drop by comparing it to the neighboring hammer, as
shown in Figure 316. It should be ca. 1/16" [1.5 mm] below
let off.
Regulating Grand Action 173
Tip: When regulating the action with the keyboard on your
lap, the front rail of the key frame bends upward and the key
dip decreases. Keys may reach the bottom of their travel be-
fore the hammers reach the let off, let alone drop. To increase
the key dip, move your leg sideways, away from the area
you’re working on.
4 Aftertouch is the amount of key travel measured at the
front of the key from the highest point in hammer travel
(let off) to the bottom of the key travel with moderate pres-
sure. It is a function of let off, hammer-blow distance, and
key dip, and should be adjusted to around 0.040"
[1.0 mm]. Excessive aftertouch wastes energy, makes repe-
tition sluggish, and can cause the hammers to get jammed
by the backchecks. Insufficient aftertouch, on the other
hand, causes inadvertent double-repeating when you play
softly—the hammer and shank bounce between the
string(s) and the jack because the jack does not escape
sufficiently from under the knuckle.
Dependencies: Since let off is tied to the position of
the strings, aftertouch is adjusted by altering key dip
and/or blow distance. In a precisely regulated action
those two distances should be consistent throughout, but
in reality they vary slightly from note to note and can be
compromised to a certain degree. Many technicians give
priority to blow distance because it affects the hammer
line (horizontal alignment of hammers at rest), and a
straight hammer line makes the action look regulated.
Blow distance also affects the acceleration of the hammers
and the amount of force they deliver to strings, which is
one more reason to keep the blow distance consistent.
Measuring: Aftertouch is very sensitive to the curva-
ture of the key bed/bench, and should be adjusted inside
the piano. Although you can measure aftertouch by com-
paring the key height at let off and at the bottom of key
travel, I prefer adjusting it by feel. This way you will auto-
matically compensate for variations in the size and curva-
ture of the knuckle and other discrepancies in action
parts. Press the key slowly to the point of let off and, while
observing the hammer, press the key to the bottom of its
travel. The hammer should drop, then rise a little, and you
should feel a short, accelerating motion with a well-de-
fined “bottom” and with very little free play after the drop.
Measured at the front of the key, this will be achieved
within 0.030 to 0.060" [0.8 to 1.5 mm] after let off.
Adjusting: Adjust the aftertouch by changing the key
dip (step 7 on page 164) or making small adjustments to
blow distance (step 1 on page 170). Maintain a reasonably
straight and even hammer line. Don’t alter let off or drop
to adjust the aftertouch.
Testing: Test the let off, drop, and aftertouch as ex-
plained in the sidebar on page 174.
Note: When adjusting blow distance, bounce the key a few
times—you may notice that the hammer stops at a slightly dif-
ferent height each time. This is because hammer height at rest
is affected by the tension of the repetition spring, its friction
174 Regulating Sample page from Pianos Inside Out. Copyright © 2013 Mario Igrec.
Te s ti ng L e t O ff , D ro p, a n d A ft e r t o u c h by Fee l
The following tests supplement visual checks and are optional. They
require good finger control and a refined sense of touch. The room
should be quiet, but you will make a lot of noise—let the owner know
what you are doing.
Playing off the jacks: Playing with control in ppp dynamics
requires let off and drop to be close to the strings and to be extremely
consistent. The following tactile check, known as “playing off the
jacks,” allows you to refine the results. Perform the following tests
with the damper pedal depressed.
Depress a key until you feel increased resistance, then depress it
to the bottom of its travel with moderate force (Figure 317). Reduce
the force until the note barely sounds. Repeat this test with the same
amount of force on all white, then black keys. Each note should
sound. If a note doesn’t, its let off and drop are likely too low—adjust
and retest until the note sounds. The more quietly you can play off
the jacks, the softer you will be able to play the piano with control.
If you feel markedly greater resistance on any of the notes, those
hammers may be blocking against the strings—increase the let off and
drop distances. Slight discrepancies in resistance may be caused by
the jack position at rest (step 7 on page 176). Adjusting the jack
slightly toward the player will reduce the resistance, and vice versa.
Resistance also can be caused by wear and lack of lubrication on the
knuckles, lubrication of the repetition spring, condition of let off but-
ton felts, lubrication of the jack tender, inconsistent force of the repe-
tition spring on the jack, even a sluggish center pin.
Dropping the weight: Assemble touchweight-measurement
weights to the total weight of approx. 100 g. Depress the pedal, block
the key with one hand and place the weights on a key with the other,
then let go of the key. You should hear a faint sound. Repeat on sev-
eral adjacent keys, reducing the weight until notes start missing, then
add a few grams. Test all keys. It’s normal to have to add some weight
toward the bass and reduce weight toward the high treble.
Figure 317 Testing the consistency of let off by
playing off the jack.
against the repetition lever, the friction between the repetition
lever and the knuckle, and even the friction of the repetition
lever’s center pin. If the variations in hammer height are
large, lubricate the first three friction points and make sure
that the center pin friction is not too low (see “Friction” on
page 142). Increase spring tension slightly if necessary (step 6
on page 175).
This test checks not only the consistency of let off and drop, but
also of touchweight, friction, and hammer inertia. It is even more
effective at revealing inequalities in ppp response than playing off the
jacks.
Too close to the strings? Depress the damper pedal and pound
each note twice in rapid succession (clear the pedal between the
notes). If let off is too close to the strings, the sound will be harsh and
distorted either on both strikes or on the second strike. In either
case, set the let off a little lower (turn the button clockwise) and
repeat the test. If you are not sure what the note should sound like,
set the let off practically at the string and compare the sound with the
let off set to 3 mm (the latter will sound cleaner).
Strings have greater excursion in the tenor and bass sections;
there, you should test whether the hammer touches them at let off.
Hold the damper pedal depressed and loudly play several quickly
repeated octaves or big chords that include the note you are testing,
then quickly bring the hammer up, but take it through let off very
slowly. If you feel string vibrations on the key or hear a “zing,” indicat-
ing that the hammer is touching the string, lower the let off a little
(turn the let off button clockwise) and repeat until the hammer no
longer touches the string.
Bump and aftertouch: Hold the damper pedal depressed.
Press four adjacent white keys with the same hand and feel whether
the bump in each key’s travel starts at the same spot in the travel.
While holding the keys at the bump with the same force, slide the fin-
ger of the other hand from one key top to another (Figure 318).
Slightly adjust the pressure of each finger and observe how the rela-
tionships between the keys change. If the bump of one of the keys is
higher, either the let off and drop are lower, the blow distance
shorter, or the action leverage higher than on other notes, due to
geometry inconsistencies. That note is also likely to have greater
aftertouch. Correct the regulation and retest.
Figure 318 Testing whether the start of the
bump on adjacent keys is level.
5 Backchecking height: As explained in “The Impor-
tance of Backchecking” on page 77, backchecking speeds
up repetition by preventing the hammer from getting too
far from the strings after strikes that involve keeping the
key depressed (legato, tenuto). Typically, backchecking is
adjusted to between 1/2" and 5/8" [12 to 15 mm] from the
strings. The shorter this distance, the less time the ham-
mer spends returning to the strings on restrike. Without
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A d ju s ti n g D a m p e r W i res
Viewing the damper wire from the front, the segment under bend 1
and the segment between bends 2 and 3 should be parallel to the
plane on which the underlever moves up and down, which should
be vertical.
Bends 1 and 2 abridge the misalignment between the under-
lever and the guide rail bushing. These bends should be mirror
images of each other, and should allow the damper to move freely.
If they are angled too much, the wire will rub against the left side of
the bushing and the underlever will be pushed to the right. Con-
versely, if the bends are not angled sufficiently, the wire will rub
against the right side of the bushing and the underlever will be
pushed to the left. The wire should lightly rub against one side of
the bushing, consistently within each section (see below).
a. Side view: b. Front view:
4 4
3 3
2 2
1 1
Figure 327 Side and front views of a typical grand damper
assembly. Numbers indicate the bends in the wire.
page 402). Loosen the screw in the underlever top flange,
and set the underlever to rest on the tongue of the tool,
and the damper to sit on the strings, then tighten the
screw. If the damper head twists out of alignment with the
strings, loosen the screw, twist the head slightly in the op-
posite direction, and tighten the screw. If that doesn’t
work, lift and twist the damper wire under bend 2 with a
pair of linesman or similar pliers while holding the under-
lever top flange with parallel pliers. Lift the underlever
and let the damper head return to the strings under its
Bends 3 and 4 must be adjusted so the damper head is vertical
and centered to the string(s). Viewed from the side, the wire
should be vertical except between bends 1 and 2, and the felts at
both ends of the damper head should sit on the strings with equal
force. Lifting and lowering the underlever should not change the
alignment of the damper head.
Aside from observing the bends and the amount of side-bearing
that damper wires exert on guide rail bushings, a good test is plac-
ing a small ruler on top of the damper heads. If they are aligned cor-
rectly, their tops will be parallel with the ruler.
To Center the Wire in the Bushing or Not?
If the damper wire bears against the bushing with significant force,
the bushing will wear out prematurely. The logical conclusion is to
adjust the wire to be centered perfectly in the bushing. However,
the damper is actually more effective if the wire is slightly off center.
Here’s why.
Let’s look at a single bass string. Although the hammer excites
the string to vibrate in a vertical plane, the vibrations change direc-
tion, and soon the string is vibrating in all directions. When the
damper falls on the string, it pushes the string down, causing the
vertical vibrations to quickly subside. Vibrations around the hori-
zontal plane, however, cause the damper head to move left-right.
You can observe this when loudly playing low-bass notes—the
damper head flutters horizontally (side to side) when it touches the
string. By itself, the damper can’t stop horizontal vibrations—that’s
the job of the damper bushing.
The bushing damps horizontal excursions of the string by limit-
ing side-to-side travel of the damper head. The tighter the bushing,
the more effective it is. However, the adjustment of the damper
wire can make the bushing even more effective. Suppose that the
string is deflected from its rest position by 1 mm to the left and
1 mm to the right. Also suppose that the damper wire is 1 mm
thick and the opening in the bushing has a diameter of 3 mm, leav-
ing 1 mm of room on each side of the wire. If the damper wire is in
the middle of the bushing, the string will move it equally in both
directions, for a total motion of 2 mm. But if the wire leans against,
say, the right side of the bushing, the excursion to the right will
cause almost no damper movement, whereas the excursion to the
left will bring the wire to only the middle of the hole. The total
motion will be only 1 mm, half of what it would be with the wire
centered. The degree of the lean must be very gentle or the added
friction will offset the benefits of this technique by making the
damper less effective in the vertical plane.
The lean also makes damper movement, when lifted with the
pedal, appear more precise because there is no fore/aft movement
of the damper heads.
own weight, then lightly tap down the damper head (or
the underlever) a few times. You should feel resistance
and see the tool tipping forward a little. If the underlever
knocks more than very softly against the tool, lower it.
10 Adjust pedal lift on guide dampers: Sit at the piano
and press the damper pedal slowly while observing the
guide underlevers (ignore the underlevers between
them). Adjust their capstans (if so equipped), or re-
move/add shims under the tray felt (under guide under-
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Figure 337 Wippen flange screws are usually in the back of
the action (Yamaha U3).
Figure 338 The jack spring
should be positioned in wip-
pen and jack notches, and
the jack base must be firmly
attached to the wippen.
Jack spring notch
Jack base
Oxidation and wear will make that interface noisy and
creaky. First, make sure that all springs are seated in their
notches (they often get dislocated when a pencil is re-
moved from the action). To test the lubrication and wear
of the springs and notches, disconnect the bridle tape and
lift the catcher very slowly. If the motion is not smooth or
you hear any noise, remove the action and place it on a
cradle, then disengage the butt springs. Clean bare
wooden notches with a sharpened dowel and lubricate
them with a dry-film lubricant. If the notches are covered
with cloth punchings, rub them with powder lubricant. If
worn, replace and lubricate them (see “Spring notch cloth
punchings” on page 413). Polish the spring hooks (end
that presses into the notch). Hammer butt springs are not
noisy in Schwander actions, but make sure their spring
cords are intact and that all springs are engaged.
35 Damper lift rod: Lift the end of the damper lift rod
(hold the action rack with the other hand) and observe
the lifting of dampers. If the lifting is uneven or tapers to-
ward either end, inspect and repair rod hooks and hinges
as necessary (see “Uneven Damper Lift” on page 253).
Noise: Lift the rod slowly. If its motion is not smooth,
and you hear noises, lubricate the rod, its hinges, and
damper lever felts. If in a hurry, turn the action at a right
angle to the floor, apply Protek Prolube, and let it run
down the rod. Apply at a few points along the rod’s length.
Press the tops of the levers to keep the damper lever felts
away from the rod as the liquid flows.254 Apply Prolube to
the rod hooks and hinge bushings. You can also brush
Prolube on damper spoons, unless you have a different
plan for them (see step 36). If you remove the rod, clean
and polish it and its bracket bushings, then apply liquid
dry-film lubricant to the rod and inside hard bracket bush-
ings (if the bushings are of cloth, swab them with a pow-
der lubricant instead). Refresh the lever cloths by brush-
ing them with a firm pipe cleaner or a small brass-bristle
brush if you can reach without scratching the lift rod or
spoons. Lubricate the lever cloths where they touch the
rod and damper spoons with powder lubricant applied
with a folded pipe cleaner (Figure 339). Burnish the lubri-
cant and vacuum the area. Reinstall the rod and the brack-
ets, if you removed them.
36 Damper spoons, when deteriorated, increase action
friction, accelerate wear of damper lever felts, and can be
noisy. Visually inspect the spoons. If the plating is flaking
or rust is visible, replace them or they will quickly wear
out the damper lever cloths. If the cloths are contami-
nated with rust or caked-up lubricant, brush them with a
small brass-bristle brush (without touching the spoons) or
with a firm, folded pipe cleaner, then rub/burnish them
with a powder lubricant (or replace them). Lift and prop
the damper lift rod. Clean and polish the spoons with
pieces of felt or cloth, then coat them with dry-film lubri-
cant in liquid form with a felt wedge or pipe cleaner (Fig-
ure 340). Make sure the lubricant doesn’t get on the lever
cloths. A quick alternative is to apply Protek Prolube to
the felts and spoons.
37 Damper springs, levers, and lever notches can be
responsible for oinking, creaking, or crackling noises
when playing softly and when pressing the damper pedal
slowly. The noises indicate excessive friction, which im-
pedes performance and accelerates wear.
Sluggishness: Pull the bottom of the damper lever
away from the damper spoon, or pull the damper away
from the strings and let it go. If it doesn’t snap back, is the
spring intact and engaged? Severely oxidized? Is it jam-
ming in the worn notch in the lever (especially if the notch
is covered with cloth)? Next, push the top of the damper
lever toward the rail and return it a few times. If the mo-
tion feels rough or you hear a faint creaking noise, the le-
ver spring notches (Figure 341) need to be lubricated. If in
a hurry, lubricate them with Protek Prolube. For more per-
manent lubrication, clean/polish spring ends and
clean/lubricate the notches using the techniques de-
scribed in step 34. To test the friction of lever center pins,
pull the spring away from the damper lever with a hook
254 Thanks to Fred Sturm, RPT, for this technique.
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Regulating Vertical Action, Pedals, and Dampers 195
...
3 Blow distance is the distance between the hammer at
rest and the strings. It determines the amount of force that
the hammer can deliver to the strings: the greater the dis-
tance, the greater the force. As hammers wear, blow dis-
tance typically needs to be reduced. Blow distance is di-
rectly proportional to key dip and inversely proportional
to jack gap and aftertouch.
How: Measure blow distance as depicted in Figure 345.
To reduce, shim the hammer rest rail (or half-blow rail)
with felt, paper, or cardboard shims. In the case of a rest
rail, place the shims between its felt blocks and the action
brackets (Figure 346). Do not glue the shims in place yet.
To increase the blow distance, remove the shims or cut
the rail felt blocks (this is unusual; do this after step 5). In
most studio uprights, the blow distance should be 13/4–17/8"
[45–47 mm]; in spinets and consoles with compressed ac- Figure 345 Measuring blow distance.
tions, as little as 11/2" [39 mm]. Ultimately, adjust the blow
distance and gap (next step) for optimal aftertouch
(step 5).
4 Jack gap is the distance between the jack and the ham-
mer butt that ensures the jack’s repositioning under the
hammer butt after the key is released. This distance
should be as small as possible, but sufficient for the jack to
return consistently under the hammer butt. In new actions
the gap is less than 0.004” [0.1 mm], whereas it may need
to be double that in worn ones. The measurement, how-
ever, is unimportant—you will adjust the gap by feel. If the
butts sit on the jacks (no gap), notes may bobble and miss.
You must regulate jack gap whenever you alter blow dis-
tance or key level.
How: Depress each key lightly at the very top of its
travel a few times, and observe when the hammer begins
to lift relative to the motion of the jack and wippen. There
should be a very small amount of free play in each key’s
movement, during which the jack rises but the hammer Figure 346 The hammer rail is supported by felt blocks. Place
does not move at all. Adjust the gap by turning key cap- shims under or above this felt, if necessary.
stans (Figure 347) or, in a dropped action, the screws or
capstans on linkages that connect the keys to the wippens.
The gap should feel the same on all keys.
5 Aftertouch is the distance that the front of the key trav-
els after the let off. In most verticals it should be 0.040–
0.060" [1.0–1.5 mm]. Insufficient aftertouch causes ham-
mers to bobble as the hammer butts bounce off the jacks,
whereas excessive aftertouch causes inconsistent back-
checking, wastes finger force, and may cause the jacks to
jam at the let off rail. Aftertouch is directly proportional to
key dip and inversely proportional to blow distance and
jack gap.
How: Depress each key and measure how far it travels
after the let off occurs. To measure aftertouch more pre-
cisely, place a cardboard punching of the desired thick-
ness (e.g., 0.040" [1.0 mm]) on the front key punching, and
depress the key with moderate force (place a weight of 8
to 10 oz. [ca. 250 g] on the front end of the key—this will
keep the measurements consistent from key to key).
Pressing the key just slightly more should take the ham-
mer through let off. If the hammer is already past let off, Figure 347 Adjusting the jack-to-hammer-butt gap by turning
key capstans.
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Sample page from Pianos Inside Out. Copyright © 2013 Mario Igrec.
“ A good piano must have a sound that is strong, round, full, and sustained. Its tone must be a little
metallic, . . . neither shrill nor dull, but mellow and lively. The tone must be equal in the three parts of the
keyboard . . . [but] in the upper treble clearer and more piercing than the rest of the keyboard.
—Claude Montal, blind piano manufacturer and inventor, 1836
The focus of this chapter is voicing or “tone-regulating”:
the adjustment of a piano’s tonal characteristics by manip-
ulating the shape, mass, density, and stiffness of the ham-
mer felts. Two other aspects of piano servicing that di-
rectly affect voicing—string leveling and hammer mating—
are discussed as well.
Most people see voicing only as a way to manipulate
timbre—to make a piano sound brighter or mellower. How-
ever, the hammer head is a medium of variable stiffness:
in soft playing it damps high partials, whereas on hard
blows it releases their full spectrum. This creates a tonal
gradient that makes the piano as expressive and versatile
as it is. Figure 183 on page 71 shows how dramatic the tim-
bral variations are at different dynamic levels, and illus-
trates why a skillful player can create orchestral effects on
the piano.
Although the goal of a voicing can be a simple brighten-
ing or mellowing of a pianos’s sound, a voicing must pre-
serve, and, preferably, augment a piano’s tonal gradient.
The alternative is a piano that is dull and lifeless, or pierc-
ingly bright, but monotonous. This chapter discusses the
techniques that allow you to control timbre without com-
promising the tonal gradient. You will learn how to:
• Sand the hammers to reshape the felt or to remove the
cupped outer layers of felt in new hammers
• Seat and level strings
• Mate hammers to strings to improve the clarity and
uniformity of sound
• Soften certain areas of the hammer felt with needles,
steam, or chemicals to increase sustain and reduce
brightness and/or volume of sound
199
Chapter 6
Voicing
”
• Harden the hammer felt with chemicals to increase
brightness and/or volume of sound
• Sand individual hammers to increase the clarity, bril-
liance, and brightness of sound
• Iron the felt to bring out the ultimate clarity and focus
of sound
Voicing can’t change the basic tonal character of the pi-
ano or the hammers. It is a way to release a piano’s poten-
tial and even out its tone, but only within the limitations of
its hammers, belly, and acoustic environment.
As discussed in “Piano Hammers” on page 70, ham-
mers affect the tone with their resilience, hardness, and
mass. Your ability to control those properties as part of
the voicing is limited. For best results, hammers must be
close to ideal to begin with. A set made of harshly treated,
poorly fulled, low-quality wool will never match well-made
hammers with highly resilient felt.
If you are in a position to replace the hammers, be sure
to match the replacements to the size and character of the
piano, taking into consideration action leverage and touch-
weight. See “Selecting Hammers” on page 383 for more in-
formation.
New hammers often need extensive voicing to improve
the sustain of sound, improve the tonal gradient, and even
out the volume and timbre. Since this is demanding even
for an experienced technician, I recommend first learning
voicing techniques on an already-voiced piano. Attend a
seminar at a piano-technology conference or school, or
visit a piano-rebuilding shop, if possible, to observe a voic-
ing and to learn what to listen for.
If you find any signs of rodent infestation, take the ap-
propriate precautions before cleaning and vacuuming the
action and keyboard (page 136).
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...
the hammers to strings and voicing the piano, followed by
two or more full tunings.
Technicians typically don’t level strings in vertical pi-
anos except in the most expensive models. By seating the
strings with consistent force at the upper termination
(usually a raised V bar in the plate) after a restringing, you
will get the strings close to level. If you decide to perform
fine string leveling in a vertical piano, either use a weak
magnet (Figure 365), or remove the action, tilt the piano
on its back, and use a bubble gauge. If you remove the ac-
tion, use rags to mute the strings other than the unison on
which you are working. Note that in verticals you need to
push down the strings that do not ring, whereas in grands
you pull up the strings that do ring.

Seating the Strings

Seating the strings improves the clarity of tone and re- Figure 362 Seating the string at the front duplex bearing.
duces buzzes and false beats. You should seat the strings
around all bearings, but primarily around the front duplex
bearings (Figure 362), on both sides of the V bar or
agraffes, and around the bridge pins.
A device like Acousticraft or Robinson Strate-Mate257
speeds up the seating of strings at the speaking-length side
of agraffes and on both sides of the capo bar (you may not
be able to get close enough to all agraffes, especially in the
low tenor). Such a device can also help to level the strings,
but it must be used gently to avoid damaging the strings.
To adjust each string individually, use a tool, such as
the Concert String Tool from Davenport Tools (Figure 363),
or use a notched brass bar to push down the strings at the
front duplex, and a steel hook to pull up the strings at the
other bearings. If the capo tasto is wide and you can’t get
close enough to the V bar with a hook, remove the action
and push up the strings on each side of the V bar from un-
derneath with a brass bar.
Don’t tap or push the strings down vertically at bridge
pins, because this buries them deeper in the bridge cap
and extends their contact with bridge notches outward
(Figure 105 on page 41). Instead of eliminating false beats,
Figure 363 Seating the
you may introduce them. Instead, gently pull or push each string at bridge pins
string, almost horizontally, toward the bridge pin (Figure with a Concert String
363). This will improve its contact with the pin and bridge Tool from Davenport
without crushing the wood. Tools.
Bend the strings gently, with even force, and slide the
tool from the bearing out. Seating the strings can throw
them out of level. It’s best to work with a bubble gauge on
the strings, and level the strings as part of the procedure
(see below). the high string(s) are struck with less force because the
low string(s) slow the hammer. The uneven impact also
Why is Leveling Needed? makes the hammer head twist and move sideways, sliding
slightly on the strings. The note will sound weak, unfo-
If bichord or trichord strings are not on the same plane, cused, and nasal, with a characteristic sizzle during attack
the hammer will be in contact with the lower string(s) (see “Piano Tone and Sound Envelope” on page 43). You
longer than with the high one(s). Whereas the low will be able to recognize this sound after you level a few
string(s) are partially damped by the extended contact, unisons. It’s somewhat like touching the strings lightly
while striking the key.
257 http://www.pianoteksupply.com/assets/pdf/instructions/
The effect of string leveling on voicing and sound vol-
Strate-Mate%20Instructions.pdf. ume is little appreciated. Either because it is misunder-

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Myth: A voicing won’t hold for long unless the piano
remains unplayed.
Truth: Though this is true for extremely heavy use, a prop-
erly voiced hammer with resilient, uncontaminated
felt and highly interlocked wool fibers will get only
slightly brighter from use, and will hold its overall
characteristics of tone quality and sustain for years.
It is imperative, however, that you address the ham-
mer as a whole, opening up dense shoulders, and
treating the area under the crown if it is too dense,
not merely needling the crown. Resetting the felt
after needling is extremely important to simulate
the packing that will be caused over time by the
strings. Rubbing the needled felt with a warm iron
further stabilizes the tone.
the shoulders and, optionally, to the crown. Wait 30–60
minutes for full effect.
Resetting the Felt
After each needling run, reset the felt by striking it with
the top of the voicing-tool handle (it should be flat or
evenly rounded) or a small hammer. Making sure the
hammer tails are well supported, give the felt a few deci-
sive blows from about 11 to 1 o’clock.
Packing the felt after loosening it with needles may
seem counterproductive, but it is the only way to stabilize
and correctly evaluate the sound after needling. When not
reset, the hammer will sound deceptively dull during voic-
ing, but will open up within days. Resetting the felt also
keeps the hammers mated to strings during voicing.
Pre-needling New Hammers
If you are replacing the hammers, pre-voice them as ex-
plained in “Preparing New Hammers for Installation” on
page 385.
Needling Procedures
Voicing procedures are presented as a series of steps for
clarity, but these steps are highly interrelated. They are
usually performed on all hammers in this order, one step
at a time, but often the steps are repeated, possibly many
times. For example, deep-needling the shoulders of dense
hammers (step 2) increases projection and sustain, but
can also increase the brightness of sound. You may need
to needle under the crown (step 3) after needling the
shoulders, and vice versa.
Reset the felt after each needling pass, and keep the
hammer crowns clean and mated to the strings. If you
hear an unfocused zing, correct the mating before pro-
ceeding.
1 Sand felt on new, “raw” hammers to remove the
cupped outer layers of felt (page 201). Is the sound after
the initial sanding short-sustained and lifeless (even if
harsh and loud)? If there is a lot of felt on the hammers
and touchweight and over-centering are not an issue, sand
the hammer further with 120- and 220-grit sandpaper. Re-
moving some felt may actually reduce the harshness of
Voicing Down Dense Hammers 211
P u l li ng O u t B ro ke n N e e d le s
Despite your best effort, sooner or later a needle will break and
remain buried in the hammer felt. Pull out the needle immediately
or you may not be able to find it later. Avoid the embarrassment
of someone else discovering your broken needles!
You can extract a needle with any pliers, but flush-cutting pin
nippers may be the most effective (Figure 433 on page 245).
Open them up a little, press down the felt on each side of the
needle with the corner of the jaws, grasp the needle lightly, and
pull it out. As much as possible, avoid damaging the felt.
If the needle is too far below the surface, use a voicing tool or
pin vise to insert another needle right next to it. The broken nee-
dle will be lifted up and out of the hammer enough to grasp it
with pliers. Thanks to Allen Wright, RPT, for this tip.
otherwise dense hammers because reducing their mass
reduces their string contact time. Are the hammers deeply
grooved? If there is enough felt, reshape them (page 200).
Level the strings, and mate the hammers to strings if the
hammers are new (page 207).
2 Needle dense shoulders to increase sound projection
and sustain, and, in some cases, to minimize impact noise.
Pick a sample hammer in the middle section and check
the density of its shoulders with a single needle. If you can
easily insert the needle all the way into the felt, skip that
section and perform the same test 10–15 hammers higher
or lower. If inserting the needle feels as if it is penetrating a
hard substance, see “Reflowing and Rinsing Hardener
from Overhardened Hammers” on page 215. When you en-
counter a hammer with dense shoulders, radially stab
each shoulder (area 4) with a three-needle tool about five
times in the direction of the wooden molding (Figures 374
and 375a), starting low and stabbing higher each time.
Counterintuitively, needling the shoulders increases the
brightness of sound, and usually needs to be accompa-
nied by progressively shallower needling toward the
crown. To do this, start with full-depth stabs low on the
shoulders, and gradually reduce the depth of the stabs to-
ward the crown. Reset the felt on and around the crown
(see above). Listen to the results. If the tone is rounder
and sustain longer (even if the brightness has increased),
needle the shoulders more and take mental note of the to-
tal number of stabs you made. When the tone stops im-
proving, reproduce what you did on 10–15 hammers
above and below your sample hammer. Repeat this pro-
cess in other sections. The bass usually requires less nee-
dling, the treble more. Be careful not to bend or break the
voicing needles in the treble. If the angle and density of
felt on the topmost hammers prevents you from inserting
three needles all the way, deep-needle those hammers
with a single needle.
3 Needle under crown to remove tonal harshness:
Compare the decay of a note when you play it normally,
and when you pluck its string(s). If the decay is much
longer and has more bloom when plucked, you may need
to voice the shoulders more. However, area 2 may be too
...
214 Voicing Sample page from Pianos Inside Out. Copyright © 2013 Mario Igrec.
...
to strings (page 207). To test the voicing, play the piano
with the soft pedal fully depressed. On each note that
stands out, mute all but one string at a time with felt mutes
and compare the sound of each string by playing pp, mp,
and f. If the regular voicing is even, you are likely to notice
discrepancies mainly at pp and mp. To voice down a par-
ticular string, stab the felt lightly and shallowly with a sin-
gle needle at and around the crown only between the
grooves, under the affected string. You can do this with a
chopstick tool in the piano, but the results won’t last as
long as when you do it outside the piano and reset the felt.
If the volume is uneven at f, remove the mutes and com-
pare the note with its neighbors. If it is slightly louder than
the other notes, insert a single needle from both sides into
area 2 precisely under the string that sounds louder (be-
tween the grooves). Reset the felt and mate it if necessary.
Never compromise regular voicing for the soft pedal.
10 Iron felt (see below).
Ironing the Felt
Ironing gives the voicing a finishing touch, both visually
and tonally. It makes the hammers sound cleaner, more fo-
cused, and somewhat brighter. Ironing can also be used as
a light voice-up technique.
You can use an electric clothes iron262 or a curved
hammer-ironing tool, available as an attachment for sol-
dering irons (piano-supply houses offer temperature-con-
trolled units). If electricity is unavailable or running an ex-
tension cord is not practical, you can use a hand tool (Fig-
ure 379) heated with a lighter or on a stove. You can also
warm the tool in a glue pot or on a hot plate, covered with
a piece of cloth. The surface of the iron should not exceed
150°F [65°C].
Place the hammers on a support block. If you use a
travel iron, lift all hammers except the group that will fit
under the heating element. Place a piece of soft, thick felt
or cloth on the block to allow the iron to reach hammers
that may be slightly shorter. Iron the hammers from the
front to back shoulders with small circular motions, 10–15
seconds per group. The motions encourage felt fibers to
interlock, effectively refelting the surface layer. Move the
iron continuously and lighten the pressure over the
crown. Lift each angled hammer a little to reach its shoul-
ders.
If you use a hand iron, iron the shoulders of a group of
hammers all on one side, then the other. Make quick, light
passes over the crown.
Alternatives to Needling
Hammering
This nondestructive and noninvasive technique, pro-
moted by David Stanwood, RPT, is particularly effective on
hammers that were over-ironed, pressed with too much
262 Lookfor an electric, temperature-controlled mini travel iron with-
out steam vents, such as the TravelSmart® by Conair.
Photo by L. Bösendorfer
Klavierfabrik, GmbH
Figure 379 Ironing the hammers with a hand iron made by
Meyne Klaviertechnik.
heat, or overlacquered on the shoulders and crown. It also
works on old hammers with dried-out felt. Hammering the
surface of densely packed felt “limbers” the fibers and un-
locks their resilience by allowing them to untangle slightly.
In overlacquered hammers the impact breaks down the
lacquer, again restoring some of the felt’s original resil-
ience. Stanwood calls this technique “sugaring,” alluding
to the effect being similar to “sugar coating,” or shallowly
needling, hammer crowns. He points out that this tech-
nique will have minimal, if any, effect on uncontaminated,
moderately dense, cold- or warm-pressed hammers made
of highly resilient felt.
How: Support the hammer tails (Figure 373), not just
the shanks. Using the round head of a ball-peen hammer,
strike each piano hammer several times with moderate
force on the upper shoulders and crown. You can use any
hammer, but the rounded shape of the ball peen concen-
trates the force of the blow to a point, for a deeper effect.
Steam-Treating Hard Hammers
This controversial technique is a quick way to voice down
very dense hammers in pianos that otherwise wouldn’t be
voiced at all, or that don’t justify the effort of needling. The
problem is that steam affects the felt momentarily—you
have to work quickly, or you risk ruining the hammers. If
you apply too much steam or let the water soak the felt,
the damage may be irreversible. In old hammers there is
also some risk of the felt coming unglued from the mold-
ings. Practice on old hammers if you can; for example, on
a set you intend to replace or in a piano that will be
scrapped.
How: The following technique is proposed by Ed Foote,
RPT, as a solution for hammers that don’t justify fine voic-
ing, and that would not otherwise be voiced.
...
Sample page from Pianos Inside Out. Copyright © 2013 Mario Igrec.
“ The repairman has to begin each job by getting outside his own head
and noticing things; he has to look carefully and listen to the ailing machine.
—Matthew B. Crawford, author of Shop Class as Soulcraft
Various repairs may be needed during the life of a piano,
such as repinning action parts, regluing them, replacing
broken strings, etc. This chapter focuses on performing
isolated repairs; Chapter 10, “Rebuilding,” covers repairs
of larger scope. For example, you will find instructions on
replacing a broken string in this chapter, but a complete re-
stringing procedure in “Rebuilding.” For additional read-
ing, see Stephen Brady, RPT, A Piano Technician’s Guide to
Field Repairs.
As most small repairs need to be performed on-site,
you should always carry a well-organized tool kit and a set
of frequently needed materials. Some repairs, however,
must be done in a workshop (page 327).
When you work in a customer’s home, remove all ob-
jects that could be damaged as a result of your work.
When removing the action and/or the keyboard, be sure
you have enough room to pull it out and carry it away
from the piano. Protect the piano, the bench, surrounding
furniture, and the floor as explained on page 135.
When working with glues, lubricants, or solvents, cover
all work surfaces so that an accidental spill won’t mar the
piano, the floor, or the furniture. Always alert the owner if
you intend to use solvents with heavy odors, such as a
hammer hardener, CA glue, or even alcohol. Some people
are sensitive or allergic to chemicals and dust—they will
appreciate an advance warning.
If you work inside the action cavity or in a vertical pi-
ano, look for signs of rodent infestation. If you find any, de-
contaminate and clean the piano before proceeding
(page 136).
221
Chapter 7
Repairs
”
Tool Kit
The tools and materials you carry with you depend on
whether or not you have your own transportation. But
even if you can drive a truck full of tools to every job, hav-
ing a tool case that you can carry when you need to use
public transportation, or have to walk some distance to a
concert-hall stage or to a building on a college campus, is
an advantage. The tool kit I describe strikes a balance be-
tween completeness and portability.
Case: I recommend keeping your tool kit in a case with
dividers that have pouches for individual tools (Figure
383). Such cases can be purchased from piano-parts sup-
pliers or well-stocked hardware stores. If you frequently
need to walk with your tool kit, you may consider a case
on wheels or a soft backpack. Keep your tools and materi-
als rolled up in tool rolls.
Tools: The tool kit should include several screwdriv-
ers, from a small flat-blade one for adjusting the hammer
drop, to larger flat-blade and Phillips screwdrivers for end
blocks and trapwork. The kit should also contain linesman
pliers, needle-nose pliers, round-nose pliers, channel-lock
pliers, tweezers, and a variety of specialized action- and
keyboard-regulating tools, such as key-easing pliers, string-
replacement tools, a string downbearing gauge, and a set
of gram weights. An LED head light is a must for poorly lit
spaces. A small long-bristle brush for dusting between tun-
ing pins, and a larger one for the action and the key bed,
will be handy on many occasions. Always have several
pairs of light cotton inspection gloves on hand.
Lubricants: Various lubricants should be a permanent
part of every piano technician’s tool kit (Figure 384). Carry
a small amount of at least one lubricant from each cate-
222 Repairs Sample page from Pianos Inside Out. Copyright © 2013 Mario Igrec.

Lighter for bending shanks Rubber mutes gory on page 145. Also carry a 90% or stronger ethyl or iso-
Hex wrench tool Combination tool handle propyl alcohol as a degreaser/cleaner. To fit more of them
Screwdriver Glue brush in your kit, carry chemicals in closable lens cases. Be sure
Pointed capstan regulator Regulating tools to have dedicated applicators, such as blocks of felt, bottle
Screwdrivers Acrylic brushes, and hypo-oilers.
Capstan hardener
wrench applicator Strings, tuning pins: To replace a broken string, you
should have a tuning hammer and a mute, a medium flat-
blade screwdriver, and linesman pliers for cutting the
string and tightening the string becket. Carry replacement
strings, pre-cut and clearly labeled, in a sealed pouch with
silica gel to prevent rusting. Since it is relatively common
for a treble string to break during a tuning, your tool kit
should include replacement strings in half sizes at least
between gauges #13 and #16.
Felts, cloth, leather: For regulating work, you will
need bushing cloth in the three popular sizes, key frame
cloths and felts, balance and front rail punchings in the
most popular sizes, and an assortment of paper punch-
ings. Carry replacement bridle straps, bridle cloth for mut-
ing strings, hammer rest cloth, and small amounts of cloth
in various sizes and densities for emergency replacement
of a missing key end felt, wippen heel felt, let off button
felt, etc. Have a few strips of damper felt of each kind. A
block of dense felt (or a felt eraser) is useful for applying
powder lubricants. You should also have a few pieces of
leather and thick buckskin for trapwork repairs.
Action parts: Tuning also challenges hammer shanks.
For grands, carry several types of replacement shanks and
flanges, assembled (my preference) or as individual parts
(you will need to pin them yourself if purchased sepa-
Chalk Papps Needle-nose
mute pliers rately). For verticals, usually you need to have two sizes of
Whetstone Linesman special maple or hornbeam shanks, 7/32" [5.5 mm] thick for
Chisel
Pencils
pliers uprights, and 3/16" [4.75 mm] for consoles and spinets. It’s
Voicing Sandpaper useful to have a few wippens, backchecks, and under-
File tools paddle
levers or damper levers.
Repinning: To replace action parts’ center pins, you
Keyboard weights Channel-lock pliers Wood should have flush-cutting pliers, a set of center pins in var-
glue ious sizes (pre-cut and supplied in a convenient dispenser
Tape measure Key-easing pliers
Hammer box), and a tool for punching out and pressing in the cen-
Batteries Wire-bending piers reamer
ter pins. You will also need a few strips of center pin bush-
ing cloth to replace worn and contaminated bushings,
when needed.
Voicing: An array of sanding paddles (page 202) will al-
low you to reshape worn hammers, as well as mate the
hammers as part of your voicing work. Always carry a
hammer-support board, and single- and three-needle voic-
ing tools.
Materials: You need to have an assortment of hard-
wood dowels and plugs for repairing stripped screw holes.
You should have a fresh supply of wood glue, a quick-dry-
ing epoxy, and some superglue gel. Some of these glues
are affected by temperature extremes and should be re-
Alcohol Brush Electronic tuner
plenished often if you keep them in your vehicle. Carry
Protek CLP one or two sheets each of 60-, 100-, and 150-grit garnet
Shank support
Applicator for voicing Tuning hammer (dry) sandpapers, silicon-carbide (wet) sandpapers from
180- to 600-grit, and a few steel-wool pads (you will need
#000 and #0000 for most action work).
Figure 383 Piano technician’s tool case.
Sample page from Pianos Inside Out. Copyright © 2013 Mario Igrec.
Figure 384 An assortment of glues and lubricants in small
containers.
As you service more pianos, it will become clear what
kinds of repairs you perform frequently, and your tool kit
will become better “tuned” to your particular needs. If you
always use the same vehicle, you may want to keep a
larger selection of tools in it, including power tools,
horses, action stands, etc.
Broken String
A broken string can be replaced or spliced. When a string
breaks at the front termination, such as the agraffe or V
bar, it’s best to replace it. However, if it breaks at the tun-
ing pin or the becket (where it enters the hole in the tun-
ing pin), you can wind a piece of new string on the tuning
pin and splice the old string to it. Be prepared to replace
the string if the splice fails.
Pros and Cons of Splicing
Some technicians consider splicing a permanent repair
and don’t replace spliced strings. That may be acceptable
if the owner doesn’t mind the splices or the piano will be
restrung soon. If you do plan to replace a string, however,
replace it immediately to spare the tuning pin from need-
less turning and loosening. Splicing involves turning the
tuning pin twice: once for the splicing, and the second
time when replacing the string. Another negative is that a
splice is more likely than a new string to damage the
plate’s gilding or felt.
Here are the cases in which splicing a string may be a
genuinely better option than replacing it:
• Sound quality and unison tuning: If the owner is con-
cerned about the new string sounding different and in-
troducing false beats in unisons, splicing is the way to
go.
• A string breaks right before a concert and there is
no time to stretch and stabilize the new string. Some
technicians would argue that if you have the time to
splice, you can spend a few more minutes stretching
Broken String 223
the new string to last until the intermission, when you
can retune it. This, however, is not always feasible.
• A bass string breaks in a high-use or concert envi-
ronment: If you can afford it, keep a set of replacement
bass strings for all important pianos you service. That
way, you will be able to replace bass strings on the
spot.266 But even if you have a replacement string on
hand, it will quickly go out of tune. Since you can’t
stretch a bass string because of its delicate copper
windings, splicing the original will yield more stable re-
sults. Unfortunately, the bass section usually gives you
very little space in which to position the splice, and if
the splice ends up on the felt or the tuning pin, it may
break.
When Strings Keep Breaking
If multiple strings break in the same section, check
whether the gauge of the wire is correct for the note in
question. Is the V bar grooved, making the strings bind on
it? Lubricate the strings to reduce friction at their bearings
(page 113). If that doesn’t help, you may need to restring a
whole section or even the whole piano (page 418). In that
case, consider reaming and polishing the agraffes
(page 436) and reshaping, polishing, and lubricating the V
bar (step 6 on page 425). If the V bar is deeply grooved,
heat-treating it may help.
TO O L S
• Protective gloves and goggles
• Tuning hammer
• Rubber mute, Papps mute for verticals
• Linesman or other pliers or nippers for cutting wire and tight-
ening wire beckets
• Medium to large flat-head screwdriver
• Coil lifter (a screwdriver can be substituted in a pinch)
• Stringing hook (for grands, although it may also be useful in
tightening string coils around tuning pins in all pianos)
• Dummy pin, preferably with a slot cut halfway through along the
length and aligned with the string hole
• Bass string twisting tool
• Safety pin and/or string-threading device or narrow tube for in-
stalling under the over-strung section.
• Brass bar to tap down the string around bearings
• Optional: loop-making tool
• Optional: string-coil canisters
M AT E R I A L S
• A selection of high-quality music wire graduated in half-gauges
from #12 to #18, plus #19 through #23 in whole-gauge numbers,
if necessary (premium unplated wire is recommended)
• A selection of tuning pins of each size/variation: sizes 2/0, 3/0,
4/0, and 5/0 in two lengths each, 23/8" [60 mm] and 21/2"
[64 mm], nickel-plated or blued (it is recommended not to re-
place a tuning pin when replacing a broken string, if possible)
266 Some technicians use hexagonal-core universal bass strings (Fig-
ure 83), but they don’t blend well tonally.
...
Sample page from Pianos Inside Out. Copyright © 2013 Mario Igrec. Repairing Keys 237

...
remove the key, and remove the lead. Hammer the lead

Photo by Allen Wright, RPT

oval and hammer it into the key, or push the lead back in
and swage it (page 399). If there are any traces of oxidation
on the leads, wear a good dust mask and protective
gloves.

Replacing Oxidized Leads Figure 416

An elongated
Oxidized leads expand and should be replaced to prevent balance hole
serious long-term damage to keys (Figure 203 on page 89). repaired with a
Replace such leads as explained on page 399. hardwood strip.

Loose Balance Holes and Pulley Keys

Balance holes in keys enlarge from wear, climate changes,
and over-reaming. Loose balance holes accelerate the
wear of wippen heel felts, backchecks, key end felts, and
key bushings. When a balance hole is elongated width-
wise, the key will feel wobbly and the regulation may be
inconsistent. If the hole is elongated from front to back,
the key will shift from front to back, causing a condition
known as “pulley key.” This is distracting to the player and
causes the regulation to be inconsistent: in a grand you
won’t be able to consistently regulate the backchecking
and hammer height; in a vertical, the jack gap will be in-
consistent. Tight balance holes, on the other hand, make
the keyboard feel spongy and sluggish. To correct that, see
“Reaming Balance Holes” on page 351.

Photos by Mike Morvan of Blackstone Valley Piano

The following are your repair options:
Alcohol/water: If the hole is slightly loose width-wise,
apply a few drops of a 50% alcohol/water solution (add
some water to the 70% rubbing alcohol). Wait until the wa-
ter evaporates (a few minutes) and test the fit.
Glue sizing: If this doesn’t help, you can glue-size the
hole with a water solution of wood glue or hide glue.267
The sizing should be fairly thin. Brush a small amount of
sizing into the hole, let it dry completely, then ream the
hole width-wise if necessary.
Hardwood strip: When glue sizing is not enough, you
will need to rebuild the wood around the balance hole. To
address the elongation along the length of the key, pre-
pare a small piece of hardwood veneer (maple preferred)
that is 1/16–1/8" [1.5–3 mm] thick, 1/4" [6 mm] wide, and
somewhat longer than the width of the key. Cut a saw kerf
across the underside of the key at the more distorted side
of the hole (usually toward the front of the key) to depth
of 1/8–5/32" [3–4 mm]. Glue in the hardwood strip with wood
glue (Figure 416). When the glue dries, trim the piece flush
with the key. To make the hole round again, shape the Figure 417 Repairing elongated balance holes with
hardwood blocks.
strip with a thin Nicholson round file (rat-tail file) or a
round needle file, then clean the hole with a drill bit
slightly smaller than the balance pin. Put the bit in a pin hole toward the mortise. Clean the mortise with the mor-
vise, or run it in a power drill at very low speed (Figure tise tool, ream the hole widthwise from inside if necessary
519 on page 351). Change the angle of the bit to widen the (Figure 518 on page 351), and coat/burnish it with a mi-
cropowder lubricant or a 5B pencil.
267 Mix the glue with water for a fairly thin solution. Steinway & Sons Hardwood plug: If the hole is elongated widthwise or
recommends a 3:1 solution (World-Wide Technical Reference Guide, is too wide in all directions, plug it with a hornbeam or
“Grand Preparation,” p. 16). If you work with hot hide glue, heat the maple plug (Steinway-style let off buttons make good plugs
water a little (to no more than 150°F [50°C]) and stir it in gradually. for this repair), or a rectangular hardwood insert more

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256 Repairs Sample page from Pianos Inside Out. Copyright © 2013 Mario Igrec.
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Repairing a Cracked and Delaminated
Pinblock with Epoxy
A cracked and delaminated pinblock ideally should be re-
placed, but if the piano doesn’t justify the expense or the
owner wants to preserve the authenticity of a historical in-
strument, you can treat the pinblock with epoxy. You may
be tempted to apply a superthin, slow-drying epoxy with
tuning pins in place, the way you would apply a CA glue,
but that is unlikely to sufficiently restore tuning pin torque.
The epoxy will seal the cracks in the top ply and prevent
future applications, but will not address the delamination
and cracking through the rest of the block.
Instead, you should remove the strings and tuning
pins, seal the bottom of the pinblock (in grands), fill the
tuning pin holes with the thinnest solids-only epoxy you
can get, and redrill the holes.289 The epoxy will strengthen
the board by flowing into the cracks, and will restore tun-
ing pin torque. However, is this effort justified? If you are
ready to remove all strings and tuning pins, then drill the
tuning pin holes inside the piano (do you have a drilling
setup for this, or will you drill them by hand?), and re-
string the piano, why not replace the pinblock? The old
block may develop new cracks, and tuning pin torque
won’t be as even as with a new pinblock. Aside from want-
ing to preserve the authenticity of the piano, the two cases
where this approach may be justified are old upright pi-
anos in which replacing a pinblock is difficult290 and often
economically unfeasible, and when removing the plate is
out of the question.
You may be able to keep the old strings if you remove
them carefully, with as little bending at the becket as pos-
sible. Label the strings and tape them to hitch pins before
removing them from the tuning pins. Gently push the
strings aside in the bass and middle sections. Don’t kink
the strings at agraffes.
For instructions on removing and installing strings, see
“Restringing” on page 418.
Repairing Bridges
Here you can learn how to address loose bridge pins, and
repair cracks and separations in bridge caps and bass
bridges. For information on replacing bridge caps, setting
the downbearing, notching the caps, and installing new
bridge pins, see “Rebuilding Bridges” on page 472.
Warning: Most bridge repairs involve infusing the bridge with
a CA glue or epoxy. It is important to realize that you may
289 See Kent Gallaway, RPT, “Epoxy Pinblock Consolidation in an
Upright Piano: A Report”; and Ken Eschete, RPT, “Epoxy Consolida-
tion: An Alternative Method for Restoring Piano Pinblocks.”
290 Inmany verticals, the top and side panels are glued to the case—
removing them may involve sawing through their full width because
prying them off usually causes too much damage. The pinblock itself
is part of the frame and must be routed, planed, and/or chiseled out.
have only one shot at this. Applying an insufficient amount of
product or using a product that doesn’t flow well or cures too
quickly will not strengthen the bridge sufficiently, but will seal
the cracks and prevent a future repair.
Loose Bridge Pins
Loose bridge pins, which can cause false beats (page 132),
can be repaired quickly with CA glue. This repair doesn’t
always work and may not last, but is worth performing
when you’re pressed for time. If you can afford to destabi-
lize the tuning, loosen the string, push and hold the af-
fected pin toward the string, and apply an ultrathin liquid
CA glue (see “Treating the Pinblock with CA Glue” on
page 255) around its base. If you can’t loosen the string,
simply apply the CA glue around the base of the pin away
from the string. Repeat for each affected pin. If the CA glue
doesn’t help, perform the repair with epoxy (see “Cracks”
below).
Don’t apply the CA glue if the wood around the pins is
cracked. The glue will seal the cracks and preclude a fu-
ture repair with epoxy, which is much more effective as a
filler.
Cracks
Cracks in bridges can cause false beats (page 132) and
sympathetic vibrations. They can be repaired with epoxy.
Normally you can just loosen the affected strings and pull
out the affected bridge pins, but if you have to work
around plate struts, you will have to remove the plate
(and, obviously, the strings).
Your options for the repair are:
• Quick repair: Remove the pins, apply epoxy, and im-
mediately install the pins, which will squeeze the ep-
oxy into the cracks
• Overnight repair: Fill the holes with epoxy, let it cure,
drill the holes, and install the pins
Each option is discussed below. If the cracks are wide, the
cap is partially separated from the bridge, and/or the pins
have lost their angle, you should replace the whole bridge
cap (see “Rebuilding Bridges” on page 472).
Unless the relative humidity is low, dry the bridges for
a day or two under heating lamps to expand the cracks.
Remember, you have only one opportunity to infuse the
cracks with glue.
Loosen the strings in the affected area and pull out the
bridge pins with a pair of pliers (Figure 442). Keep the
pins in order. If you have to install new pins, replace all
the pins in each affected unison. Follow the instructions
below.
Quick Repair
This technique is suitable only for minor surface cracks
and to improve slightly loose bridge pins. If the cracks are
extensive or you can see the gaps around the pins, per-
form the Overnight Repair instead. See below.
Sample page from Pianos Inside Out. Copyright © 2013 Mario Igrec. Repairing Bridges 257

Coat each pin with a mold release or dry-film lubricant

to prevent it from getting glued to the bridge. Mix a small
amount of slow-drying epoxy glue and swab each hole
with a thin pin or music wire. You need to apply enough
epoxy for the pins to squeeze it into the cracks. If you ap-
ply too much, you may not be able to drive the pin as far
down as you need to because it will press the epoxy un-
der it like a piston. When you have swabbed about 10
holes, tap the pins all the way in with a hammer, and im-
mediately wipe away all excess glue that has been
squeezed out. Don’t spread the epoxy around. Rotate the
pins 15–20° clockwise from their original position, to make
the strings touch them where they are not grooved. As the
glue dries, occasionally turn the pins a little. When the ep-
oxy cures (usually in 24 hours), chisel off any glue remain-
ing around or on the pins (this is very important), file the
pins’ ends if necessary (don’t let them get very hot), and
clean everything. Reposition the strings around the bridge
pins, and tune the piano. Figure 442 Removing bridge pins with flush-cutting
wire nippers. Note the wood strip that provides leverage
Overnight Repair and protects the bridge cap. Pull each pin in several
You can fill the cracks with epoxy either by injecting it short strokes.
with a syringe and hypodermic needle, or by applying it
with a piece of wire. Injecting is recommended because
you can work faster and fill the cracks more thoroughly. If
you don’t plan to remove the plate, make sure that plate
struts won’t prevent you from drilling the bridge pin holes
at the original angles.
1 Injecting epoxy: Epoxy is a skin irritant—wear nitrile or
latex gloves. Mix a small amount of slow-drying epoxy
glue on a piece of cardboard, and inject the epoxy mixture
into each hole using a 10 cc [10 ml] syringe and a thick (15
or 16 gauge, 11/2" [38 mm] long) hypodermic needle, as de- Figure 443
picted in Figure 443. To repair more than a few holes you Filling bridge
pin holes with
will need multiple syringes and needles (between 5 and 10
epoxy.
for all holes, if you work quickly and use a slow-drying ep-
oxy). Strongly press the needle onto the syringe while
they are both still dry—this way the needle won’t slide off
the syringe during the application. For a few holes, mix ca.
1 ml (1 cc) of resin and 1 ml of hardener; for a whole sec-
tion, mix up to 3 ml of each. Mix the epoxy close to the
edge of a cardboard sheet, bend the sheet to act like a fun-
nel, and pour the epoxy into the syringe. Insert the
plunger, turn the syringe upside down, and squeeze out
the air. Quickly inject the glue into each hole from the bot-
tom up. When you’ve used up the mixed epoxy (or if it
starts to harden), thoroughly wipe its excess from the
bridge. Top off the holes a few minutes later (with a new
syringe and needle). Do not be surprised if the epoxy
seems to vanish—it is infusing the cracks.
2 Applying epoxy with wire: If you need to fill only a
few holes, you can apply the epoxy with a thin pin or mu-
sic wire. Work the pin in and out of the hole several times
to push out the air. Stop using a mixed batch if it starts to
thicken or it won’t completely infuse the cracks. Reapply
epoxy from fresh batches to top the holes.
Figure 444 Drilling epoxy out of bridge pin holes.

...
264 Repairs Sample page from Pianos Inside Out. Copyright © 2013 Mario Igrec.
...
Photos by Heinrich Koenig & Co. KG
Figure 452 Applying König’s Hard Wax (top) with their butane
burn-in knife (bottom). The butane cartridge is shown removed.
Repairing Chips and Scratches
The fastest and simplest way to conceal a chip or scratch
is to rub across the scratch a putty product, such as
König’s Quick Filler, or a putty stick (Figure 451b). The re-
pair will not blend in particularly well, will be clearly visi-
ble in reflected light, and will rub off if the surface is pol-
ished repeatedly, but is better than leaving the blemish as
is.
The next level of repair is a cold wax or filler, such as
König’s Soft Wax, which doesn’t require melting, and
which can be sealed with a thin coat of lacquer (König’s
Special Repair Lacquer™ blends in particularly well). The
sheen of the repair can be reduced with steel wool.
König’s Hard Wax offers greater durability. It is applied
with a burn-in knife (Figure 452) at a somewhat lower tem-
perature than the traditional lacquer stick (see below).
Hard Wax doesn’t shrink, and can be leveled and scraped
moments after it is applied.
The traditional product for repairing scratches on lac-
quer is the burn-in shellac stick, also called “lacquer
stick” (Figure 451c). Lacquer stick creates a durable re-
pair, but applying it requires skill and experience. Melt lac-
quer stick with a burn-in knife, and immediately apply the
material to the scratch or gouge in various directions to
avoid trapping air, which could cause pin holes or incom-
plete coverage. Smooth out the surface with the knife,
moving it steadily to avoid creating ripples. Don’t move
too slowly or you may burn the repair and the surround-
ing finish. If the completed repair doesn’t blend in well,
you may need to wet-sand and rub it, then spray the sur-
face with lacquer. Conventional lacquer (black or clear)
will leave a halo unless you spray it over the whole sur-
face, from edge to edge. König’s Special Repair Lacquer™
may produce a more acceptable result.
König’s alternative to lacquer stick is Hard Wax Plus, a
synthetic product that is less brittle and tends to blend in
better, due to its lower sheen.
Repairing Gouges and Deep Scratches
Lacquer stick and König’s Hard Wax Plus can be used to
repair relatively deep scratches, but if the wood is dam-
aged, you should repair the void with a true wood filler
(see Figure 752 on page 482), wood plug, veneer, or a
block of wood if the damage is extensive.
To prepare the gouge, remove all finish, primer, and
splinters from it, and chip off any loose or shattered finish
around it. Grind its surface with a ball-shaped grinder bit
in a high-speed rotary tool. Shape the gouge in a smooth,
concave shape so that it will not retain air bubbles when
filled. Apply the filler in thin coats, allowing each coat to
dry thoroughly (or use a two-component filler, which will
harden through a chemical reaction). Either fill the gouge
to slightly below the surface and finish the repair with the
products described above, or overfill the gouge slightly,
then dry-sand the area flush with the surface, and spray
the area with lacquer. If you decide to do the latter, reap-
ply and sand the filler as necessary until perfectly smooth,
with no pinholes. Vacuum and wipe away the dust, de-
grease the surface with alcohol, then spray several coats
of lacquer sanding sealer, wet-sand it with 400- and 600-
sandpaper blocks, and spray the whole area with multiple
coats of top-coat lacquer. Wipe the surface clean and sati-
nize it as explained in “Removing Swirl Marks and Light
Scratches by Satinizing the Finish” below.
High-gloss Lacquer
Repair high-gloss lacquer as described above, but wet-
sand the repair with sandpaper up to 1200-grit, and buff
the surface as explained on page 483. Use liquid or paste
buffing compounds suitable for lacquer, such as Meguiar’s
Mirror Glaze® No. 1, followed by No. 3 and No. 5. Don’t
use a buffing bar—it’s too aggressive for lacquer and will
damage and/or scorch the surface. If splatter is a problem
(it always is on site), buff the surface with a soft sponge
wheel at a very low speed, or buff by hand with a syn-
thetic buffing sponge or soft flannel cloth.
Removing Swirl Marks and Light Scratches
by Satinizing the Finish
A “satin” lacquer is just a regular, high-gloss nitrocellulose
lacquer finish that is rubbed with the finest steel wool
...
Sample page from Pianos Inside Out. Copyright © 2013 Mario Igrec.
Moving a Grand Piano
“ Piano moving may conjure up images of men with monstrous arms and huge
torsos, but actually two or three people of average build can do most piano moving
jobs—even grands—if they have some brains, experience, the right equipment, and
a knowledge of just when and where to apply a little force.
—Larry Fine, RPT, author of The Piano Book
More involved repairs and rebuilding procedures require
moving the piano to the shop. In this chapter you will
learn how to prepare a grand piano for loading on a truck,
and how to reassemble it. For information on how to re-
move case parts from a vertical piano, turn to “In Vertical
Pianos” on page 137.
If you are shipping the piano long distance, be aware of
the following:
• Trucks and containers can get very hot in the summer
and below freezing in the winter. Use only moving com-
panies that can guarantee climate control.
• Use long-distance movers that specialize in moving pi-
anos. See Appendix D, “Resources,” on page 517 for a
list.
• Even with climate control, wrap the piano in plastic
sheeting to protect it from leaks and condensation.
Place a container of moisture-absorbing material, such
as large bags of silica gel, inside it.
• Avoid shipping to a cold-climate destination during
winter. If a truck gets stuck in a winter storm, the piano
may freeze. While lacquered finishes tolerate freezing,
polyester doesn’t: you may end up with a cracked fin-
ish. Cold weather also stresses the soundboard. Metal
parts may rust from condensation that forms during
rapid drops in temperature and during thaws.
• Crate the piano well. Follow the advice of a long-dis-
tance piano mover.
• Use high-quality, clean mover’s blankets. Dust will act
as an abrasive and mar the finish.
• Ship the piano on a skid board. Remember that you
may not get the board back for months, if ever. You can
267
Chapter 8
”
build a board yourself, but make sure it’s capable of
carrying the piano’s weight over ledges, on dollies, etc.
Piano-supply houses sell sturdy, well-padded boards.
• Remove all loose hardware, bag and label it clearly,
and affix it where the piano movers or the piano techni-
cian will find it easily. The best place is on the plate.
Learn from professional piano movers: Simply hire
them and observe what they do. Upgrade your health,
property, and business insurance policies if necessary. Re-
member that a piano weighs between 600 and 1,300 lbs
[250–600 kg].
Music Rack, Fallboard,
Key Slip
The first thing to remove from a grand piano is the music
rack. Wrap it in a mover’s blanket and tape over the blan-
ket so it doesn’t open. Secure the fallboard and key slip by
inserting rubber tuning wedges or soft cloths between it
and the case, or tape them to the case with light adhesive
tape, such as 3M ScotchBlue™ Delicate Surface, that won’t
lift the finish or leave residue.
For a long-distance move, it’s a good idea to tie down
the hammer shanks by placing a wooden rail or dowel
over them and tying them to action brackets and/or the
wippen rail with long tie wraps.
For complete instructions on removing the fallboard,
key slip, and action, turn to “In Grands” on page 136.
268 Moving a Grand Piano Sample page from Pianos Inside Out. Copyright © 2013 Mario Igrec.
Grand Lids
If you are putting the piano on a piano board, the main
and front lids can remain on the piano—they will hang
over the edge of the board. With this technique, risk of
damaging the hinges is minimal, but it does exist. If you
want to move the lids separately or need to remove them
for any other reason, here is how to do it.
Open the front (smaller) lid and lay it onto the main lid.
With the main lid closed, remove the pins from the hinges
that attach the main lid to the rim, and, with the help of an
assistant, carefully lift the lid. Keep the pins marked, put
them back into their own hinges, and tape over them so
they don’t fall out.
If the hinges are deformed or bent, detach the hinge
from the rim instead of removing the pins—that will make
reassembly easier. Remove hinge screws while an assis-
tant supports and holds the lid open (watch the chande-
liers, light fixtures, fans, and ceiling).
Before reinstalling the lid, coat each hinge pin with
cork grease or a thin coat of petroleum jelly.
To prepare the lids for moving, pad them with at least
two layers of mover’s blankets, and an extra double layer
of blanket on the bottom. Tie them with mover’s straps or
strong adhesive tape. If the finish is high gloss, wrap the
lid in plastic sheeting followed by foam wrap, a soft pack-
aging material used for crating new pianos.
Putting Piano on Skid Board
This involves removing the legs, which is physically diffi-
cult and potentially dangerous. Have at least one assistant.
A grand piano is lowered onto a piano skid board by re-
moving the left front leg and placing the left front corner of
the piano on the board. The lyre should be out of the way.
Some technicians use the lyre as a fulcrum when lowering
the piano on the board. Although this will work in most
cases, you risk breaking the lyre and hurting the people
involved, and damaging the piano and floor in the pro-
cess. Placing the weight of the piano on the lyre can also
damage or slightly alter the curvature of the key bed,
which affects keyboard bedding and action regulation. It is
much wiser to use a device specifically designed for low-
ering a piano, such as the Moondog Grand Piano Tilter,296
which temporarily replaces the lyre; PianoHorse™;297 or a
shop truck/tilter. The following instructions describe low-
ering the piano without any of those devices.
TO O L S
• Skid board (longer than the piano)
• Optional: blocks or boxes to support the skid board
• Optional: piano tilter
296 See http://www.moondogmanufacturing.com.
297 Invented
by Gordon Crail, founder of the Piano Wrangler Equip-
ment Co. Available from Paul L. Jansen & Son, Inc.
•
•
Two or three sturdy portable sawhorses
Rubber mallet
• Large flat-head screwdriver for cams
• Set of hex wrenches
• Small hammer
• Appropriate wrenches/sockets to remove bolts, if used
• Several mover’s blankets
• High-gloss finish: large sheets of foam wrap
• Several large rubber bands for securing the front lid
• Web straps, cargo straps
• Piano moving dolly
M AT E R I A L S
• If lid is not removed: painter’s tape
• Cork grease or petroleum jelly for hinge pins
1 Remove the music desk and immobilize the fallboard
by inserting rubber wedges or folded pieces of soft cloth
between its ends and the rim.
2 Remove or immobilize the lid: Either remove the lid
(see above) or secure the front lid to the piano with a
large rubber band (available from piano supply houses).
Unless the finish is fragile, tape the lid to the rim with
painter’s tape.
3 Prepare the skid board, straps, several mover’s blan-
kets, and a dolly. Optionally, place the skid board on the
dolly (it should be at approximately 1/3 of the distance
from the front and 2/3 from the back of the board), and use
a sturdy box, cinder block, or other support to prop up
the front end of the board just slightly higher than the
dolly. The block will prevent the piano and the board from
sliding as you prop up the piano, and you won’t have to lift
the board onto the dolly later. Thread the straps through
the openings on the board’s sides, and lay the board on
the floor to the left of the piano, with the board’s raised
flange on the keyboard end (Figure 453). Fold one end of a
mover’s blanket over the board. The rest of the blanket
should lie on the floor, away from the piano. Repeat this
with another blanket, putting it over the first one. The un-
folded ends of the blankets will protect the lids from the
straps. For high-gloss finish, place several foam wrap over
the blankets.
4 Remove the lyre (page 271).
5 Lower the piano onto the skid board: Place thick
padding material (a folded blanket, for example) under
the front right and rear legs, and turn their casters to the
right, away from the piano. Make sure the raised flange on
the skid board is aligned with the piano’s front left edge.
Have a sawhorse ready to support the piano when you re-
move the leg. Remove the left front leg by knocking out
the wooden cam or wedge and removing all bolts or
screws that hold the leg in place (see page 31), then lift the
left front corner of the piano onto the sawhorse. If the leg
is equipped with a lock plate (as in most vintage Ameri-
can and European pianos), hammer it toward the middle
...
Sample page from Pianos Inside Out. Copyright © 2013 Mario Igrec. 273

Chapter 9

Touch, Geometry, Playability

“ The playing mechanism of a piano is that much closer to perfection, the less the player
is aware of it, the longer it is able to preserve its original capacity for expression and fine quality,

”
the simpler it is to manufacture and install, and the easier it is to service later on.
—Walter Pfeiffer, author of The Piano Hammer and The Piano Key and Whippen

Modern grand action designs appear to be highly stan-
dardized, but variations in leverages, mass, and alignment
of parts make each piano feel slightly (or not so slightly)
different. The length of keys, weight of hammers, key dip,
and even the hardness of key punchings and felts give the
action a “flavor,” while the piano belly, string scaling, and
hammers provide acoustical feedback, boosting or dimin-
ishing the perceived effectiveness of the action. Even pi-
anos of the same age and model can feel different.
The purpose of this chapter is to make you aware of
how action design affects the elusive concept of “playabil-
ity,” which comprises both static and inertial touchweight,
and how you can control it by manipulating:
• Hammer weight, action leverage, and weight ratio
• Placement and geometry of parts
• Friction
• Weighting of keys
The benefits of this knowledge are far-reaching. Under-
standing the design of the action and keyboard—and what
you can do about it—will help you preserve or increase
the piano’s expressive potential by selecting optimal re-
placement hammers and action parts; planning a key
dip and static touchweight; and preparing for a certain
level of inertia. Even if you are not replacing parts, you
can improve playability by manipulating hammer and key
weight and altering action leverage. By ensuring that the
action parts interact with the most advantageous geomet-
ric relationships, you will reduce wear and prolong the
longevity of action regulation, satisfying Walter Pfeiffer’s
laudable goals.
We owe much of our understanding of action geometry
and touch to the lifelong research by David Stanwood,
RPT, the inventor of the New Touchweight Metrology and
Precision TouchDesign™.298 Although most of the terms,
abbreviations, formulas, charts, and recommended values
in this chapter are based on his work,299 a few new con-
cepts also are introduced. All measurements conform to,
or are compatible with, the Stanwood protocol.
Darrell Fandrich, RPT, and John Rhodes, RPT, have
made a great contribution to the understanding of inertia
and how each component in the keyboard and action con-
tributes to it.300 The Fandrich-Rhodes™ Weightbench sys-
tem301, which comprises a measurement kit and software,
streamlines static touchweight measurements and allows
predicting the Inertial Touch Force, a new concept that al-
lows comparing actions by how resistive they are iner-
tially.
Nick Gravagne, RPT, offers an Action Geometry Pro-
gram, a software application that simplifies analyzing and
predicting action performance.302
Actions in vertical pianos share many of the same con-
cepts, except that the static force needed to move a verti-
cal hammer is negligible; a spring is needed to simulate
the effect that gravity has on a grand hammer. As dis-
298 PrecisionTouchDesign is protected by U.S. patents nos. 5,585,582
(1996) and 5,796,024 (1998). For more information, go to http://
stanwoodpiano.com. Technical references are at http://
stanwoodpiano.com/touchweight.htm.
299 Fora glossary of terms, see page 290; see also David Stanwood,
RPT, “Standard Protocols.”
300 A series of articles on this topic by Fandrich and Rhodes is slated
for publication in the Piano Technicians Journal.
301 See http://www.mypianotech.com/WB.
302 See http://www.gravagne.com.
274 Touch, Geometry, and Playability Sample page from Pianos Inside Out. Copyright © 2013 Mario Igrec.
Blow distance
Hammer
weight
cussed in “Adjusting Touchweight” on page 396, static bal-
ancing is less critical in a vertical action, but if touchweight
and friction were never made consistent, doing that will
make a big difference. For more information, see David
Huggins, RPT, “Affordable Vertical Touchweight Refine-
ment.”
This chapter focuses on the grand action.
How to Proceed
In this chapter, theoretical concepts are explained approx-
imately in the order in which a novice should learn them.
Each concept is followed by measurement and adjustment
instructions, and may be accompanied by a worksheet
with which you can log and chart the needed information.
However, you may want to postpone practical work until
you’ve read the entire chapter, to get the “big picture”
first.
If you’re somewhat familiar with this subject, you may
want to start by reading the “Playability Improvement
Road Map” on page 310, which lays out the touch-improve-
ment process in a step-by-step format. If looking for solu-
tions to common touchweight problems, see the “Touch-
weight Troubleshooter” on page 306. The “Hammer Re-
placement Touchweight Evaluator” on page 307 allows
you to assess your options if you intend to reshape or in-
stall heavier or lighter hammers.
Equipment
You will need equipment for measuring distances and
weights. You can measure distances between center pins
and other points in the action directly with a precise cali-
per, or by setting a divider tool and measuring its spread
with a ruler.
Figure 459 Relationships between the key and the
hammer. The heights of gray arrows illustrate the
approximate relationship between finger force (touch-
weight) and hammer weight. Black arrows illustrate the
distances the key and hammer travel.
Touchweight
Key dip
to let off
Most of the weight measurements in this chapter follow
the Stanwood protocol and are best performed with the
Stanwood TouchDesign Kit, available from Pianotek.303
The Fandrich-Rhodes™ Weightbench kit includes mush-
room weights and software, which you may find more effi-
cient than stackable weights or a conventional weight kit,
but to fill out the worksheets in this chapter directly, you
will need standard gram weights.
TO O L S
• Precise caliper
• Optional: 8" [20 cm] divider tool for measuring action spread
and other distances
• Metric ruler (ca. 300 mm long) or tape measure
• Optional: Depth gauge (Figure 463, page 281)
• Two sets of stackable weights, as depicted on page 277, or a
gram-weight kit
• Small spring clamp
• Scale with 0.1 g precision, capable of measuring up to 100 g
• Stanwood TouchDesign Kit or:
• Flat, rigid surface, such as a granite tile or slab, for weight
measurements (18 × 18" [50 × 50 cm] or larger)
• Small stands with low-friction bearings, or triangular pivots
• Several key lead weights (1/2" [12.7 mm] preferred)
Force or Weight?
Weight is the force that gravity exerts on an object. Since
the objects involved in lifting a hammer in a grand action
operate close to the vertical plane, we can think of, and
measure, the forces responsible for lifting those objects in
terms of weight. This is convenient for evaluating static
touchweight because we can use weights and a scale to
303 Pianotek part no. STD-3K.
Sample page from Pianos Inside Out. Copyright © 2013 Mario Igrec.
measure and compare the forces of the finger, friction, and
inertia-reducing device, as well as the weights of the ham-
mer, wippen, key, and leads.
Interrelated Aspects of
Action and Keyboard
Since action parts in all modern pianos have almost the
same basic measurements, action design revolves around
variations in the following design elements. Each is dis-
cussed in detail throughout this chapter.
Hammer weight must match the belly and the string-
ing scale to fulfill the tonal potential of the piano. As in-
stalled, hammer #1 (bottom bass hammer) typically
weighs between 8 and 12 grams. The shank adds 1.5–2.0
grams, giving the hammer a “strike weight” (the weight
that acts on the strings) of 9.5–14 g. Strike weight de-
creases toward the treble to between 3.5 and 7 g, and
should do so gradually. Hammers on the high end of the
weight range produce more power, especially in lower par-
tials, whereas lighter hammers can offer a wider range of
timbre. Strike weight is the single largest source of inertia
in the grand action, greater than the key leads, keys, or
wippens. Keeping it low, but without compromising the
desired tonal outcome, is of paramount importance for
playability. Any sudden changes will create inertial (and
likely tonal) unevenness despite the consistency in static
touchweight.
Touchweight. The player expects the keys to provide a
predictable and uniform amount of resistance or “touch-
weight” during soft playing. To translate a strike weight to
a desirable static touchweight, the action rebuilder has
two basic tools: a) change the amount of lead in keys, and
b) alter the amount of leverage in the action. However, nei-
ther of those solutions is without a price: lead affects iner-
tia of the key, whereas leverage changes key dip (or blow
distance) and inertial touch force (inertia of the hammer,
as reflected to the player’s finger through the action). For-
tunately, static touchweight can be reduced without in-
creasing the inertia of the key, using devices that involve
springs or magnets. These devices, discussed at the end of
this chapter, are quite valuable for dealing with heavy
hammers.
Inertia, or “dynamic” touchweight, affects how much
force is needed to play loudly, and is a function of strike
(hammer) weight, action leverage, and the amount of
leads in keys.
Key dip can’t vary much because it affects the amount
of finger movement. In a modern piano, it ranges from
about 0.375 to 0.435" [9.5 to 11.0 mm] for white keys.304 As
black keys must remain above the white keys when fully
depressed, they are set to 0.475–0.500" [12.0–12.7 mm]
above white tops. Large key dip gives the action power,
but requires extra effort by the player because the fingers
have to move farther. The problem is exacerbated by the
fact that for every millimeter of extra key dip, black keys
Interrelated Aspects of Action and Keyboard 275
must be set one millimeter higher, resulting in two millime-
ters of extra finger travel. It is interesting to note that in the
19th century, when key dip was almost half what it is to-
day, the “English” action was criticized as heavy in com-
parison to the Viennese action, at least in part due to its
larger key dip.305
Blow distance. The other end of the action—the ham-
mer—must accelerate sufficiently to energize the strings.
This requires an adequate hammer-blow distance, which
is standardized to between 13/4 and 115/16" [45–48 mm]. A
shorter blow distance will rob the piano of volume—this is
in fact a feature in vertical and some grand pianos, where
the half-blow pedal softens the sound by bringing the
hammers at rest closer to the strings. But blow distance
must not be excessive either, or it will compromise repeti-
tion. Blow distance is directly proportional to key dip: all
other things being equal, increasing one requires increas-
ing the other. The amount of key dip for any given blow
distance is predetermined by action leverage. As neither
of those two measurements can exceed its limits, the ac-
tion leverage is also limited to a fairly narrow range.
Aftertouch is the length of key travel after let off. It
must be sufficient to allow the jack to escape under the
knuckle so that the hammer can freely rebound from the
strings. It can’t be much greater than that, or it will waste
finger motion, slow repetition, and interfere with the func-
tioning of the action. Since aftertouch allows almost no
variation, it provides no relief to the rebuilder in balancing
the action.
In conclusion, the action and keyboard comprise a me-
chanical system in which the hammer weight and stroke
(blow distance) needed for the desired tonal results must
be matched to the physical constraints of the player’s
hands and fingers through a series of carefully designed
levers. This requires understanding how hammer weight,
action leverage, and the distribution of weight in the ac-
tion affect both the static and dynamic (inertial) aspects of
touch.
304 Key dip increased over time as the hunger for more powerful
tone required increasing hammer mass and lowering action lever-
age. Early Viennese pianos had a key dip of 4–6 mm, whereas
English pianos were in the 7–7.5 mm range (see Michael Cole, The
Pianoforte in the Classical Era, tables 18.1 and 18.2, pp. 301–302). In
1836, Claude Montal suggests a dip of roughly 6–8 mm (3 “lignes” in
the treble and a little less than 4 “lignes” in the bass), and 7–9 mm in
1865 (Claude Montal, L’Art d’accorder, 1st ed, p. 108; 3rd ed., p. 212).
In 1906, William White documents the dip as being 9.5 mm (“3/8-inch
full”; see William White, Theory and Practice, p. 103).
305 The other reason for the criticism is that, in the early 19th cen-
tury, English actions had heavier, more inert hammers, which
required greater force to play loudly (explained in “Inertia” below).
However, the static touchweight itself was actually lower than in
most Viennese instruments, especially in the bass—this is evident
when playing on well-restored historical instruments of that era. For
measurements of several instruments, see Michael Cole, The Piano-
forte in the Classical Era, pp. 304–306. See also the footnote in Edwin
Good, Giraffes, p. 168; and Alfred Hipkins, A Description and History,
p. 29.
276 Touch, Geometry, and Playability Sample page from Pianos Inside Out. Copyright © 2013 Mario Igrec.
Static Touchweight (TW)
Static touchweight is a term that encompasses three con-
cepts:
• Downweight: minimum force required to depress the
key
• Upweight: maximum force the key will overcome as it
returns to the rest position
• Balance weight: the average of downweight and up-
weight forces
These weights or forces (discussed below) determine the
perception of action as heavy or light during soft playing.
Together with action regulation, touchweight is of great im-
portance for control in soft dynamics.
Static and Dynamic Touchweight
Static touchweight, defined above, describes static forces
required to depress, release, and balance the key. The fin-
ger, however, depresses the key with a wide range of
forces (technically, kinetic energy), attempting to acceler-
ate it at different rates. The resistance the finger experi-
ences during rapid accelerations in loud playing is caused
by inertia, and is referred to by some technicians as dy-
namic touchweight. This is discussed under “Inertia” be-
low.
Tou c hwe i g ht Is D ow nwei g ht ,
U pwei g ht , an d Bal a nce Wei g ht
When hammer weight, action leverage, or the amount of lead in
the key change, each of the three touchweight forces—down-
weight, upweight, and balance weight—changes by approximately
the same amount. For example, in an action with a leverage of
6:1, if you reduce the hammer weight during reshaping by 1 g
(e.g., from 10 g to 9 g), downweight will be reduced from 50 g to
44 g, upweight from 26 g to 20 g, and balance weight from 38 g to
32 g. Each of the three forces is reduced by 6 g, which is con-
veyed more conveniently by saying that touchweight is reduced by
6 g. When you encounter the term touchweight, mentally substi-
tute it with “downweight, upweight, and balance weight.”
Downweight (DW) and Upweight (UW)
Downweight is the weight on the front of the key needed
to make the key sink slowly from a point approximately
4 mm below its rest position. The reason for measuring at
the 4 mm dip is to overcome the friction and leverage at
the top of key travel, where they are highest (see “Friction
Changes During Key Travel” and “Leverage Changes Dur-
ing Key Travel” below). The ideal downweight ranges from
about 50 grams in the bass to 46–47 grams in the treble,
with 48 grams being a good target for the middle section. A
downweight over 55 g (57–58 g in the bass and 54 g in the
treble) will be perceived as heavy, especially when com-
bined with high front weight (inertia). A downweight of
45 g or less will feel light—it is acceptable only if the up-
Myth: A light action repeats faster.
Truth: An action with low downweight and upweight
requires less finger force in soft dynamics. Piano
players associate that with faster repetition. How-
ever, low downweight and upweight mean that the
key and action parts take more time to return after
a strike, delaying a re-strike and slowing repetition.
In extreme cases, usually associated with overly
strong wippen-assist springs, keys “dance” for a
prolonged period of time, making repetition unpre-
dictable. Many pianos with low touchweight have
higher action inertia due to heavy hammers and
extra key leads, and require increasing amounts of
finger force in loud dynamics. This compounds the
problem, rendering loud repeats and trills in many
“light” actions all but impossible.
weight is at least 20 g and the front weight (explained be-
low) is under the recommended ceiling. Variations from
note to note should be within ±2 g.
Upweight is the maximum weight on the front of the
key that the key will lift on its own. As stated above, up-
weight is related to downweight (and balance weight)
more or less linearly—increasing one increases the other
by the same amount. On a piano with fairly new, well-lu-
bricated action parts and a downweight of 48 g, the up-
weight should be 23–24 g. A high upweight feels springy
and responsive, whereas a low upweight makes the action
feel sluggish and slows repetition. As with downweight,
variations from note to note should not exceed ±2 g.
How to Measure
Downweight: For both white and black keys, place
weights on the front of the key (Figure 460) so that the cen-
ter of the weights is 13 mm in from the front edge. This is
the standard measurement position (SMP). If the action is
in the piano, keep the damper pedal depressed. Push the
key down approximately 4 mm. The least amount of
weight that makes the key slowly drop from that point is
the downweight.
Upweight: Hold the damper pedal depressed and de-
press the key to the point of increased resistance
(7–8 mm). Starting with about 20 grams, place the weights
on the standard measurement position and release the
key. Adjust the weights until the key barely returns to the
4 mm point.
Alternatively, measure downweight by slowly depress-
ing the key, and upweight by slowly releasing it with a ten-
sion gauge, as shown in Figure 461.
Enter and plot the downweight and upweight values on
the Touchweight Worksheet (page 277). For now, ignore
the balance-weight area—you will learn how to calculate
balance weight below.
Friction (F)
The difference between downweight and upweight is
caused by friction in the keyboard and action parts. Given
the same downweight, the higher the upweight, the lower
Sample page from Pianos Inside Out. Copyright © 2013 Mario Igrec. Static Touchweight (TW) 277

To uc h we ig h t Wor ks h ee t

Downweight Upweight Piano ______________

1 Measure
Measure DW and UW
Ser. No. ____________

Date ______________
2 Log Figure 460 Measuring
Enter measurements downweight and upweight.

DW UW DW UW DW UW DW UW DW UW DW UW DW UW DW UW DW UW
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
1 11 21 31 41 51 61 71 81
2 12 22 32 42 52 62 72 82
3 13 23 33 43 53 63 73 83
4 14 24 34 44 54 64 74 84
5 15 25 35 45 55 65 75 85
6 16 26 36 46 56 66 76 86
7 17 27 37 47 57 67 77 87
8 18 28 38 48 58 68 78 88
9 19 29 39 49 59 69 79

3 Chart downweight (DW) and upweight (UW), calculate and chart balance weight (BW)
(DW + UW) ÷ 2 Draw a dot for each value on the chart
Note: #1 10 20
6030 40 50 60
6070 80 88
60 60

55 High
55
50 50 55

50 DW 53 50
47 51
Low 45
45 40 40 43 45

High
Touchweight (g)

Touchweight (g)
40 40
41 41 41
BW
35
Low
33
30 33 30 33 35

30 30
31
High 29
25
UW
27 20 21 20 23 25

20
19 20
Low
15 10 10 15

10 10

4 Calculate and chart friction (F) 0

20
(DW – UW) ÷ 2
0
20
Draw a dot for each value on the chart

20 17 20
High 15
Friction (g)

Friction (g)

15 10 10 13 15

Low
10 10
11
9
5 10 10 7 5

Recommended Note: #1 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 88
precision: ±2 g A0
#
F1 E2 D3 C4
#
A4
#
G5
#
F6 E7 C8

...
Sample page from Pianos Inside Out. Copyright © 2013 Mario Igrec. Action Leverage 281

...
Ac t i o n L ever age Wor ks h ee t

Piano ______________

Ser. No. ____________

Date ______________

1 Measure
Measure action
leverage

Figure 463 Measuring hammer travel at 6 mm key travel: The front of the action-leverage tester
should be at the standard measurement position (13 mm in from the key front). The extra weight
prevents the tool from rocking back a little on this piano. The depicted tester is made by Erwin’s
Piano Restoration.

10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
2 Log 1 11 21 31 41 51 61 71 81
Enter measurements
2 12 22 32 42 52 62 72 82
3 13 23 33 43 53 63 73 83
4 14 24 34 44 54 64 74 84
5 15 25 35 45 55 65 75 85
6 16 26 36 46 56 66 76 86
7 17 27 37 47 57 67 77 87
8 18 28 38 48 58 68 78 88
9 19 29 39 49 59 69 79

3 Chart
Draw a dot for each
value on the chart

Note: #1 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 88

7:1 7:1
7:1 High 7:1

6:1 6:1
6:1 6:1
Leverage

Leverage

6:1 Medium 6:1

5:1 5:1
5:1 Low 5:1

4:1 4:1
4:1 4:1
Note: #1 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 88
A0
#
F1 E2 D3 C4
#
A4
#
G5
#
F6 E7 C8

Recommended precision: ±0.2:1 (e.g. 5.2:1 to 5.6:1)

...
Sample page from Pianos Inside Out. Copyright © 2013 Mario Igrec.
...
the wippen radius weight (WW = 0 g), we can omit
WW × KR from the equation, but we have to reduce the
balance weight by the leveraged amount (18 × 0.5 = 9 g),
from 41 to 32 g:
R Z 32 H 40- Z 72
55 ----------------- ------ Z 6.0
12 12
Leads: Measuring
and Calculating
Here you will learn how to express the amount of lead
weights in keys, how to estimate front weight from the
leads in the key, and how to calculate the amount of lead
weight needed to achieve a particular front weight.
Lead Factor (LF)
Lead factor is a new concept I propose as a way of ex-
pressing how much lead is positioned, and where, along
the key. Lead factor is an expression that shows the lead
weight (LW), in grams, of a particular lead or group of
leads, and a distance multiplier (DM), which is a num-
ber between 0 and 1 where 0 is the lead at the balance
hole and 1 is the lead at the standard measurement posi-
tion in the front of the key (not at the actual key front).
Lead factor also can be expressed in its solved form (as a
result of multiplying lead weight by the distance multi-
plier), but then you lose track of weight vs. position, which
has implications for the inertia of the key (page 298).
Lead factor is useful simply as a way of expressing how
much lead is positioned where along the key. It simulta-
neously conveys two pieces of information, the amount of
lead weight and the distance multiplier (the relative posi-
tion of weight within the key segment), but, when solved
(multiply lead weight by distance multiplier), reveals the
amount of weight that a lead or group of leads contributes
to the front weight. The practical value of the lead factor is
that, when measuring positions for lead installation, you
can compare the estimated front weight to the front-weight
ceiling (see the chart on page 293) without actually mea-
suring the front weight, which requires removing the top
stack and the key from the key frame. Although front
weight can (and should, at least for sample notes) be mea-
sured after marking lead positions on all keys, estimating it
from the lead weight shortcuts the process, identifies
front-weight problems early, and saves time. This is dis-
cussed in “Adjusting Front Weight” on page 292.
In the case of a group of evenly spaced leads, distance
multiplier can be measured for the whole group from the
balance hole to the imaginary point in the middle of the
group. For leads that are located in the rear segment, dis-
tance multiplier is negative and is measured as the dis-
tance from the balance hole toward the rear of the key,
divided by the total effective length of the front segment
(balance hole to standard measurement position). The
Leads: Measuring and Calculating 295
total length of the rear segment doesn’t matter. Note also
that key-weight ratio and the position of the capstan don’t
matter because in this case we are only interested in how
lead weight affects the key and its front weight.
Another way of remembering the distance multiplier is
as a percentage of the lead position within the segment,
positive in the front, negative in the back, and divided by
100.
Lead factor is written as an expression consisting of
lead weight, an “x” signifying multiplication and read as
“times,” and the distance multiplier. For example, a 14 g
lead weight placed in the middle of the front segment has
a lead weight of 14 g at a distance multiplier of 0.5, and is
written as “14x0.5” (and spoken as “fourteen times point
five”). A 10 g weight placed 60 mm from the balance hole
in the rear segment of a key with a 200 mm–long effective
front segment has a lead factor of “10x–0.3” (0.3 is a result
of dividing 60 by 200). When calculating the distance mul-
tiplier is not practical, it can be expressed as a ratio, or di-
vision, within a lead factor expression. For example, when
you are logging lead factors, you may want to focus on
measuring lead distances and, instead of calculating dis-
tance multipliers on the spot, record them in a raw form.
To record a 16 g lead that is 160 mm away from the bal-
ance hole in a key with a 250 mm–long effective front seg-
ment, you would write “16x16:25.” Later, you could reduce
that to “16x0.64” or solve it completely, revealing its contri-
bution to the front weight as being slightly more than 10 g.
If starting with keys without leads, for example when
leading a new keyboard for the first time or after removing
all existing leads, you can approximate the front weight by
solving and adding up the lead factors of individual or
groups of leads. You then add the result to the weight that
represents the amount of imbalance between the front
and rear segments, or key-imbalance weight. You can do
the same in an already leaded keyboard by estimating the
weights of existing leads.
Lead factor is sufficiently precise for estimating and
comparing front weights if it affects the accuracy of the
front weight estimation by no more than ±2 g. For example,
if a lead factor is 42x0.7 and a key-imbalance weight is 5 g
(see examples 1 and 2 below), the front weight estimate is
34.4 g. To keep that estimate within ±2 g, or between 32.4 g
and 36.4 g, you could misestimate the lead weight by as
much as ±3 g (it could be 39–45 g), or the distance multi-
plier by up to ±0.05 (allowing a range of 0.65–0.75). Re-
member, errors compound.
Key-imbalance Weight (KIW)
The key-imbalance weight is the front weight of a key with
no leads. If leads are to be installed, the key-imbalance
weight should be measured after drilling the lead holes; if
leads were removed, after plugging the holes. Measure the
key-imbalance weight per David Stanwood’s front-weight
measurement protocol. If the key tips backward, place a
weight on the key top, right above the bearing on the
scale, and deduct its weight from the reading on the scale.
296 Touch, Geometry, and Playability Sample page from Pianos Inside Out. Copyright © 2013 Mario Igrec.
C a l cu l a ti ng L e a d s
Leads for 14 g Strike Weight
Taking our action model in Figure 192 on page 78 (for measurements,
see Table 6 on page 287) and a hypothetical strike weight of 14 g
(heavy hammer) on note #1, let’s calculate the amount of lead needed
to adjust the balance weight to 36 g, which, with 12 g of friction, will
give us the desired downweight of 48 g and the upweight of 24 g. The
action leverage, measured as hammer rise divided by the 6 mm key
dip, is 5.4 (page 284).
Lead weight (LW): To estimate the number of leads we would
need to install, first we need to determine the front weight (FW).
Since we are seeking the balance weight of 36 g, Equation 46 on
page 294 allows us to calculate the front weight. It is 48 g:
56 FW Z ( 14 × 5.4 ) H ( 18 × 0.46 ) Ó 36Z
Z 75.6 H 8.28 Ó 36 Z 48
This exceeds the front-weight ceiling (page 293) for note #1—either
the strike weight (SW) or leverage should be reduced in this action.
In this action model, the key-imbalance weight (KIW) is 12 g.
For a front weight of 48 g, the amount of lead needed in the very front
of the key would be FW – KIW, or 48 – 12, which is 36 g. Therefore,
we could bring the balance weight down to 36 g if we could install
36 g of lead there (the fact that the numbers are the same is coinci-
dental). However, due to the key mortise we can install leads between
the distance multiplier (DM) of 3/4 and 1/2, the average of which is 5/8,
or 0.625:
3--- H 1--- 3--- H 2--- 5---
4 2 Z
------------ Z --4- Z 5--- Z 0.625
4 4
57 DM Z ------------
2 2 2 8
The closer the lead is to the balance hole (see page 299), the less it
reduces the balance weight, downweight, and upweight. To achieve the
same balance weight at the distance multiplier of 0.625, therefore, we
must calculate the lead weight (LW) by dividing the adjusted front
weight (FW – KIW) by the distance multiplier:
Key-imbalance weight should be measured with a preci-
sion of ±1 g.
To measure the key-imbalance weight of an already
leaded key, balance the existing leads by placing leads of
the same weight (size) on the unleaded side of the key, at
the same distances from the balance hole as the existing
leads in the leaded segment.
If the front of the key is heavier, the key-imbalance
weight is positive; if the rear is heavier, the key-imbalance
weight is negative. The effect of the lead weight (LW), ex-
pressed as lead factor (LF), on the front weight (FW) can
be expressed with this formula:
63 FW Z LF 1 H LF 2 H LF n ... H KIW
or, in an expanded form (DM is distance multiplier):
64 FW Z ( LW 1 × DM 1 ) H ( LW 2 × DM 2 ) H ( LW n × DM n ) H KIW
48 Ó 12- Z ------------
36 - Z 57.6
58 -----------------
0.625 0.625
Doing so, we find that we will need to install 57.6 g of lead weight at
or around the 5/8 or 0.625 of the length of the key front (DM).
Expressed as lead factor (LF), this is “57.6x0.625.”
Number of leads: A 1/2" [12.7 mm] lead weighs approximately
14 g, which means that we will need slightly more than 4 of them:
59 57.6 ÷ 14 Z 4.11
The number is lower than expected because 12 g of key-imbalance
weight (KIW) in this key is unusually high. A concert grand with heavy
hammers and an action leverage of 5.4 may have five to six 1/2" leads
in the lowest bass keys.
Leads for 10 g Strike Weight
Using Equation 46, let’s calculate the lead weight (LW) for a hammer
in our action model that weighs 8.2 g and has a strike weight of 10 g
(note #56, for example):
60 FW Z ( 10 × 5.4 ) H ( 18 × 0.46 ) Ó 36Z
Z 54 H 8.28 Ó 36 Z 26
Reduced by the key-imbalance weight of 12 g, the front weight of 26 g
becomes a lead factor of 14x1.0 (14 g at the standard measurement
spot in the front of the key), which, with the distance multiplier of 5/8,
translates to a lead weight of 22 g (and a lead factor of 22x0.625):
14 8
------ Z 14 × --- Z 22
61
5--- 5
8
The number of 1/2" -wide, 14 g leads we need is 1.6:
62 22 ÷ 14 Z 1.6
Estimating Front Weight
As discussed in “Front Weight (FW)” on page 291, the
most precise way to determine the front weight is to mea-
sure it with a scale or tension gauge. However, it is often
precise enough, and much more convenient, to estimate
the front weight based on lead factor and key-imbalance
weight. This is particularly valuable when deciding how
much lead to install, and where, in order to adjust the
static touchweight. You don’t need to determine the lead
factor precisely, or even for each lead individually; in most
cases, you can make a visual assessment and perform a
mental calculation in just a few seconds. Here’s how.
If multiple leads (original ones and those you plan to
add) are distributed more or less evenly, visually deter-
mine the center of their distribution, then determine the
ratio between the lengths from that spot to the balance
pin, and to the front of the key (standard measurement po-
sition). Multiply the total weight of the leads with this ra-
tio, add key-imbalance weight, and you have an estimate
Sample page from Pianos Inside Out. Copyright © 2013 Mario Igrec.
of front weight that you can enter as a colored dot in the
chart on page 293.
For example, if there will be three 1/2" [12 mm] lead
weights around the middle of the front segment of the key
(1/2 or 0.5 of its length), you can assume that their com-
bined lead factor is 42x0.5, or 21 (each lead weighs ca. 14 g,
and 14 × 3 = 42320). Key-imbalance weight is usually a few
grams, which you can estimate from experience or mea-
sure on an unleaded high treble key before you start the
procedure. See “Key-imbalance Weight (KIW)” above.321
The advantage of estimating front weight this way is
that you need to measure only distance, not weight. When
you get used to visually estimating the distance multiplier,
you can be even faster than with the tension gauge. The
immediacy of feedback allows you to address the causes
of inconsistencies and unexpected trends without wasting
any time.
Examples
The following examples illustrate how to calculate the
front weight from the lead factor. The effective front seg-
ment of the key (from the balance hole to the standard
measurement position) is 250 mm long. When front weight
is measured without any leads in the key stick, the key
tips toward the front with a key-imbalance weight of 5 g.
The rear segment is 200 mm long, but this is irrelevant for
these calculations.
Example 1. If three 14 g weights are placed in the front
segment at 150, 175, and 200 mm from the balance hole,
their lead factors (LF) are 14x0.6, 14x0.7, and 14x0.8. Add-
ing them up and adding the key-imbalance weight (KIW)
of 5 g gives you the approximate front weight (FW) of
34.4 g:
65 FW Z ( 14 × 0.6 ) H ( 14 × 0.7 ) H ( 14 × 0.8 ) H 5 Z
Z 8.4 H 9.8 H 11.2 H 5 Z 34.4
Example 2. If the leads are evenly spaced, as in Exam-
ple 1, you can calculate their aggregate lead factor by add-
ing up their lead weights and using as the distance multi-
plier an average distance of the entire group. For example,
since the distance of the middle lead, or 175 mm, is the av-
erage distance of the three leads (and the distance multi-
plier is, therefore, 0.7) and the lead weight (LW) of the
three leads is 42 g, their cumulative lead factor is 42x0.7.
The front weight estimate remains the same as in Example
1: 34.4 g:
66 Approx. FW Z ( 42 × 0.7 ) H 5 Z 29.4 H 5 Z 34.4
Example 3. A 16 g lead is placed 75 mm from the bal-
ance hole in the front segment: because 75 mm is 30% of
320 Toease mental calculations, use 15 g, then deduct a little before
multiplying.
321 Don’t measure the KIW of the key C8, because its front is not
notched to accommodate adjacent black keys, and has a higher KIW.
Leads: Measuring and Calculating 297
250 mm, its lead factor is 16x0.3. If this is the only lead in
the key, the front weight is 9.8 g:
67 FW Z ( 16 × 0.3 ) H 5 Z 4.8 H 5 Z 9.8
Example 4. If a single 10 g lead is placed 50 mm behind
the balance hole, in the rear segment of the key, its dis-
tance multiplier is –0.2 (50 mm ÷ 250 mm), and the lead
factor is 10x–0.2. The front weight is 3 g:
68 FW Z ( 10 × Ó 0.2 ) H 5 Z Ó 2 H 5 Z 3
Calculating the Number of Leads
To determine the number of lead weights that need to be
installed in the front of the key, start by calculating the
front weight and proceed according to the calculations on
page 296. If our action model in Figure 192 on page 78 had
a more realistic key-imbalance weight, for example 5 g in-
stead of 12 g, a bass hammer with a strike weight of 14 g
would require five to six lead weights, whereas a low tre-
ble hammer with a strike weight of 10 g would require two
to three leads.
What is the normal number of leads? The amount of
lead in keys affects the so-called front weight, which
should be kept under the “ceiling” values proposed in the
“Front-Weight Worksheet” on page 293. In an action with
an action leverage well matched to the hammer strike
weight, that means no more than five 1/2" leads in the bass,
spread around the halfway point in the front of the key,
three in the middle, and one or no leads in the top keys. If
the leads are installed closer to the balance rail, one or
two additional leads per key may be needed.
Spring-assisted wippens and other inertia-reducing
devices (page 309) can reduce the number of leads by one
or two. For example, if we assume that the assist spring is
set to eliminate the wippen radius weight of 18 g (reducing
the touchweight by 9 g), we can remove the leveraged
wippen radius weight (18 × 0.47) from Equation 56. This re-
duces the front weight from 49 to approximately 40 g:
69 FW Z ( 14 × 5.4 ) Ó 35Z
Z 75.6 Ó 35 Z 40
The key-imbalance weight (KIW) of 12 g means that the
front weight (FW) of 40 g translates to 28 g of the needed
lead weight (LW) at the distance multiplier (DM) of 1.0.
Since we intend to install the leads around the distance
multiplier of 5/8 (0.625), the removal of wippen radius
weight (WW) by wippen-assist springs translates to the re-
duction in lead weight (LW) from 59.2 g to 44.8 g (lead fac-
tor becomes 44.8x0.625):
40 Ó 12- Z 28 × 8--- Z 44.8
70 -----------------
5--- 5
8
As a result, the number of leads is reduced by one, from
4.2 (Equation 59) to 3.2:
71 44.8 ÷ 14 Z 3.2
...
306 Touch, Geometry, and Playability Sample page from Pianos Inside Out. Copyright © 2013 Mario Igrec.

...
Tou c h we i g h t Tro ubl e s h oo t e r

• This table offers suggestions for common problems in touchweight and front weight (key inertia). If you plan to alter the strike weight by
replacing, reshaping, or weighting the hammers (explained in “Increasing Strike Weight” on page 308), see page 307.
• Gray cells indicate danger zones. Is the action geometry appropriate for the current strike weight? Consider changing the strike weight
before resorting to other solutions, but keep in mind that altering the strike weight will affect the piano’s tonal character.
• Balance weight (BW) ranges in column headers are for note C4.
• DW = BW + F UW = BW – F F = (DW – UW) ÷ 2
• For front weight (FW) values, see page 293.

Balance Weight is:

Very Low (<28 g) Low (28–32 g) Optimal (33–39 g) High (40–46 g) Very High (>46 g)
• Remove inertia-
Below Ceiling

reducing device
• Increase strike • Increase action lever- • Remove inertia- • Install leads in keys
weight age and reduce key reducing device • Install leads in keys • Install inertia-
• Everything in cell to dip • Install leads in keys reducing device
the right • Install leads in keys if
possible
Front Weight is:

• Remove inertia- • Install inertia-

At Ceiling

reducing device • Remove inertia- • Install inertia- reducing device

• No change
• Increase action reducing device reducing device • Decrease action
leverage and reduce leverage and increase
key dip key dip

• Install inertia-
Above Ceiling

reducing device
• Remove leads from • Install inertia- • Reduce strike weight
• Remove leads • Decrease action
keys reducing device • Everything in cell to
from keys leverage and increase
• Remove inertia- • Remove leads from key dip the left
reducing device keys
• Remove leads from
keys if possible

sive inertia. If replacement hammers are heavier, extra
leads may have been installed in keys. Measure the strike
weights of a few hammers and measure or calculate/esti-
mate the front weights of the corresponding keys (pages
295, 296, 293). If the strike-weight and front-weight values
are high, consider installing an inertia-reducing device, de-
creasing the action leverage, removing the leads, and/or
reducing the strike weight.
Improving Playability
and either reduced or increased by repinning the repeti-
tion levers and hammer shanks.
Magnetic Friction Reduction (MFR)
Similar in concept to the Magnetic Balanced Action
(page 311), this solution by Hans Velo repels the hammer
shank from the repetition lever, reducing the friction be-
tween the jack and knuckle. By doing so, MFR is claimed
to provide a significant reduction in overall action friction.
For more information, visit http://home.kpn.nl/velo68/
and click “The Magnetic Friction Reduction” link.

Repinning Repetition Levers and Shanks

Addressing Friction
Friction has a profound effect on action behavior, and can
make a huge difference in playability. Aside from focusing
on center pins and their bushings, and keeping all contact
surfaces in the action lubricated, friction can be reduced
by retrofitting the action with Magnetic Friction Reduction,
When the friction of the repetition lever center pin is too
low, hammers may jam even if the repetition springs are
regulated normally (so that they lift the hammer deci-
sively but with a minimal knock being felt on the key).329
329 Another, possibly more important contributor to hammer jam-
ming, is the shank rest felt being too low.
...
Sample page from Pianos Inside Out. Copyright © 2013 Mario Igrec. 317

Chapter 10

Rebuilding
“ The secret of getting ahead is getting started. The secret of
getting started is breaking your complex, overwhelming tasks
into small manageable tasks, and then starting on the first one.
—Mark Twain

A piano “rebuilding” is a series of procedures performed

to restore or improve the instrument’s original condition.
This includes various repairs, adjustments, and regulation
procedures, and sometimes even redesigning or reengi-
neering certain components. Unlike spot repairs, which
”
are performed as needed, a rebuilding entails the careful
planning of an entire series of interrelated operations. For
this reason, I recommend reading all of this chapter before
starting a rebuilding project so that you know what you
are getting into.

Figure 481
A rebuilt 1878 Steinway
& Sons 8'6" [259 cm]
concert grand.
318 Rebuilding Sample page from Pianos Inside Out. Copyright © 2013 Mario Igrec.
Rebuilding requires a diverse set of skills and experi-
ences. Workers and technicians in piano factories special-
ize in relatively narrow areas of piano building, but a pi-
ano rebuilder must excel in all of them. Those areas in-
clude woodworking, some metalwork and machining,
finishing, very precise work on action parts, precise regu-
lation of mechanical components, and, of course, tuning
and voicing. Most technicians find it difficult to quickly
switch from physically demanding work, such as lifting the
plate, stringing the piano, or repairing the soundboard, to
intricate repairs and adjustments of action parts.
A little knowledge can be worse than no knowledge at
all, if it gives you a false feeling of competence. Be ex-
tremely cautious before doing anything that is irreversible.
Whenever you need to cut something or change its dimen-
sions (for example, if modifying action rails), stop and
think. Measure twice and cut once.
When you need to perform a lot of repetitive proce-
dures, it’s easy to lose sight of the “big picture.” Take the
time to periodically step back and think of the project as a
whole.
Many procedures require practice. You can’t expect to
wind perfect string coils, uniformly notch bridges, or flaw-
lessly spray a finish on the first try. Some work is revers-
ible, but most is not. Procure a scrapped piano or build
models of parts so you can practice a procedure. Install
key tops and key leads in scrap softwood boards instead
of piano keys, for example. You can rout mortises in scrap
pieces of pine in order to practice installing cloth bush-
ings. Use materials that are similar to those in the piano.
Controlling the application and quality of glues and fin-
ishing products requires testing a particular product in a
particular situation. Without thorough testing, you can’t be
sure of the outcome of any procedure. If you don’t have
the benefit of learning from a piano technician or in a
school of piano technology, try each product in a non-criti-
cal project before using it for repairs or in a rebuilding of a
good piano. Simulate the conditions of a repair with
pieces of scrap wood, metal, and felt. Be sure all the condi-
tions during the testing (temperature, humidity, ventila-
tion, etc.) are the same as they will be during the rebuild-
ing.
Products such as the glues, solvents, and fasteners
mentioned in this book are available in the U.S., but you
should be able to find substitutes worldwide.
When you open the piano for the first time, look for
signs of rodent infestation. If you find any, decontaminate
and clean the piano before proceeding (page 136).
Choices and Consequences
In his inspiring book, Shop Class as Soulcraft, Matthew B.
Crawford points out that a mechanic—or piano rebuilder,
in our case—has a “metaphysical responsibility to the ma-
chine.”335 This is a concept that every piano rebuilder
needs to consider very carefully. Our obligation is not
335 Matthew B. Crawford, Shop Class as Soulcraft, p. 120.
only to the customer (if you are your own customer, soon
you will be on the receiving end of your own decisions),
but also to the musical and technical heritages handed
down to us. We are stewards of this heritage, new partici-
pants in a long line of designers, craftsmen, business-
people, and technicians who have conceived, made, sold,
and maintained the instrument you are about to rebuild.
We shouldn’t gush about this point—the piano is, after all,
only a tool—but in today’s disposable world one can’t but
stop and appreciate the passion, thought, and ingenuity
with which our forerunners made our pianos.
This doesn’t mean you have to blindly adhere to all the
original principles, designs, and materials, but stop for a
moment to consider the consequences of your choices. In
many fine pianos of the late 19th and early 20th centuries,
the original materials are irreplaceable, and the level of
craftsmanship represents the values of a bygone era. Will
your interventions uphold or detract from those values?
But, perhaps more important, how will the next rebuilder,
and the one after that, feel about your work? Will they be
able to rebuild this piano as easily as you can rebuild it
now? Will the decisions you are about to make limit their
choices in any fundamental way—perhaps in the way the
choices of the previous rebuilder are now limiting yours?
The key to a happy future as a piano rebuilder is to
keep your options open by making your work:
1. Reversible
(avoid doing what cannot be undone)
and
2. Compatible
(use techniques and materials that are
compatible with the original design)
For example, soundboard cracks can be quickly repaired
with a mixture of epoxy and sawdust, but removing this
material will be difficult without major damage to the sur-
rounding wood. By contrast, wooden shims glued into the
cracks will look and behave like the rest of the board, but
are more labor-intensive to install. However, if the sound-
board is likely to be replaced in the near future, or the pi-
ano isn’t of high quality and the current circumstances jus-
tify the cheaper repair, the former method is perfectly ac-
ceptable.
Using compatible materials prevents unforeseen inter-
actions and stresses that can lead to failure. For example,
keys are typically made of a softwood, such as sugar pine
or spruce. If you repair them with strips of hardwood,
which have a different rate of expansion, the keys may
crack or warp. Incompatible finishing products may never
harden or may attack each other, causing alligatoring,
crazing, or peeling.
The choice of glue is critical to reversibility. In the hey-
day of piano making, the dominant adhesive was hot hide
glue. It created a hard but brittle bond that could be bro-
ken apart without damaging the wood whenever disas-
sembly was necessary. Today we use myriad glues that
are more convenient but are more difficult to remove, be-
cause they are either stronger or more gummy. Epoxy is a
Sample page from Pianos Inside Out. Copyright © 2013 Mario Igrec.
special problem in wood applications because it acts as a
foreign material, creating a hard barrier that deflects tools
and resists sanding. It appeals because of its strength, ad-
hesion, low creepage,336 and great filling properties, but
breaking the joint is impossible without damaging the
wood. Used on the soundboard and ribs, epoxy all but
guarantees that the assembly cannot be broken up and re-
assembled in the future. On the other hand, it is an indis-
pensable solution for structural repairs, allowing us to sal-
vage cracked parts, such as bridge caps and pinblocks
when replacement is not an option.
In many cases, choosing a material for its performance
and practicality rather than its authenticity is justified.
Synthetic lubricants, for example, are preferred to graph-
ite and mutton tallow; ivory is routinely replaced with syn-
thetic key tops; shellac is stripped in favor of lacquer and
two-component finishes; and a soundboard finish is cho-
sen for its high moisture-excluding effectiveness. Manufac-
turers like Wessell, Nickel & Gross, Kawai, and Phoenix Pi-
anos are pushing the boundaries with carbon fiber and
synthetic materials in action parts, soundboards, even in
structural components. When modern alternatives offer a
clear advantage, we want to improve the original product.
However, when a procedure is challenging and its out-
come difficult to anticipate, it’s best to adhere to the origi-
nal methods and materials. A traditional glue or finish will
leave your options for future repairs open, whereas hi-
tech alternatives will limit them. Sometimes a material that
appears to have a clear advantage is just too strong, too
rigid, and/or too heavy for the application.
Rebuild or Restore?
Pianos deteriorate mainly due to the wear and aging of
their components. Wear is caused by use, but is also af-
fected by the quality of parts and climate conditions. Felts
and leathers, for example, wear more quickly in a dry cli-
mate. Whether or not a piano is used heavily, most of its
components deteriorate simply by aging: felts and leathers
become unresilient, wood and certain glues become brit-
tle, and metal parts corrode, fatigue, or deteriorate with
time. The core components of the piano, however, remain
largely unaffected. A solution, therefore, is to replace the
deteriorated components and refurbish those that can be
expected to last for several more decades, such as the
soundboard, plate, and pinblock. A complete rebuilding, if
performed correctly and thoroughly using quality parts,
can yield results that surpass the quality of a comparable
new piano. The question is not whether rebuilding is a via-
ble alternative to buying a new piano, but whether a piano
has a potential that justifies the great effort and expense
involved in its complete rebuilding.
336 Creepage is a property of a glue joint to allow bonded parts sub-
jected to continuous opposing forces to slowly slide along the joint.
319
Deserving Pianos
Use the following criteria to determine whether a piano
deserves to be rebuilt:
• Functional and tonal potential
• Market value after rebuilding
• Quality
• Feasibility of repairs
These conditions are satisfied by most brand-name grands
made after ca. 1880, longer than 6' [183 cm], and not sub-
jected to climate extremes, abuse, improper servicing, or a
bad rebuilding. Some of the brand names that are highly
valued for their rebuilding potential are Steinway & Sons,
Mason & Hamlin, Baldwin, Chickering, Knabe, Bösendor-
fer, Bechstein, Blüthner, Grotrian, and Ibach. Less-known
pianos (grands and verticals), especially those made un-
der generic names, often have poor market value, and re-
placement parts for them may be difficult or impossible to
obtain. Poor design and low quality require extra work. Be
cautious with shorter grands because their tonal potential
is often limited by their short bass and tenor strings and
small soundboard.
As long as the design is fully modern, the age of the pi-
ano is not as important for rebuilding as its condition. Pi-
anos that were previously rebuilt (especially with high-
tech glues and finishes) tend to be more difficult to rebuild
than those still in their original condition.
Avoid rebuilding cheap, low-grade pianos, whether old
or new. You may find yourself correcting problems that re-
sult from the use of poorly seasoned, low-quality wood, in-
consistent workmanship, inaccurate scaling, incorrectly
set plate and downbearing, low-quality finish, poorly fitted
pinblock, etc. To the owner, such a piano may have great
sentimental value, and he or she may be willing to pay a
lot of money to have it restored or rebuilt. Be careful, and
be honest with yourself: are you setting yourself up for fail-
ure? Is one job worth risking your reputation and losing
ten other jobs? Try to understand the owner’s motivation
and expectations. If the piano doesn’t promise good re-
turn on investment and you nonetheless decide to go
ahead, at the very least protect yourself by stating this in
your proposal and having the owner sign it.
Pianos of Historical Value
If the piano was made prior to ca. 1870, consider its histor-
ical value, and how the restoration or rebuilding will affect
its authenticity. Is the piano more valuable as a historical
“document” or as a working instrument? Conservators are
split between preserving the original condition of the in-
strument and making it playable.337 Even keeping the
strings under tension may damage the structure over
time.338 If your goal is to make the piano fully functional,
should you strive to restore its assumed original condition
or modernize it? Should you repair worn and brittle parts
or replace them? What should you do about “inherent
vice,” such as unstable structure, corrosion, or wood-
worm infestation?339 Be sure to discuss these points with
...
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...
clamps on long rods are versatile because they can be
used on long objects and are easy to work with, though
they lack the width and clamping strength of conventional
C clamps. Other types of clamps may be necessary for par-
ticular woodworking projects.
Materials
Materials that are used frequently in various repairs and
rebuilding should be acquired ahead of time. Determine
how much you need until the product’s expiration date,
and buy greater quantities from wholesale distributors
and through mail-order channels. You may need to pay an
extra fee for the delivery of hazardous materials.
Test Every Batch
Never follow recommendations regarding materials
blindly—test every batch, especially the glues and finishes.
The batch you purchase may have been exposed to tem-
perature extremes. Piano-supply houses are more likely
to handle and store their chemicals with care because
their own service departments use them, but you don’t
know whether the product was exposed to temperature
extremes during shipping. That’s why some supply
houses don’t ship glues during winter months. Although
some products may not be marked with an expiration
date, their freshness may still affect your results. The for-
mulation itself may change. Finally, your conditions may
be different.
The only way to ensure success is to test every batch
before using it for the first time, and after it’s been stored
for an extended period of time. Reproduce the conditions
of the final application as closely as possible, from temper-
ature and humidity to type of wood, metal, primer, and fin-
ish.
Material Safety Data Sheet (MSDS)
The properties of all adhesives, solvents, lubricants, fin-
ishing materials, and other chemicals are published by
their manufacturers in the form of Material Safety Data
Sheets (MSDS), which are available directly from manufac-
turers (and on their websites), or from MSDS search sites
on the Web.348 An MSDS reveals everything from a sub-
stance’s physical properties to its composition, toxicity,
health effects, first aid, and much more.
Glues
Various glues must be available at all times. To ensure
freshness, buy glues in stores with high sales volume. Be
sure all your glues are well sealed and stored indoors.
348 A comprehensive list of such sites is at http://www.ilpi.com/
msds/.
This discussion is limited to common types of glues
that have been proven in piano repair and rebuilding. The
technology of adhesives is advancing rapidly, and I en-
courage you to experiment with new products. When you
test a product, test it on the same materials and in the con-
ditions in which it will be applied, but also subject it to the
same conditions you expect the piano to be exposed to.
Resistance to freezing or high temperatures may seem un-
important until you consider that the piano may be caught
in a snowstorm during transportation, or may be sub-
jected to a heat treatment for insect infestation.
The glues mentioned here are available in the U.S., but
their substitutes are available worldwide. If you use differ-
ent glues, follow the manufacturer’s directions closely. Al-
ways test a new glue thoroughly before using it in an im-
portant project.
Hot Hide Glue
Hot hide glue is the glue traditionally used by the piano in-
dustry for all porous materials. It creates a strong bond
that sets within minutes and reaches full strength over-
night. It resists creep, but is very brittle and doesn’t toler-
ate variations in rates of expansion and contraction be-
tween the bonded pieces. It is not waterproof, and can be
weakened by very high levels of humidity. It is supplied in
flakes or granules that are diluted in water, then heated
and kept at a constant temperature of 140–150°F [60–65°C]
in a thermostatically controlled glue pot (Figure 493).
Once diluted, the glue has a relatively short pot life. The
shelf life of the granules is also limited to about one year.
Freshness is very important, both for the granules and the
mixed product.
Cured hot hide glue can last for centuries. It can be re-
activated with heat and moisture, and by applying more
glue to it. The bonded joints can be separated and the glue
cleaned easily. All of this makes it particularly suitable for
instrument repair.
For successful bonding, the pieces must be kept warm;
otherwise, the glue may “skin” on contact and not pene-
trate into the pores of the material. Avoid cold drafts. You
can extend the glue’s work time by increasing the temper-
ature of the pieces being bonded (which makes working
with it uncomfortable in warm climates), or by adding
urea powder, a fertilizer. Unfortunately, urea can be lethal
to pets, and pets are attracted to hide glue.
Hot hide glue is time tested and excels in longevity and
reversibility,349 but a liquid hide glue (which can be used
at room temperature, see below) and PVA glues are easier
to work with. Conventional PVA glues are more resilient
and more forgiving of dimensional changes, and have bet-
ter moisture resistance. Low-creep PVA glues may be the
closest to hide glue in their properties, but offer even
greater strength and moisture resistance.
349 See Stephen Shepherd, Hide Glue.
Sample page from Pianos Inside Out. Copyright © 2013 Mario Igrec. Materials 335

Urea
Urea is added to hot hide glue to extend its working time
and improve its penetration into wood. It is used by piano
manufacturers for building laminated rims, soundboards,
bridges, pinblocks, and case parts. If you use this glue,
give it plenty of ventilation and keep it away from children
and pets.

Liquid Hide Glue

Figure 493 Hot hide glue and a thermostatically controlled pot.
Hot hide glue gels at temperatures below ca. 100°F [38°C],
but with the addition of an anti-geling agent it can be ap-
plied at temperatures as low as 50°F [10°C]. The result is a
liquid hide glue that doesn’t require a glue pot, has a
longer shelf life in liquid form, and still offers most of the
benefits of hot hide glue. It is not as strong, though, and,
like PVA glue, introduces more moisture to the glued
pieces. In all other respects it behaves like hot hide glue: it
resists creep, creates a strong but brittle bond (this makes
it easy to crack the bond without damaging the wood), is
neutral to stains and finishes, and is easy to clean up.
Franklin’s Titebond® Liquid Hide Glue is widely avail-
able in the U.S. The Old Brown Glue350 by Antique Finish-
ers offers an extended “open” time (up to half an hour) at
temperatures above 80°F [27°C]. When heated suffi-
ciently, this glue can reactivate a cured hide glue.

PVA Glues
Figure 494 Two Polyvinyl acetate (PVA) glues are widely used for bonding
popular PVA glues: porous materials. They are strong, resilient, easy to work
Carpenter’s Wood with, have a long shelf life, and are not toxic. All PVAs are
Glue, a yellow wood thermoplastic to some extent—they soften and ultimately
glue (left); and Fran- melt when heated. As a consequence, they become
klin’s Titebond ®
Molding and Trim
gummy and ball up when sanded, clogging the sandpaper.
Glue (right). Thermoplasticity permits realigning parts by simply heat-
ing the glue joint(s), but it also precludes using conven-
tional PVAs for bonds exposed to high temperatures (but
read about low-creep PVA glues below).
The main limitation of conventional PVA glues is that
they do not resist creepage of bonded parts, and are not
suited for high-stress structural joints, for laminated
boards, such as pinblocks, bridge roots, and for gluing the
soundboard to the ribs and rim. Certain formulations,
however, fare well enough in this respect to be rated as
“low creep” glues (explained below).
High creep is an advantage when gluing parts with dif-
ferent rates of expansion and contraction, such as hammer
heads with tropical-wood moldings, porous key tops, etc.
Despite their limitations, conventional PVA glues are quite
versatile and are widely used for simple joints on wood,
felt, cloth, and leather.
PVA glues suitable for most woodworking are “yellow
wood glues,” such as Carpenter’s Wood Glue (Figure 494)
made by Elmer’s, and Franklin Titebond® Wood Glue
Figure 495 (Titebond III Ultimate Wood Glue approaches the proper-
PC-7 epoxy paste
(top), slow-drying
ties of low-creep PVA glues). These glues require clamping
epoxy (bottom left), and because they dry relatively slowly, but they penetrate the
superglue (bottom right).
350 http://www.oldbrownglue.com/.

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Key Top R e p l a c e m e n t C h a l l e n ge s
Figure 525 The person who removed ivories from these keys
inadvertently pulled off wood strips from the front mortises. If
the strips are not restored, the tops will click in those spots.
Figure 526 A poor key top replacement job like this one makes
recovering the keys a challenge.
Natural materials and mineral plastic tops are more
challenging to install, but provide a better feel to the pia-
nist. If you plan to use ivory removed from another key-
board, buy at least two full sets.
Glue
All white key tops are best glued with PVC-E or similar ad-
hesive (see sidebar, “Gluing Porous Key Tops: Tools and
Materials,” on page 358). Acrylic tops can be glued with a
PVC-E glue or a contact adhesive. The advantage of a con-
tact adhesive is that it doesn’t require clamping, but it may
not match the longevity of PVC-E, especially if exposed to
temperature extremes. Thick PVC-E formulations need
minimal clamping.
Figure 527 Overtrimmed keys can be widened by gluing a
softwood veneer to their sides.
Figure 528 Eroded wood under black key tops: what to do?
Photos by Mike Morvan of Blackstone Valley Piano
If you decide to use contact cement, use a fresh, un-
contaminated, solvent-based cement. The cement will
etch the plastic. If it contacts the surface of the key top,
wipe it off immediately with alcohol. Acrylic key tops re-
flect light in a way that makes even the slightest surface
dents or bumps easily visible. This is why it’s so important
to keep the cement free of all contamination. To do so, dis-
pense just the amount you will use into a smaller con-
tainer, and brush it from that.
Procedure
For replacement white key tops to look straight and
square, the keys themselves must be straight and square.
After removing the old key tops, you need to repair all sur-
...
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the differences in length between the old and new ham-
mers, and install the backchecks correspondingly higher Backcheck wire
or lower.
Wedge-shaped strips
2 Remove action from key frame. Put key frame with
keys on bench with the backchecks in front of you. Note Vise jaws
any backchecks that are too high or too low, and do not
use these for comparisons.
3 Test whether backcheck wires are long enough: Key
Take a key off the key frame and place a new backcheck
next to the old one. Align their tops, adjusting the new
backcheck’s height if it must be installed higher than the
old, and make sure the new wire will extend at least a few
millimeters below the hardwood block. Shallowly installed
wires may lead to hardwood blocks cracking or breaking
off during a regulation of the backchecking.
4 Record height of original backchecks (step 4 on
page 370).
5 Extract old backchecks with their wires: Tempo-
rarily affix a wedge-shaped strip of wood (such as a sound-
board shim) to each jaw of a vise, as depicted in Figure
565. This will prevent splitting or breaking off the hard-
wood blocks. Clamp each key into the vise, tilting it down
slightly toward the front. Using the jaws of the vise for le-
verage, extract the wire with larger end-cutting nippers
(Figure 565). Pull the wire in short strokes, to avoid elon-
gating the hole.
6 Size holes: If the new wires are much thicker than the
originals, drill the holes wider (Figure 566), or you will
split the backcheck blocks and the keys. Use a drill bit
slightly thinner than the wire itself. On Renner back- Figure 565 Extracting a backcheck. Wedge-shaped wooden
checks for Steinways, for example, the wires are ca. 0.112" strips between the vise jaws prevent the backcheck block from
[2.825 mm] in diameter and their fluted end is ca. 0.118" cracking off the key.
[3 mm] wide; use a #35 (0.110" [2.794 mm]) or 7/64"
[2.778 mm] bit for laminated backcheck blocks, or a #36
(0.1065" [2.705 mm]) bit for conventional blocks. If the leather or felt on the bottom. Lined with leather, the notch ab-
new wires are the same size, glue-size the holes with sorbs the hammer impact and protects the backcheck from
wood glue (Figure 567) and let them dry. If the new wires damage.
are narrower, plug and redrill the holes (see “Repairing
Stripped Screw Holes and Action Rails” on page 240) or re-
place the backcheck blocks, then drill them. Be sure to ac-
8 Regulate backchecking, note the backcheck-to-tail dis-
tance throughout the scale, and adjust the backchecks’
curately reproduce the angle of the original holes.
height as necessary. See steps 10 and 11 on page 371.
Installing Backchecks
Aligning Backchecks
7 Install new backchecks by hammering them in with a See “Aligning Backchecks” on page 371.
backcheck installation block (see note below), press them
in with a drill press (Figure 569), or hammer them in with
a small felt-lined hammer (Figure 568). Compare their
heights to the outlines of the original backcheck(s) (Figure
Rebuilding Grand Action
558 on page 370). Position the backcheck in line with the
key and hammer or press it in. If the new wires are slightly The action rebuilding is at the very center of any piano re-
loose, glue-size the holes; if tight, repeat step 6 with a conditioning project. Typically, the action is rebuilt to-
wider drill bit. Forcing the wire may split the key. gether with the keyboard, damper system, and pedals.
You can rebuild all four systems in parallel, or start with
Note: A backcheck installation block, available from Stein- the keyboard, then follow with the action, dampers, and
way, is a hardware block routed to support a backcheck on pedals. The rest of the piano can be rebuilt separately. I
three sides. The block is adjusted in length with strips of suggest reading all of this chapter before proceeding.
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...
Under-centering
Normal
Over-centering
Figure 581 Under-centering and over-centering. The dashed line
indicates the loss of felt through wear and the angle at which the
grooves will form.
that will affect the action regulation, especially the back-
checking (backchecks may need to be raised).
Marking Hammers
1 Lay hammers on strong sheet of paper (on which
you’ll be able to lift them) in three rows, with the inside of
the molding facing up on all hammers. Make sure not to
disturb the order; in some sets, hammers are not num-
bered.
2 Mark drilling positions on end-hammer moldings in
each row using old hammers (Figure 582), measurements,
or boring specifications (always good to have for compari-
son). When the original hammers are worn (grooved
and/or reshaped), increase their boring distance appro-
priately (usually ca. 1/8" [3 mm] for the hammers in the
middle section).
3 Mark boring positions on remaining hammers’
moldings: Place a large plane (I use a 4' [1.22 m] plane)
behind each row of hammers (on the felt side), and clamp
the plane in place (see Figure 583). Push all hammers
against the plane and place a ruler on top of the moldings,
Replacing Hammers in Grand Pianos 387
Figure 582
Comparing the
drilling mark with
the old hammer.
Figure 583 Marking the drilling positions on hammer moldings.
aligning it with the markings on the end hammers. Draw a
straight line on the moldings, making sure that it aligns
perfectly with the end hammers’ markings. Compare the
marked hammers with old hammers, or remeasure them
and correct the line, if necessary.
Drill Press and Angle Vise
To be installed properly, hammers must be drilled with
precision. Various jigs are available specifically for this
purpose; for example, the Renner Deluxe Hammer Boring
Jig, available through Renner USA.362 Here I describe how
to use a conventional angle vise (Figure 584) with a drill
press.
Adjust the drill press to a speed of 800–1100 rpm.
Loosen the drill-press table bolt and, using a true square,
set the table at 90° to the drill bit (mark this position so
you can repeat it later), then secure the vise to the table
with bolts and nuts, or clamps. Set the vise dial to 0°. Mea-
sure the angle between the drill bit and the top surface of
the vise jaws (as observed from the front and from the
side) with a square. If it’s not 90°, readjust the table angle
and/or shim the underside of the vise with strips of ve-
neer, as needed.
Create a support block on which you will lay the ham-
mer molding: cut a straight wooden or plastic block ap-
362 http://www.lloydmeyer.com/productcart/pc/viewPrd.asp?
idcategory=8&idproduct=26#details.
388 Rebuilding Sample page from Pianos Inside Out. Copyright © 2013 Mario Igrec.
Figure 584 Angle vise set up on a drill-press table (shown with a
bass hammer).
proximately 1" [25 mm] long, 1/2–3/4" [12–19 mm] thick, and
slightly narrower than the narrowest hammer you will drill
(5/16" [8 mm]). Using a PVC-E or thick CA glue, affix the
block to the inside of the stationary jaw. The block should
be centered on the jaw, and set parallel to and approxi-
mately 7/32" [5 mm] below the top surface of the jaw.363
When you place a new hammer on the block, the inside
surface of the hammer’s molding should be parallel to the
jaws, as shown in Figure 585.
Drilling Hammers
1 Install drill bit in drill-press chuck: Choose a drill bit
that will allow you to insert the shank in the hole so that it
protrudes on the other side only up to 1/8" [3 mm]—you
will widen the holes with a tapered reamer when you
install the hammers. Insert the drill bit in the chuck as far
as it will go, so that it is as stiff as possible, and tighten the
chuck.
Note: Hammer shanks from different manufacturers vary in
diameter—match the bit to the shanks on which you will in-
stall the hammers. WNG composite shanks are significantly
thinner than wooden shanks.
2 Adjust table of drill press up or down, so that the tip
of the bit is just slightly above the top of the jaws. Put a
hammer on the block and tighten the jaws. Adjust the
in/out position of the angle vise, or turn the table around
the column, until the drill bit is centered on the hammer
molding. Recheck the angle—it should be 90°.
3 Adjust vise to desired pitch: The most accurate way
to duplicate the pitch (the angle between the hammer and
363 If
you don’t want to glue the block, create a block that rides
loosely on the threaded shafts of the vise, and that you can slip in
and out, as needed. Alternatively, don’t use a block at all—align the
hammer to the jaws visually.
shank when viewed from the side—see Figure 586a) of the
original hammers is to clamp an original hammer (with its
shank) in the vise slightly in front of the drill bit (move the
vise forward), and tilt the table or shim the vise until the
shank is perfectly parallel with the bit.
4 Adjust drilling angle: Looking at the original hammers
and shanks from above (Figure 586b), compare the angle
of the string grooves with the angle of the hammer itself. If
there is a discrepancy, drill the new hammers at angles
that match the grooves, unless the manufacturer’s specifi-
cations call for a smaller angle or the angle exceeds 16°,
which can cause the hammers to rub and click against
each other. Readjust the angle of the vise for each group
you will drill at the same angle. All bass hammers are typi-
cally drilled at the same angle, whereas tenor hammers
are graduated, the angle changing by 1° every 3 to 6 ham-
mers. Note that you will insert the tenor and treble ham-
mers and the bass hammers in opposite directions (a bass
hammer is shown in Figure 584). Remove the original
hammer from the vise.
For each hammer you put in the vise, do the following
before tightening the jaws (Figure 585):
• Position the hammer fore/aft so the drilling mark is
aligned to the drill bit (when viewed from the side).
Regular bits look deceptively off-center—brad-point bits
are easier to align.
• If the back of the molding is already shaped, you won’t
be able to rely on your jaw block for the pitch angle—
adjust the angle visually. The molding should be paral-
lel to the top edges of the jaws.
When a hammer is drilled at an angle, the hole must be
off-center on one side so that it will exit the molding offset
for the same amount on the other side. Adjust the offset
by rotating the drill-press table a small amount whenever
you change the vise angle.
As you drill the hammers, compare every other new
hammer with the original (Figure 586).
5 Drill test hole first in a scrap hammer or a piece of
wood of the same thickness as the hammer molding. Tem-
porarily insert a hammer shank in the hole and observe
the angles. Is the hole off center the same amount on both
sides of the molding? Rotate the table or readjust the vise
if necessary.
6 Drill all bass hammers and adjust the angle in the
middle of the section, if necessary.
7 Drill tenor and treble hammers, readjusting the angle
of the vise every few hammers, as needed. Don’t forget to
put each hammer in the vise in the direction opposite of
the bass hammers.
Shaping and Tapering Hammer Tails
After drilling the hammers, but before installing them, you
will need to shape their tails and taper the sides of their
moldings. Although the two procedures are described
...
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M o de rn iz in g O ld S te in w ay P it m a n L in kage
If the pitman dowel’s hole in the key bed is bushed (Figure 620), with
time the dowel wears it out and starts binding on the bushing.
Rebushing the hole and keeping it lubricated is a good remedy, but
won’t last as long as modifying the system to a modern pitman link-
age.
Dowel with pins: Lower the trapwork lever, and drill the hole
in the key bed with a 1" [25 mm] Forstner drill bit. Create a new pit-
man dowel out of a 1/2" [12 mm] wooden dowel slightly longer than
the original. Install a metal pin, such as a bridge pin #8 or #9, in the
Figure 620 Bushed pitman dowel in a
1923 Steinway A III.
6 Install tray in piano: Lubricate the tray-end pins with
a thin coating of dry-film lubricant, then rub and burnish
powder lubricant into the cloth punchings. Swab a little
dry film lubricant on the end blocks where the punchings
will touch them. Plug and redrill the screw holes for tray
end blocks in the belly rail if necessary, then fasten the
blocks, making sure they remain in the positions in which
you tested them. When you push the tray to the right or
left, you should feel very slight free play—the blocks must
not squeeze the punchings excessively or the tray will
move sluggishly.
Prepare the tray or rail for the pitman dowel: if the
dowel has pins at each end, glue a piece of leather and/or
felt on the bottom of the tray and the top of the trapwork
lever, and drill holes through those pieces of leather into
the wood for the dowel pins. If the dowel has wide cloth
or felt wafers on ends, drill shallow round mortises with a
Forstner drill instead. If the pitman hole in the key bed is
bushed, as in older Steinway grands, replace the bushing
if worn, or consider modifying the system (see sidebar,
“Modernizing Old Steinway Pitman Linkage”).
If a leaf spring is used for the tray, glue a piece of
leather on the tray at the spot where the spring will con-
tact it, then lubricate the leather with a thin coating of
grease lubricant.
7 Install damper stop rail.
8 Install and regulate dampers, as explained on
page 182.
center of each end, and place one or two round, firm, felt or cloth
balance punchings on each end of the dowel. Remove the old leath-
ers from the tray and lever, and clean off the old glue. Drill a hole for
the bridge pin in the trapwork lever and on the bottom of the tray,
making sure the dowel pin fits, and can rock a little fore-and-aft, with-
out binding. The rocking is necessary because the centers of the arcs
that the tray and trapwork lever describe are in different spots. From
under the key bed, insert the new dowel into the hole you drilled in
the bottom of the tray and, while holding the dowel, bring the trap-
work lever up, insert the dowel’s bottom pin into the hole you drilled
in the lever, and lift the tray with the lever. Turn the L-shaped lever
stop back in place and lower the lever. Reattach the lyre with its
braces and adjust the pedal rods. If the dowel is too long, remove a
pin from one of its ends, shorten the dowel, and reinsert the pin.
Dowel with felt wafers: This is an alternative to bridge pins in
the ends of the dowel. Follow the instructions above, but instead of
inserting bridge pins in the ends of the dowel, route two shallow
round mortises, ca. 3/4" [18 mm] wide, with a Forstner drill bit: one
in the bottom of the underlever tray, the other in the top of the trap-
work lever (make these as shallow as possible, not to weaken the
lever more than necessary). Cut two round, 3/4" -wide wafers out of
a sheet of firm felt or cloth, and glue them on each end of the dowel.
The wafers will center the dowel instead of the pins, making the
interface less likely to develop noises over time. Lubricate the wafers
with a powder lubricant.
Rebuilding Vertical Action
Before rebuilding a vertical piano action, you should diag-
nose it thoroughly as explained in “Regulating Vertical Ac-
tion, Pedals, and Dampers” on page 189. The following in-
structions assume that you are repairing or replacing all
action parts. If performing a partial rebuilding, omit proce-
dures that do not pertain. For example, to replace the
hammers only, there is no need to remove the wippens or
damper levers from their rails.
It’s best to have the whole piano in the shop when re-
building its action. If that’s not possible, measure the dis-
tance between hammers and strings and observe, looking
from the side, whether the hammers hit the strings at a
right angle (90°). If this is not the case, consider altering
the boring distance of new hammers and/or changing the
angle between them and the shanks (pitch) so that they
strike the strings at a right angle. Before removing the ac-
tion from the piano, regulate guide notes so that you can
later test the fit and regulation of new action parts against
those notes.
1 Remove action from piano as explained on page 137.
Tighten the nuts back onto the action support bolts. Trans-
port the action to the shop on an action cradle, or on its
back (the side with backchecks). Be careful not to tip the
action onto the dampers.
2 Mark numbering on all action parts to be removed
from action rack: hammers, wippens, and damper levers.
Sample page from Pianos Inside Out. Copyright © 2013 Mario Igrec. Rebuilding Vertical Action 409

If you intend to rebush the flanges, mark the parts and

their flanges separately.
3 Spinet with plastic elbows only: Replace the elbows.
Plastic elbows link stickers—metal rods attached to the
rear end of each key—with wippens, which are below the
keyboard. The elbows become brittle with time and begin
to break (Figure 621). It’s best to replace them. To do so,
measure a few sample elbows to see how far the stickers
extend from an imaginary horizontal line passing through
the elbow bushing. Then, cut and crush the remnants of
the old elbows with wire nippers and a pair of needle-nose
pliers (Figure 622). Buy Vagias snap-on elbows. Wind the
new elbows onto the stickers (Figure 623) so that the stick-
ers extend as far from them as they did originally. You will
install the elbows and stickers after you reinstall the ac-
tion in step 17. Figure 621 Broken plastic elbows.
4 Unhook all bridle straps with the action positioned
upright.

Behm
Chuck Behm
5 Remove wippens: If repairing or replacing the wip-

by Chuck
pens, remove all wippen flange screws. Keep the screws in
order in a pre-punched piece of cardboard. Remove the

page by
Photo
wippens and lay them on the bench in order.

All photos on this

6 Rebuild or replace wippens: Perform all the neces-
sary repairs on old wippens, including replacing the back-
check felt, the wippen heel felt, and possibly rebushing
and repinning the flanges. For instructions on replacing
felts, see page 340. If installing new parts, be sure they are
true replacements for old ones. Even the smallest discrep-
ancies will affect their functioning and regulation.
• Wippen heel felt: Remove old cloths and felts with a
Figure 622
razor blade and remove the old glue. Glue the new felt Crushing the
and cloth (in some designs there is only cloth) with a remnants of
hot hide or fast-drying PVA glue applied to both ends of old elbows.
the cloth. The middle of the cloth should not be glued.
• Replacing whole backchecks: Backcheck wires in
vertical pianos are usually fluted on the bottom and
threaded at the backcheck end. For removal and instal-
lation, see the instructions for grands in “Replacing
Backchecks without Wires (Retaining Existing Wires)”
on page 370. Vertical wippens are more fragile than
Photo by Chuck Behm

grand keys—handle them gently.

• Replacing backcheck felts: Remove the old felts by
soaking them with acetic acid, steaming them, or by
cutting them off with a sharp cutter (careful!). Scrape
off the old glue. Buy pre-cut strips of felt or cut individ-
ual felts yourself. Glue the felts with a hot hide, PVC-E,
or wood glue. If the glue dries slowly, gently clamp the
felts in the middle with tie wraps (to avoid distorting
the felt, mold the tie wraps into the shape of a staple).
• Rebush and/or repin wippen flanges if necessary, as
explained in “Repinning Action Parts” and “Rebushing
Action Parts,” starting on page 244. Beware: this work is
tedious and requires a lot of patience. Replacing parts
may be more cost-efficient than rebushing and repin-
ning old parts. Figure 623 Winding a new elbow onto a sticker.
...
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...
a. b.

Notch

Figure 680 Cleaning the remaining wood from the stretcher

with a chisel (a). Steaming the wood first (b) may reduce dam-
age to the stretcher (courtesy Pianos Bolduc).
Figure 681 Alternative to routing: chiseling a bevel in the back of a
full pinblock to free it from the stretcher.
If you do have a large, sturdy band saw, you will be
able not only to cut the ends and the flange, but also to re-
saw the whole plank to the desired thickness. This allows
you to purchase thick planks and reduce their width with-
out overtaxing your planer. Read Lonnie Bird, “Resawing
on the Bandsaw,” for information about how to set up and
use a band saw for this task. Remember that pinblock
planks are made of some of the densest and hardest
woods available. Multi-laminated planks are extremely
abrasive and should be cut with patience, being careful
not to overheat the blade.
If you have a band saw with a tilting table (or a station-
ary table but a tilting head), I recommend cutting the pin- Figure 682 The stretcher after removing the pinblock. Note the
block yourself. To be adequate for this work, a band saw blind dowels marked with arrows.
must be able to cut through the very dense pinblock mate-
rial without ripple or wander. A saw blade should be rela-
tively narrow (viewed from the side) to allow guiding the
block precisely by hand. Feed the block slowly to prevent
the blade from overheating. Have an assistant hold up the
back of the block as it exits the saw’s table. Be careful with
your fingers, and wear eye protection.
7 Prepare new plank: Obtain a pinblock plank that is
wider and thicker than the original pinblock’s wid-
est/thickest spot. Pinblock panels are just under 60"
[1.5 m] long and between 11/4" and 15/8" thick. A double
panel is 17–181/2" [43 to 47 cm] wide and allows cutting two
pinblocks (except for some concert grands, which have
extra-wide blocks). Single panels are also available, often
with a diagonal cut that predetermines which side goes up
and which down (which can make fitting the block harder
if it is warped the wrong way). Measure the thickness of
the old block with a caliper in various spots and plane the Figure 683 Chiseling out the treble end of the original pinblock.
new plank to match. In conventional pinblocks with few Chisel the top layer in one piece to facilitate duplicating the width of
plies, remove the same amount of material on both sides the pinblock.
Sample page from Pianos Inside Out. Copyright © 2013 Mario Igrec. Replacing Grand Pinblock 447

to prevent the plank from warping. This is not a concern in

Figure 684 New plank ready for marking the outline of the
original pinblock.
Figure 685 Aligning the old block (top) to the new plank
(bottom) with a ruler. Note the small horizontal gap
between the old block and the ruler.
multi-laminated planks. If the plank is already warped,
turn the concave side (which is bowed in) up, toward the
plate. This will make it easier to fit the block to the plate
flange as you will have to push it down only in the middle.
Flexing it down at both ends requires clamping, which is
much less convenient. Use a stationary planer if you have
one, or a hand-operated power planer in several passes
(see Figure 490 on page 332).397 If the plank is much
thicker than the original pinblock, first resaw it on an in-
dustrial band saw equipped with a wide blade and a high
fence, or on a large radial saw. Some pinblocks taper in
thickness from one end to the other. Duplicate the taper
with a handheld planer.
8 Align back edges of new and old blocks: Place the
plank on a workbench (if you planed only one side, place
the unplaned side up; if the plank is warped, turn it so it
bows up in the middle). Put the old pinblock onto it upside
down, as depicted in Figure 684 (bass to the right, flange
away from you). Align the old pinblock with its straight
edge flush with the side of the new plank (Figure 685).
Plane/shape the edge of the new plank to perfectly match
the old block (especially important for full-fit blocks).
Push the old block inward just a little (1/32" [0.7 mm] or
less), and clamp the blocks together and to the work-
bench.
9 Trace flange of old block on new plank: Place a true
square on the new plank and push it against the flange of
the old block. Mark the position of the vertical arm on the
new plank with a pencil and repeat that along the whole
flange (Figure 686), creating a line that traces the old
block’s flange on the new plank. Also trace the ends of the
pinblock. If the old block is not as long as it should be be-
cause you were not able to retrieve its end portions in one
piece and glue them to the block, use measurements to
mark the edges on each end. Check the outline of the pin-
block and correct it if necessary. Remove the clamps.
10 Saw relief cuts in the new plank perpendicular to the
flange wherever the flange curves sharply and at the
bass/tenor corner (Figure 687). Stop sawing just at the
flange line you marked earlier.
11 Tilt band saw table: The pinblock flange is tilted and
its angle must be reproduced precisely. Place the old pin-
block on the band saw and tilt the table until the flange
surface is parallel to the saw blade (Figure 688), then
clamp the table securely in place.
12 Saw flange on new plank, starting at the bass end,
make a gentle curve over the relief cuts in the bass/tenor
corner, then cut the corner. Saw slowly, with an assistant

Figure 686 397 Ideally,you should put blocks of wood against each end of the
Marking the block to support the planer as it exists the plank. These blocks
outline of the should be of exactly the same thickness as each the plank, or the
pinblock flange planer will gouge the surface as its front drops (or create a ridge if
on the new the front kicks up). Instead, learn to lift the planer gently as it exits
plank. the plank—practice on scrap pieces of wood.

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Sample page from Pianos Inside Out. Copyright © 2013 Mario Igrec.
...
this repair to succeed, the stretcher and the entire pin-
block layer under it would need to be replaced but, as
mentioned earlier, you couldn’t mortise them into the
case on both ends (at least not fully). The larger question,
however, is whether or not you should even attempt such
a repair. A treatment as invasive as this would greatly re-
duce the piano’s authenticity and devastate its historical
value. A more fitting repair, if restoring the piano to play-
ing condition is a must, might be to treat the existing pin-
block with epoxy (page 256) and tune the piano to lower
pitch.
Rebuilding the Soundboard
To most laymen, a piano soundboard is a wooden panel
behind the strings. And just as any other wooden panel is
“good” if unblemished, this one, too, must be faultless,
and certainly without cracks. This is not surprising—cracks
normally tell us that something is broken, that it has failed.
Why should it be any different in the most elaborate piece
of furniture one can own, a piano? The truth is that all the
other aspects of soundboard condition—its impedance,
downbearing, crowning, and glue joints—are more impor-
tant than cracks. Still, cracks signal illness, and must be
addressed. Before we look at how to repair them or how to
improve the soundboard’s performance, let’s look at why
cracks appear.
Compression Set and Cracks
The planks that comprise the soundboard are glued to the
ribs. During periods of high humidity, the planks swell
across the grain but the ribs don’t allow them to expand.
The soundboard responds by arching upward and form-
ing the crown. Because the soundboard is constrained by
the strings, additional compression builds up in it, eventu-
ally causing wood fibers to collapse. As humidity drops
during the subsequent dry season, the wood shrinks and
the crown drops, but the wood fibers now take up less
room than they originally did. This effect, called compres-
sion set, would make the planks increasingly narrower af-
ter each season of damaging compression, but because
they are glued to the ribs, the planks can’t shrink. As a re-
sult, the wood fibers are pulled apart and cracks appear in
the soundboard.399
Wood cracks in low humidity, but it cracks because of
high humidity. If there were no compression set, which is
caused by high humidity, the soundboard would continue
oscillating between high-crown and low-crown periods in-
definitely and, theoretically, would crack only if the hu-
midity during dry seasons was lower than the humidity
during its manufacture. Surprisingly, when humidity is
consistently lower than during manufacture, such as in a
399 Compressionset is explained and illustrated in Bruce Hoadley,
Understanding Wood, pp. 82–83 and pp. 129–130.
Rebuilding the Soundboard 457
desert climate, a quality piano may never develop
cracks.400
The important point is that the cracks are not a prob-
lem per se. They are merely a symptom of the compres-
sion-set–induced deterioration of the soundboard. They
indicate a loss of compression, crown, and downbearing,
and an accompanying drop in impedance, which shortens
sustain and makes tone boomy. However, many pianos
with cracked soundboards sound good and don’t neces-
sarily need to have their soundboards replaced. See the
sidebar, “Repairing vs. Replacing the Soundboard.”
Repair Options
The critical test for a soundboard—more important than
the downbearing or the crown—is this: does the piano
sound good? Use the checklist in “Evaluating a Piano” on
page 321 to learn how to ignore the effects of deteriorated
components while evaluating the sound.
If only the melody octave is deficient, you can im-
prove it as explained below. Make those modifications af-
ter performing all other soundboard repairs.
If the sound is good and the sustain acceptable, there
is a strong case for repairing the old soundboard even if it
has lost some crowning and downbearing. You will need
to dry the soundboard, reglue the separations between it
and the ribs, rim, and belly rail (provided the beams allow
access to all separations), shim the cracks, and refinish
the soundboard. Most customers don’t mind that the
shims are lighter in color (Figure 715), but for some this is
a consideration. The shims can be stained to match each
other’s color, but the repairs still will be visible. Also con-
sider that traces of the old finish may show as dark streaks
or patches after the soundboard is refinished. Blemishes
in the color of the wood itself are likely to remain (Figure
716).
If the board has lost most of its crowning and there is
little measurable downbearing in the middle and tenor
sections, the decision is less straightforward. Your choices
are:
• Treat the soundboard with epoxy
• Attempt to restore compression by breaking up and re-
assembling the soundboard
• Shim the long bridge with wedges (page 467)
None of these options is without serious drawbacks: ep-
oxy is irreversible, breaking and reassembling the board is
risky and time-consuming, and the wedges require irre-
versibly compromising the bridge root. Restorations like
the one depicted in Figure 735 on page 468 can yield very
good results, but raise issues of practicality and profitabil-
ity. Some would question whether the crushed wood cells
could ever provide the same level of performance as a
new soundboard. Considering that one can buy a pre-
crowned soundboard, installing a new soundboard may
be less risky and less time-consuming than repairing it.
400 Thanks to Fred Sturm, RPT, for this insight.
458 Rebuilding Sample page from Pianos Inside Out. Copyright © 2013 Mario Igrec.
Rep a ir in g v s . Re pl acin g t h e Soun d board
Many cracked soundboards perform well and have many more years
of service in them. The question is how many? Some technicians
believe that a concert grand is at its peak around its fifth year, and
should be removed from concert service after 10 years. Yet some
30-, 40-, and even 50-year-old concert grands, maintained in top
condition and rebuilt as needed, are routinely chosen by discerning
pianists, and are rented to concert venues and recording studios.
Even some 100-year-old soundboards sound lively and musical, and
have plenty of sustain. Of course, many don’t.
Perhaps the determining factor is the extent to which the sound-
board was subjected to compression set during its life. String instru-
ments such as violins and cellos, which aren’t subject to significant
compression set, don’t seem to deteriorate with age. The fact that
300-year-old violins are in high demand, and are played in concerts
and on recordings by most discerning violinists (a 1697 Stradivarius
violin known as “The Molitor” was sold for $3,600,000 in 2010a),
Figure 714 This piece of orange peel demonstrates how the soundboard distorts under the downbearing
force of strings: the middle caves in, but the ends pull away from the rim (see arrows).
An overloaded soundboard tends to become distorted
with time (Figure 714), and can have zero or negative
crown and downbearing. Such a board should be re-
placed. The soundboard also should be replaced when
the piano has been in a fire or a flood, damaged by wood-
boring insects, deeply gouged, or damaged otherwise.
If you’re not equipped to replace the soundboard, you
will have to ship the piano, which entails risks with which
the owner must be comfortable.
If you’re considering replacing a soundboard on your
own, I suggest watching the video Installation of the Grand
Pre-crowned Soundboard by Pianos Bolduc,401 attending a
soundboard-installation class at a PTG conference, and
reading all piano-design–related books in the “Selected
Bibliography” on page 509. Search the Piano Technicians
Journal archives, and online forums, such as pianotech at
my.ptg.org, for pertinent topics.
Improving the Melody Octave
Many pianos suffer from poor sustain in the melody oc-
tave due to the loss of compression in that area of the
401 Available from Pianotek.
must be proof that a moderately loaded spruce board doesn’t dete-
riorate and can perform for well over 100 years. That may not be
applicable to many, perhaps even most pianos, but may explain why
some pianos perform so well tonally despite their age.
For most rebuilders, the decision to repair or replace is based
on practicality and cost. If you are not set up to replace a sound-
board, repairs will be the more appealing option. Yet for someone
who has mastered replacement, the risks involved in keeping the old
soundboard, in terms of both its ultimate sound quality and the
amount of effort needed to repair it, are simply too great. The other
constraining factor is cost. In the market in which a new Asian grand
piano can be purchased for less than the cost of a serious rebuilding,
only the best pianos warrant the added cost of replacement.
a http://www.answers.com/topic/antonio-stradivari#
cite_ref-28.
soundboard and/or due to inadequate stiffness of the
belly rail. Typically, this affects pianos that don’t have a
beam on the treble side of the belly rail.
Treble Tone Resonator
One approach is to stiffen the belly rail with a device, such
as Robert Grijalva’s Treble Tone Resonator, available from
Pianotek (Figure 717). The device pulls in the belly rail,
stiffening it and adding some compression to the sound-
board.402
Riblets
Darrell Fandrich addresses this problem with his “rib-
lets”—small wooden ribs installed between the main ribs.
The riblets increase the stiffness of the board and improve
sustain.403
402 See Robert Grijalva, RPT, “Introduction to the Treble Resonator.”
403 See Barbara Richmond, RPT, et al., “Voicing the Soundboard with
Weights and Riblets”; see also Darrell Fandrich, RPT, “Riblet
Update.”
...
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Preparing the Surface
1 Scrape the old finish from the top surface of the sound-
board and the bridges with a smooth, sharp scraper 1–2"
[25–50 mm] wide. Be careful not to scratch or gouge the
soft wood.
2 Sand the whole board with a belt sander (Figure 737)
equipped with a coarse belt (60- to 80-grit), then sand by
hand with 60-grit sandpaper supported by a hard, flat
block. Sand along the grain, and without digging into the
board with the edges of the belt or paper. Sand the board
and bridges by hand with increasingly finer sandpaper
(100-, 150-, 220-grit) backed by a semihard block. Brush
and vacuum the board and bridges after each grade thor-
oughly. Hold the opening of a nozzle with a closed palm of
your hand and move the nozzle around the board by slid-
ing the hand on it. This way, you create stronger suction
and feel the grit on the board.
Figure 737 Sanding the soundboard with a belt sander.
Figure 738 After the soundboard has been refinished, the shims are
lighter than the rest of the wood.
3 Apply finish in a dust-free room. If you’re spraying the
finish, cover the case, pinblock, key bed, and legs. Moisten
a “tack rag” or microfiber tack sponge with paint thinner
(not water), wring it out fully, and thoroughly wipe the
Rebuilding the Soundboard 469
board with it. This will pull the dust from the pores of the
wood. Let the board dry.
Concealing the Shims
Regardless of how well you sand the soundboard, traces
of old finish in the pores of the wood will make it darker
than the new wood. This makes spruce shims much
lighter (Figure 738), even when cut from an old sound-
board. The difference is accentuated by the finish—don’t
base your judgment on the appearance of an unfinished
board. If you want the repairs to be less conspicuous, you
have two choices: darken the shims, or lighten the color of
the entire soundboard.
Shims can be darkened using a diluted wood stain
compatible with your top-coating finish. Considerable ex-
perimentation may be necessary because the color of the
board changes when a finish, even a “water white” finish,
is applied to it. Even the number of coats you apply affects
the final hue. You can apply the stain with an artist’s
brush but you risk staining the board. Some technicians
use an air brush.411 Experiment with spare shims and in
areas of the soundboard that will be covered by the plate.
The latter option, to lighten the color of the entire
board, is not recommended because bleaches introduce
moisture, which may cause surface cracking, and neutral-
izing the caustic chemicals in the wood requires even
more water. The best solution is to use the least-yellowing
finish, such as a “water-white” lacquer or even a spar ure-
thane varnish, which contains UV filters that prevent it
from yellowing. A clear sanding sealer or primer will re-
duce the penetration of the top-coating finish into the
wood and keep the wood light colored. A water-based lac-
quer, which is “water white,” would be a good option, but,
because it is thinned with water, it introduces moisture
into the board.
Selecting a Finish
The following characteristics are desirable for a sound-
board finish.
• Protection from water vapor: Different finishes have
different Moisture Excluding Effectiveness (MEE) val-
ues.412 The higher the MEE, the slower the exchange of
water vapor between the air and what the finish pro-
tects. A slow exchange is desirable because the wood
has more time to dimensionally adjust to the change, it
is less likely to crack or develop pressure ridges, and is
exposed to less stress. Because the compression and
crowning of the soundboard change more slowly, the
total amount of change also is reduced.413 As a result,
tuning holds much better with a high-MEE finish during
411 See Bill Spurlock, “Router Repair of Soundboard Cracks,” Europi-
ano, Issue 1, 2011, p. 48.
412 MEE is expressed as a percentage of vapor exchange. An MEE of
100% indicates zero vapor exchange. See “Control of Water and
Water Vapor” in Wood Handbook, p. 16-13.
413 Ibid., Figure 16-13, p. 16-14. See also Bruce Hoadley, Understanding
Wood, Figure 7.3, p. 135.
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Figure 757 Using temporary tape markers to align the decal.
Figure 758 Pressing down the decal with a rolling pin.
2 Measure and mark fallboard with tape to install the
decal centered with, and an appropriate distance from the
bottom of, the fallboard (Figure 757). A modern Steinway
decal should be installed so that the bottoms of the letters
are about 3" [75 mm] above the bottom of the fallboard.
Carefully remove the backing that exposes the backs of
the letters, without removing the letters from the clear
sticky sheet on which they were assembled. Hold the
sticky sheet so that the letters form a straight line, align the
letters above the tape markers you affixed earlier, and
press down the sheet.
3 Press letters onto the fallboard with a smooth, straight
rolling pin (Figure 758). Press each letter with a small
block of wood from edge to edge, to prevent the finish you
will later spray from getting under the letters and ruining
the job.
Introduction to Refinishing 485
Figure 759 Cutting away lint caught under a letter.
Figure 760 Rosewood-veneered fallboard refinished with a new,
modern-style brass decal.
4 Clean edges of letters: Look carefully around each let-
ter for any lint or hairs that might be protruding and cut
them away (Figure 759). The edges of the letters must be
absolutely clean, or you may end up with unsightly pin
holes in the finish around the letters.
5 Spray clear finish (compatible with previous coats) in
as many coats as necessary to build it up to a dry thick-
ness426 that equals or exceeds the thickness of the decal
(Figure 761). Typically, that means you will need to apply
more than 10 coats of lacquer. If unsure, spray the finish
on a foil, peel it off after it dries, and measure its thickness
with a caliper.
6 Sand surface and satinize or buff: After the finish is
fully cured (up to seven days recommended for most con-
ventional finishes), wet-sand the entire surface equally
426 The
...
thickness of finish after it has cured.
Sample page from Pianos Inside Out. Copyright © 2013 Mario Igrec.
Troubleshooting
“ The truth knocks on the door and you say, ‘Go away,
I'm looking for the truth,’ and so it goes away.
”
—Robert M. Pirsig, author of Zen and the Art of Motorcycle Maintenance
Buzzes and Rattles
Sympathetic vibrations are often produced by objects in
the room, not the piano itself. To locate the source, have
an assistant play the affected note while you listen for the
exact location. Any hard object that touches another hard
object could be making the sound. Common culprits are
the china closet, chandeliers, picture frames, and decora-
tive objects, such as plates, jewelry boxes, and figurines—
but don’t rule out loose panes of glass in windows, air-con-
ditioning registers, even doorknobs and floor tiles. Of
course, the buzz or rattle may come from the piano itself.
Metallic Sizzling Noises
A metallic noise that accompanies certain notes and gets
worse the louder the note is played is usually caused by
the agraffes and the V bar. See “Grooved V Bar, Agraffes,
Bridge Pins” on page 132
Short Metallic Rattle During Loud Playing
In grands, first check whether there is any debris on the
soundboard hidden under the plate. You may be sur-
prised what you find there. Use a piece of wire, a long
feeler gauge, or a soundboard steel (a long strip of steel
used for cleaning soundboards) to sweep under the plate,
under the bridge shelf, and in recesses under the tenor
side of the long bridge. Sweep away from the rim, toward
an area where you can see and pick up whatever you find.
Also check the hinges in the lid prop(s), music desk, and
fallboard. If the hinge buzzes when you tap it, tightening
down its screws may help. Hinge screws are notorious for
489
Appendix A
being loose and cross-threaded—plug and redrill their
screw holes if necessary. The hinge pin itself may buzz.
You may be able to tighten the hinge around the pin with a
pair of pliers (line the jaws with leather), but if that
doesn’t work, remove the pin and coat it with cork grease.
In grands, make sure the front lid has soft rubber but-
tons where it sits on the large lid. Check the lid lock, if
present—the key may buzz in it. Is the large lid latch (the
big knob on the curved side of the piano) loose?
In verticals, the music desk itself sometimes vibrates
against the fallboard when closed. In that case, install rub-
ber buttons on the desk. Also check the moderator rail
and its spring, if used.
High-Pitched Metallic Buzz near Keyboard
If the piano is equipped with a front lid lock, try depress-
ing its escutcheon (a small metal plate) in the middle of
the stretcher. If that stops the noise and the owner doesn’t
use the lock, pad the escutcheon plate with cloth or felt,
otherwise remove and rebuild it. In pianos with a folding
fallboard or a folding front lip (such as modern New York
Steinways B and D), the buzzing may come from the fall-
board hinges. Repair as explained above.
Rattles
Rattles are usually caused by loose case parts and lids or
by loose soundboard ribs.
In grands, a common source of rattles is the contact be-
tween the large lid and the rim—if the noise goes away
when you insert some soft cloth or felt between the lid
and rim, replace the rubber or felt buttons on the lid with
softer ones. The front lid also may rattle against the main
490 Troubleshooting Sample page from Pianos Inside Out. Copyright © 2013 Mario Igrec.
lid, and the lid prop against the plate. Replace or install
rubber or felt buttons. A closed music desk or its prop
can rattle loudly. Tighten the parts, and install rubber or
felt buttons as needed. If the fallboard rattles, replace the
felts on end blocks or whatever keeps the fallboard from
touching the stretcher. Make sure its hinges are tight and
fastened down. If there are screws that go through the
plate into the stretcher, tighten them.
In verticals, check all panels, and lubricate their con-
tact points with plain bar soap and/or pad them with felt,
if necessary.
If all of the above is fine, inspect the soundboard as
explained on page 261.
Echo
Pianos with duplex scales tend to have a high-pitched ring
after you release the keys. This is considered desirable by
most pianists, but can be a nuisance if too prominent. In
some cases the piano will seem to have an echo, with the
ring swelling after the dampers fall back.
The ring can be caused by a bad damper, usually in the
bass or low tenor, but the partials (aliquotes) are recogniz-
able and are part of the harmonic series of that note. Play
all notes of the bass section loudly to eliminate the damp-
ers as the cause of the ring.
If the dampers work well, check the stringing braid in
the backscale (between the strings behind the bridges). If
the braid is missing or damaged in the bass and low tenor
sections, weave in a new one there (if you have to work
between the bass strings, wear gloves and be careful not to
damage the soft copper windings on bass strings). If the
echo is still present, continue weaving the braid in be-
tween the bridge and rear duplex terminations, from the
low tenor up into the middle section. Stop every two to
three trichords and test the echo. After you damp the
backscale of several unisons this way, you will notice the
overall sound of the piano getting duller. Balance that with
the need to reduce the echo.
If the echo has discernible pitches, pluck the rear du-
plex segments with a guitar pick, and mute only those
strings that produce the offending pitches.
Another way to address the echo is to retune the rear
duplex in the affected area by tapping the duplex bars to-
ward the bridge. However, you can’t be sure of the out-
come and may introduce a new echo. If you decide to try
this, be aware that it’s more difficult (or impossible, with-
out damage) to tap duplex bars away from the bridge. Be
prepared to retune the piano.
Action Noises
This section lists noises commonly generated by the key-
board, action, and backaction.
Creaking and Oinking
Grands: If you hear oinking noises when playing, or a
creaking or crackling noise when you slowly depress a
key, especially at let off (when the hammer is closest to
the strings), you need to lubricate the jack, repetition le-
ver, and knuckle. See step 44 on page 156.
Verticals: Creaking noises are usually caused by poor
lubrication between the jack and the hammer butt leather.
As a quick fix, remove the bridle strap from its wire and
swing the hammer all the way toward the strings. Rub a
soft lead pencil (5B or softer) on the leather. If this doesn’t
cure the noise, remove the hammer butt, then brush and
lubricate it like the grand knuckle (step 44 on page 156).
Hold the jack tripped with one hand as you reinstall the
hammer butt with the other, to avoid damaging the butt
felt. Reconnect the bridle strap.
Damper Creaks in Verticals
When pressing the damper pedal causes a creaking noise,
the usual cause is excessive friction between the damper
lift rod and damper lever felts. If there is a similar but qui-
eter noise, or a faint squeal or oink, when you play indi-
vidual notes, it may be generated by damper spoons on
damper lever felts, or by underlever springs in underlever
notches. To remedy, see steps 35–37 beginning on
page 192.
Squealing
Squealing noises during playing are usually caused by
center pins. Apply a center pin cleaner/lubricant, such as
Protek CLP, to the affected pins (page 148), or, if the prob-
lem is systemic, replace center pins and bushings through-
out (page 244). If the squealing emanates from key bush-
ings, ease and lubricate (page 352) or replace them
(page 347). Leather bushings are known to squeak and
squeal. Lubricate them with powder lubricant.
Damper Felt Noises
The characteristic damper noise is a zing made when the
damper falls back to the strings, especially when the key is
released slowly (e.g., during expressive legato playing).
Following are the conditions that contribute to that and
other noises related to damper felts. (Mechanical noises in
the damper system are discussed above.)
• Hard damper felt and string oxidation on the felt
makes damper emit a zing noise on return. This can be
very frustrating to the pianist, because the noise seems
worst during soft and expressive legato passages. To
determine whether the damper felt is the culprit, play
the note loudly and release it slowly. If the damper
makes a metallic noise, the best solution is to replace it.
If that is not an option, try to remedy it as explained in
step 19 on page 190.
• Dangling tips of trichord wedges: When played
loudly, strings will touch the tips of damper felt wedges
...
Sample page from Pianos Inside Out. Copyright © 2013 Mario Igrec.
Selected Bibliography
Books, Articles, Videos,
Online Resources
Allen, Frederick. “Steinway.” American Heritage of Invention and
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Appendix C
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Behm, Chuck. “Small Shop—Big Results: A Field Test of Brushed-
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Stanwood, David, RPT. “Looking at Grand Pianos Through the
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http://www.stanwoodpiano.com/PTGMarch00.pdf.
Stanwood, David, RPT. “Mastering Friction with the Balance
Weight System.” Piano Technicians Journal, November 1990,
pp. 16–18. Also available at http://www.stanwoodpiano.com/
BWsys.pdf.
Stanwood, David, RPT. “The New Touchweight Metrology.” Piano
Technicians Journal, June 1996, pp. 16–18. Also available at
http://www.stanwoodpiano.com/ptgjune96.htm.
Stanwood, David, RPT. “The New Touchweight Metrology as an
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http://www.stanwoodpiano.com/seesaw.pdf.
Stanwood, David, RPT. “Standard Protocols of the New Touch-
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Journals
Early Keyboard Journal
http://www.ekjournal.org
[Topics related to keyboard instruments until about 1850]
Europiano Magazine
http://www.ppvmedien.de
The Galpin Society Journal
http://www.galpinsociety.org/journal.htm
[History of musical instruments]
International Piano Magazine
http://www.rhinegold.co.uk/magazines/international_piano/
Also available via amazon.com.
Journal of the American Musical Instrument Society
http://www.amis.org/publications/journal
Keyboard Perspectives
http://westfield.org/publications/kp4/
[A periodical by Westfield Center, dedicated to performance
practice and keyboard instrument building in historical styles]
Piano Technicians Journal
http://www.ptg.org/journal.php
Archives in digital format are available for purchase from the
Piano Technicians Guild
Popular Woodworking Magazine
http://www.popularwoodworking.com
WoodMagazine.com
http://www.woodmagazine.com
Woodworkers Journal
http://www.woodworkersjournal.com
Online Groups and Forums
Note: The following are several popular user groups and forums
dedicated to piano technology. Search the web to get an up-to-
date list.
CAUT at PTG. “College And University Technicians forum.
Accessible through http://my.ptg.org.
Piano rebuilders on LinkedIn®. http://www.linkedin.com/groups?
gid=2365009&trk=hb_side_g.
Pianotech at PTG. Accessible through http://my.ptg.org.
Pianotech on Google Groups. http://groups.google.com/group/
pianotech.
Piano Tuners & Technicians on LinkedIn. http://www.linkedin.
com/groups?gid=1592467&trk=hb_side_g.
Piano World. http://www.pianoworld.com.
Sample page from Pianos Inside Out. Copyright © 2013 Mario Igrec.
abrasives. Various materials used for the removal of material,
shaping, smoothing, cleaning, buffing, or lubricating.
absolute humidity. Amount of moisture in the air.
abstract. Also known as “sticker,” an abstract (or Abstrakt) is a
link, usually made of hardwood, between the key and the wip-
pen in antique and early modern push actions (Stoss-
mechanik). Abstracts were replaced by key capstans in mod-
ern pianos. From a servicing perspective, abstracts are a nui-
sance because each must be detached individually before the
action can be removed from the keyboard. Abstracts are often
attached to “rockers” on keys, which require adjusting two
screws on opposing ends with an offset screwdriver, another
time-consuming procedure. Also referred to as “prolonge.”
See also “push action,” “rocker,” “sticker.”
Accelerated Action®. Steinway & Sons replaced traditional flat
balance punchings made of cloth or felt with balance rail
bearings (half-round wooden dowels covered with cloth, U.S.
patent no. 1,826,848, issued in 1931) in all production grands
made in New York since mid-1933. That design change, as well
as the new placement of key leads (U.S. patent no. 2,031,748,
1936) was aimed at improving repetition.
Accu-Tuner®. Albert Sanderson’s advanced electronic tuning
device. Made by Inventronics.
Acu-Just® hitch pins. Baldwin’s hitch pins that permit adjusting
the rear downbearing of strings by altering the distance be-
tween the string and the plate at the hitch pin (U.S. patent no.
3,478,635, 1969).
action. An assembly of brackets, rails, wippens, let off buttons,
shanks, and hammers (and hammer butts in verticals); the
mechanism above the keyboard. In a wider sense, the mecha-
nism described above and the keyboard. In verticals, the
damper mechanism is part of the action assembly. See also
“top stack.”
action bracket. Vertical piece of metal or wood that supports ac-
tion rails and is fastened to the key frame; comprises the “ac-
tion rack” or “top stack.” Also referred to as “action standard.”
action frame. See “action rack.”
495
Appendix B
Glossary
action rack. The assembly of grand action brackets and rails.
Also referred to as “action frame.” See also “top stack.”
action rail. One of the three rails to which the shanks, wippens
and let off buttons are fastened. Action rails are made of wood
or aluminum; Steinway’s rails are wooden dowels encased in
brass tubes.
action stack. See “top stack.”
action standard. See “action bracket.”
adhesive. Glue.
adjacent intervals. Same interval advanced chromatically, ei-
ther ascending or descending. For example, adjacent M3s are
C-E, C#-F, D-F#, etc. See also “contiguous intervals.”
aftertouch. Measurement of the vertical key travel after hammer
let off. See also “blow distance,” “drop,” “let off.”
agraffe. Brass device screwed into the piano plate that acts as a
front termination for strings’ speaking lengths. Some manufac-
turers use bridge agraffes instead of bridge pins. Also referred
to as “stringing stud.”
aliquot. Overtone. See also “harmonic.”
amplification. Boosting the sound volume or loudness.
amplitude. The amount of deflection of a vibrating body. The
greater the amplitude, the greater the volume of sound.
angle vise. Vise that permits precisely adjusting the drilling an-
gle. Used for drilling piano hammers.
apron. See “bass bridge,” “bass bridge shelf.”
attack. Initial stage of piano sound. See also “bloom,” “decay,”
“sound envelope,” “sustain.”
aural tuning. Tuning “by ear,” without the help of electronic de-
vices.
baby grand. Small grand piano, up to ca. 5' 8" [173 cm] long.
back. Structural beams in the back of a vertical piano.
back rail. Rail in the back of the key frame that supports the
ends of keys at rest. Also referred to as “back touch.” Back rail
cloth is also referred to as “key rest felt,” “back touch,” “back
rail baize.”
496 Glossary Sample page from Pianos Inside Out. Copyright © 2013 Mario Igrec.
back stop. See “catcher.”
back touch. Back rail; back rail cloth. See also “back rail,”
“baize.”
backaction. An assembly consisting of damper underlevers and
underlever tray. Some technicians consider the dampers,
damper guide rail, underlever stop rail, and the sostenuto
mechanism to be part of the backaction. Also referred to as
“damper action.”
backcheck. Device that catches the hammer after it rebounds
from the strings. In grands, it is attached to the back of the
key; in verticals, to the wippen.
backscale. Segments of strings behind the bridge. The lowest
bass strings typically have a very short backscale in small pi-
anos, constraining the tone by reducing the mobility of the
bass bridge and the soundboard in that area. See also “string-
ing braid.”
baize. Cloth, e.g. “back touch baize” (back rail cloth), “hammer
rest baize” (shank rest felt), “front rail baize” (front rail cloth
punching).
balance head. See “catcher.”
balance hole. Hole in the center of the key for the balance pin.
balance rail. Middle rail of the key frame that acts as a bearing
for the keys. Also referred to as “centre rail.”
balance rail bearing. Cloth-covered, wooden, half-round dow-
els in Steinway pianos with the Accelerated Action®. Patented
in 1931 (U.S. patent no. 1,826,848) and installed in all grands
made in New York since mid-1933. Claimed to reduce resis-
tance to the rocking motion of keys. Also referred to as “half-
round dowel.”
balance rail glide. See “glide.”
balance weight (BW). Average, in grams, of downweight (DW)
and upweight (UW), or (DW + UW) ÷ 2. Typically between
30 g and 45 g. See also “downweight (DW),” “upweight (UW),”
“standard measurement position (SMP),” “touchweight
(TW).”
balancier. See “repetition lever.”
band saw. Stationary power cutting tool that allows producing
straight and curved cuts at different angles. Large band saws
are capable of resawing pinblock planks.
baseboard. Board on the bottom of the vertical piano that sup-
ports the pedals and pedal linkages. Also referred to as “bot-
tom board.”
bass bridge. Also referred to as the “offset bridge,” when it is
equipped with the bass bridge shelf, the bass bridge links the
strings in the bass (lowest) section to the soundboard.
bass bridge shelf. Horizontal extension of the bass bridge that
permits the transmission of string vibrations closer to the mid-
dle of the soundboard without sacrificing the string length.
Also referred to as “bridge apron.”
bass section. Lowest section in a piano, strung with the wound
bass strings. In modern pianos, bass strings cross over the
strings in the tenor section. See also “over-stringing.”
bass string. String wrapped with a winding of copper or other
metal, used in the bass section and in the lowest notes of the
tenor section. The winding slows down the string’s rate of vi-
bration without reducing its tension. See also “whipped bass
string.”
bat pin. Front key pin. See “key pin.”
beam. One of several structural supports comprising the piano’s
frame (in grands) or back (in verticals). The purpose of the
beams is to strengthen and stiffen the rim and to aid the metal
plate in resisting the tension of strings. Also referred to as
“bracing.” Alternate meaning: “rail,” e.g., “hammer rest beam.”
bearing points (of strings). See “string bearings.”
beats. Audible, pulsating changes in sound volume caused by
two or more strings tuned so that their coincident partials
have slightly different frequencies. Beats are discernible and
countable only in consonant intervals. See also “consonant in-
tervals.”
becket. The bend in the string at the hole in the tuning pin. The
term is also used for the portion of the string inside the tuning
pin hole.
bell. Cast-iron piece attached to the inside of the rim on the bent-
side in longer Steinway & Sons grands. Attached to the plate
in the treble section with a bolt, the Steinway bell increases
the rigidity of the plate in that section, thus improving sustain
and sound volume.
belly. See “soundboard.”
belly bar. See “soundboard rib.”
belly rail. Assembly of beams/boards behind the action and
dampers in grands to which the front of the soundboard is at-
tached. Also referred to as “cross block.”
bellymen felt. Felt used to fill the gap between the plate and the
stretcher.
belt sander. Power tool used to sand wooden surfaces and
bridge pins. Belt sanders are available as fixed or handheld
tools.
bench regulating. Regulating the keyboard and action on a
workbench.
bentside. The curved part of the case in the grand piano. See
also “cheek,” “spine,” “tail.”
bichord. Two strings tuned to the same pitch. See also “tri-
chord.”
Billings flange. A brass flange found in some vertical pianos.
bird cage action. Action in vertical pianos with damper linkages
(stickers) in front of the action. The dampers “cage in” the ac-
tion and make servicing more difficult. Also referred to as
“overdamper action.”
bird’s eye. Circular protrusion around the center pin hole in ac-
tion parts; for example, in the grand shank flange. The bird’s
eye prevents the “fork” part with bushings (the shank) from
sliding left-right, along the center pin. Being doughnut shaped,
it introduces minimal rotational friction between the parts.
black key. Key with a black-colored covering usually made of
ebony or molded plastic. Black keys are C#, D#, F#, G#, and A#.
The whole key or its covering is also referred to as “sharp.”
bleaching wood. Procedure that lightens the color and removes
color variations of wood by applying to it a hydrogen perox-
ide or chlorine solution. Not recommended for piano sound-
boards or veneer because of the caustic effects of the bleach
and the surface damage caused by water in bleach solutions.
blistering of veneer. Veneer pulling away in patches from the
surface to which it is glued. Caused by poor manufacture of
veneered parts, poor quality of glue, water damage, or high
humidity.
bloom. The swelling of sound after the attack and decay stages
of the piano’s sound envelope; beginning of the sustain stage.
See also “attack,” “decay,” “sound envelope,” “sustain.”
blow distance. Distance between the hammers at rest and the
strings. See also “aftertouch,” “drop,” “let off.”
blushing of lacquer. Whitish spots that develop immediately
upon spraying lacquer in high humidity.
bobbling. Uncontrolled fast repeating due to the hammer bounc-
ing between the jack and the strings.
bolt. A screw with a hexagonal head.
Sample page from Pianos Inside Out. Copyright © 2013 Mario Igrec.
boring specifications. Set of measurements used to determine
the position and angle of shank holes in piano hammers.
bottom board. Board on the bottom of the grand lyre; board on
the bottom of the vertical piano. See also “lyre,” “baseboard.”
bottom door. See “bottom panel.”
bottom lever. See “wippen.”
bottom panel. In vertical pianos, vertical panel under the key
bed. Also referred to as “bottom door.”
braces. See “lyre braces.”
bracing. See “beam.”
bridge. Wooden structure that transmits string vibrations to the
soundboard. In modern, over-strung pianos, the long bridge
spans the tenor and treble sections. The bass bridge is used
for copper-wound bass strings, and in smaller grands and ver-
ticals may have a bass bridge shelf or apron. In the context of
a grand-piano action, means “repetition lever.”
bridge apron. See “bass bridge shelf.”
bridge cap. Strip of hardwood glued on top of the bridge root.
bridge notch. Indentation in the top of the bridge or bridge cap
that creates a precise termination for one or more strings of a
unison.
bridge pins. Pins that hold the strings in firm contact with the
bridges. Usually made of brass-plated steel.
bridge root. The bottom part of the bridge, which is glued to the
soundboard. The bridge root often has a bridge cap glued
onto it.
bridle strap. Cloth strap in a vertical piano action that connects
the hammer butt with the metal hook on the wippen. The
strap speeds up repetition by pulling the hammer butt toward
its rest position after staccato strikes. It also prevents the wip-
pen from dropping too far, allowing the jack to jam under the
butt felt when the action is removed from the piano.
bridle wire. In verticals, a wire mounted on the wippen to
which a bridle strap is attached. Also referred to as “tie wire.”
brushing finishes. A family of finishing materials that are ap-
plied with brushes.
buffing compound. Product containing abrasives and lubri-
cants, usually in brick form, used for buffing metal objects,
key tops, and finished surfaces.
bumping action. Type of piano action in which the front-facing
hammer and its shank are attached directly to the key by piv-
oting in a Kapsel, a fork-like piece attached to the back of the
key. The beak of the shank butt “bumps” on the escapement
“hook,” causing the hammer to rise. Shortly before the ham-
mer reaches the strings the escapement hook escapes back-
ward, releasing the butt, thus allowing the hammer to drop
freely. Also known as Prellmechanik, this type of action was
perfected by Johann Andreas Stein, who improved the es-
capement bar (Prell-Leiste or Prelleiste) by adding individual
escapement hooks (Prellzunge) to each key. Raved about by
Mozart, this type of action became popular in southern Ger-
many and Austria, and is known today as the “Viennese ac-
tion.” See also “push action.”
burlap. Coarse natural material used for applying conventional
lacquer filler to porous wooden surfaces.
burning the shank. Heating and twisting the hammer shank to
square the hammer. Also referred to as “burning the ham-
mer,” “casting the hammer.” See also “squaring the hammer.”
burnishing. A method of “polishing” a porous surface with a
smooth metal shank or spatula, or making a powdered lubri-
cant adhere to wood, leather, or felt.
Glossary 497
bushings. Linings in center pin holes, damper guide rails, pedal
blocks, key mortises, key buttons, and other parts that rotate
or slide; traditionally made of woolen cloth.
butt. See “hammer butt.”
butterfly spring. A type of repetition spring used by Steinway &
Sons and most other piano manufacturers.
button. See “key button,” “let off button.”
BW. See “balance weight (BW).”
CA glue. See “cyanoacrylate glue.”
cam. Wooden cams are the traditional means of locking grand-pi-
ano legs equipped with pressure plates. Also used to secure
the bottom panel in some vertical pianos.
cap. See “bridge cap.”
capo tasto. Also referred to as “Capo d’astro” or “V bar.” Cast-
iron bar, usually cast with the plate in one piece, that serves
as front termination for the strings’ speaking lengths. In most
pianos, a capo tasto is used only in the treble sections;
agraffes are used in the tenor and bass sections.
capstan. Screw that provides an adjustable linkage between pi-
ano parts (such as key and wippen) or acts as a stop (e.g.,
above trapwork levers). Also referred to as “pilot,” “dollie.”
capstan boat. Device for testing the effect on action leverage and
weight ratio of repositioning a key capstan. See also “capstan.”
Carpenter’s Wood Glue. Yellow PVA glue made by Elmers®. See
also “yellow wood glue.”
carriage. See “repetition lever.”
case. Also referred to as “outer rim”; in grands, consists of pan-
els or laminated strips of wood that enclose the piano.
cast iron. Material of which a conventional piano plate is made.
casting the hammer. See “burning the shank.”
catalyzed finishes. Two-component finishes that cure through a
chemical reaction between the components.
catcher. A part in the vertical action: wooden dowel with a
leather-covered wooden block at its end, attached to the ham-
mer butt. The catcher gets “caught” by the backcheck after
the hammer rebounds from the string(s). Also called “back
stop.”
caul. A block used to clamp the key bushings during their re-
placement; one of two side pieces in a hammer press that
push the felt against the hammer molding.
celeste pedal/rail. See “moderator pedal/rail.”
center pin. Axle in action parts, usually made of copper or sil-
ver, plated in some newer pianos.
centre. See “center pin.”
centre rail. See “balance rail.” See also “punching.”
cheek. Flat outer side of the case to the right of the treble sec-
tion. See also “bentside,” “spine,” “tail.”
cheek block. See “end block.”
chemical stripper. Chemical used to strip the finish from
wooden or metal surfaces. Usually contains acids and sol-
vents. The thicker the stripper, the easier it is to work with it,
especially on vertical surfaces.
chipping the strings. A tuning method after installing new
strings.
chisel. Cutting tool for shaping wood.
chromatic scale. Scale of 12 adjacent semitones within an oc-
tave, the basis of the modern Western musical tradition. See
also “octave.”
chrome buffing compound. Fine, white buffing compound, es-
pecially suitable for buffing ivory and plastic key tops.
circle of fifth/fourths. Method for tuning the temperament.
498 Glossary Sample page from Pianos Inside Out. Copyright © 2013 Mario Igrec.
clamp. Device used for keeping two or more pieces firmly
pressed against each other, typically when gluing them to-
gether.
cleats. See “leg plates,” “lyre plates.”
cold drawing. Method of producing piano strings: a metal rod is
forced through multiple dies that cut it into a wire of a certain
diameter.
column. See “leg.”
compound for buffing. See “buffing compound.”
compressed action. Action in short vertical pianos with smaller
parts.
compression set. Permanent shrinking across the grain in a con-
strained piece of wood subjected to high humidity. Compres-
sion-crowned soundboards exposed to excessive humidity
develop cracks due to compression set.
compressor. Stationary power tool used to provide compressed
air for tools and finishing equipment.
concert-grand piano. The longest grand, usually longer than 8'
[244 cm]. Most modern concert grands are around 9' [273 cm]
long.
condensation. Moisture turning from vapor into liquid due to
the cooling of air saturated with water vapor (relative humid-
ity at 100%).
condenser. Radiator on the “warm” side of an air conditioner or
dehumidifier in which the coolant condenses from vapor into
liquid due to the increase in coolant’s pressure.
console vertical. Medium-sized vertical piano, ca. 42–46" [107–
117 cm] high. See also “vertical piano,” “upright piano,”
“spinet.”
consonance. “Pleasant-sounding” combinations of pitches; con-
sonant intervals; opposite of “dissonance.”
consonant intervals. Intervals between the lowest six adjacent
partials (including the fundamental, which is counted as the
first partial) and their inversions within an octave. See “Con-
sonant and Dissonant Intervals” on page 97; see also “disso-
nant intervals.”
contact adhesives. Usually solvent-based adhesives that pro-
vide almost full adhesive strength immediately on joining the
glued parts. Also called “contact cement.”
contact cement. See “contact adhesives.”
contiguous intervals. An interval in which the lower note is the
upper note of the previous interval (ascending) or the upper
note is the lower note of the previous interval (descending).
For example, ascending contiguous M3s are F3-A3, A3-C#4, and
C#4-F4. See also “adjacent intervals.”
core wire. Steel string in bass strings that provides a core
around which the copper coil is wrapped.
cornice. See “stretcher.”
corrosion. Oxidation of metal.
counterbearing. In grands, the raised flange in, or a bar on, the
plate between the front speaking-length termination, such as
an agraffe or the V bar, and the tuning pin; acts as a string
bearing.
countersinking. Shaping the top of the hole to get the screw
head to be flush with, or below the surface of the rail, board,
flange, etc. Performed with a special drill bit.
cow bone. Material used for key tops as a substitute for ivory.
cradle. See “repetition lever.” Can mean the whole “wippen.”
crank. See “tuning hammer.”
creepage of glue. Property of adhesives that allows the glued
parts to move slowly along the glue joint when exposed to
continuous opposing forces.
cross block. See “belly rail.”
cross pattern. Pattern for sanding a finished surface (e.g., the pi-
ano case or lid) straight and free of ripples. The surface is
sanded with increasingly finer grades of sandpaper, each
grade used to sand across the previous grade at a right angle.
The sandpaper must be supported by a hard or semihard sup-
port block, or a semihard sanding block can be used.
crossbar. See “strut.”
cross-stringing. See “over-stringing.”
crown. The curvature of the piano soundboard; the top of the pi-
ano hammer. See also “soundboard,” “soundboard rib,” “ham-
mer molding,” “shoulders.”
cutoff bar. Stiff bar that immobilizes the soundboard in the cor-
ner between the spine and belly rail, thus reducing the sound-
board’s vibrating area in order to boost its wave impedance.
See also “fish,” “wave impedance.”
cyanoacrylate glue. Fast-drying “superglue,” available in viscos-
ities from water-thin to thick gel. Preferred for quick bonding,
but also used for tightening tuning pins, let off screws, and
other metal-in-wood applications.
cycle per second. Unit of measurement used to express the fre-
quency of sound. Equivalent to “Hertz” (Hz).
dag. L-shaped piece of wood that keeps the back rail of the
grand key frame in contact with the key bed while allowing it
to slide sideways when the soft pedal is depressed. There are
four or five dags in most grands.
damper. Device that prevents the strings from vibrating.
damper action. See “backaction.”
damper body. In grands, “damper underlever”; in verticals,
“damper lever.”
damper drop. See “damper underlever top flange.”
damper guide rail. A rail with bushed holes mounted on the
front edge of the soundboard in grands, under the strings, that
determines the position of each damper. Damper wires pass
through bushed holes in the guide rail.
damper lever. In verticals, spring-loaded wooden lever that car-
ries the damper in the back of the action, and is actuated by a
damper spoon. May be used interchangeably with “damper
body” and “damper underlever.”
damper lift rod. Metal rod that lifts all damper levers in vertical
pianos; actuated by the damper pedal via a pedal rod.
damper lift spoon. See “damper spoon.”
damper lift. Measurement of hammer motion relative to the mo-
ment the damper starts lifting. Typically adjusted to coincide
with the hammer’s half-blow distance. See also “damper,”
“half-blow distance.”
damper pedal. Right pedal; lifts dampers away from strings. See
also “pedal.”
damper spoon. Metal stud with a spoon-shaped end, mounted
at the back end of a vertical wippen. Damper spoons actuate
damper levers.
damper stop rail. Limits the vertical motion of the damper un-
derlevers in grands. Mounted on the belly rail behind the un-
derlevers’ top flanges.
damper tail. Bottom of a “damper lever” in verticals.
damper tray. Rail, hinged to the damper underlever rail, that
lifts damper underlevers; rail to which underlevers are at-
tached, and which lifts underlevers. Also referred to as
“damper lever rail.”
damper underlever. In grands, lever that links the end of the
key to the damper. Mounted on the damper tray. Also referred
Sample page from Pianos Inside Out. Copyright © 2013 Mario Igrec.
to as “damper body,” “damper lever.” See also “damper un-
derlever top flange,” “damper tray.”
damper underlever top flange. Flange to which the damper
wire is attached; part of the damper underlever. Also referred
to as “damper drop,” “damper lift,” “standard damper lift.”
decal. Manufacturer’s or rebrander’s name plate consisting of
letters and symbols, usually affixed to the fallboard and
soundboard. Small decals on the plate next to tuning pins in-
dicate string gauges.
decay. Used to describe the last phase in the tone envelope of
the piano. See also “attack,” “bloom,” “sound envelope,” “sus-
tain.”
dehumidifier. Device that removes moisture from air.
deicing. Automatically shuts down an air dehumidifier when the
evaporator coils freeze.
Delignit. German brand of pinblock material made of thin lami-
nations of beech, glued with maleic resin.
Diaphragmatic® soundboard. A soundboard thinned toward
the edges, patented in 1936 by Steinway & Sons in New York
(U.S. patent 2,051,633).
dissonance. Combination of pitches perceived as jarring and un-
pleasant. Opposite of “consonance.”
dissonant intervals. Major and minor second, major and minor
seventh, and augmented fourth/diminished fifth; those inter-
vals over one or more octaves. See also “consonant intervals.”
Distance multiplier (DM). Second value in the lead factor (LF)
expression (e.g., “0.65” in “14x0.65”), which indicates the dis-
tance of the lead weight from the balance hole as a proportion
of the front or back key segment. Positive for the front seg-
ment, negative if the lead is in the rear segment. Typically 0.1
to 0.8 and –0.1 to –0.4.
DM. See “Distance multiplier (DM).”
dollie. See “capstan.”
dome. See “glide.”
double escapement. Feature of the modern piano action, in-
vented by Sébastien Érard in 1821, that accelerates repetition
by allowing a note to be repeated with minimal movement of
the key. The first escapement occurs when the repetition le-
ver is stopped by the drop button, the second when the jack
is tripped under the knuckle by the let off button. Also re-
ferred to as “double repetition.”
double string. One string that provides two speaking lengths.
The string is coiled on two tuning pins, and bends around a
single hitch pin. See also “double string.”
downbearing. Amount of downward force that strings exert on
the soundboard by being deflected upward by the bridges.
downweight (DW). Amount of weight, in grams, placed on the
key at the standard measurement position, which is needed to
make the key sink slowly from a dip of about 4 mm. Typically
between 40 g and 65 g. See also “balance weight (BW),” “up-
weight (UW),” “standard measurement position (SMP),”
“touchweight (TW).”
Dremel®. Maker of electric high-speed rotary tools that can be
used for engraving, shaping, sanding, cutting, milling, and
drilling.
drill press. Fixed power tool for precise drilling.
drop. Measurement of the downward motion of the hammer in a
modern grand action after let off. See also “let off,” “blow dis-
tance,” “aftertouch.”
dropped action. Action in short, “spinet” vertical pianos;
mounted below the level of the keyboard and the key bed.
Glossary 499
duct tape. Adhesive tape used for temporarily binding parts to-
gether.
duplex scale. Unmuted segments of strings that resonate with
the strings’ speaking segments. The front duplex is between
the capo tasto or agraffe and the counterbearing, and the rear
duplex is the segment between the rear bridge pin and a ter-
mination (duplex bar or strip) in front of the hitch pin. The du-
plex scale was patented by Steinway & Sons in 1872 (U.S.
patent 126,848).
DW. See “downweight (DW).”
dynamic ceiling. The upper limit of a piano’s dynamic range.
Usually indicates how loud a piano can sound without harsh-
ness and distortion.
easing key bushings. Increasing the space between the bush-
ings by compressing the bushings and the wood. See also
“key bushing.”
elastic limit. Maximum tension a string can withstand without
permanently altering its elasticity.
electronic tuning. Tuning with help of an electronic tuning de-
vice.
EMC. See “Equilibrium Moisture Content.”
emery cloth. Abrasive cloth used for shaping and sanding metal
surfaces.
end block. One of two wooden blocks at each end of the key-
board. Also referred to as “cheek block,” “key block.”
epoxy. Two-component glue of high strength and minimal creep-
age. Excellent for both filling and gluing.
enharmonic notes. Notes that sound the same and are played
by pressing the same key, but have different names; e.g.,
C-sharp (written as C#) and D-flat (D b). Enharmonic notes are
typically associated with black keys, but white keys also have
enharmonic equivalents; for example E#=F, and Fb=E. To sim-
plify the naming of black keys, most technicians refer to them
by only their “sharp” version, even when the intervals they
form are technically incorrect. For example, a major 3rd (M3)
up from “C#” is C#-E# (=Db-F), but this interval is always notated
as C#-F, which is technically a diminished 4th (d4).
Equilibrium Moisture Content (EMC). A measure of the
amount of water in a species of wood at a given relative hu-
midity and temperature. EMC represents the balance at which
wood no longer gains or loses moisture from/to the air. At
70°F [21°C] white spruce has ca. 5% EMC at 25% RH, 9% EMC
at 50% RH, and 14% EMC at 75% RH.
escapement. Feature of all but the most primitive piano actions
that allows hammers to rebound from strings regardless of the
force or type of touch with which the keys are struck. The
term refers to the escapement of the jack under the hammer
shank knuckle in grands, or the hammer butt in verticals. See
also “double escapement.”
evaporator. Radiator on the “cold” side of an air conditioner or
dehumidifier in which the coolant evaporates due to a drop in
pressure.
F. See “friction (F).”
facing off agraffes. Adjusting the agraffes to be perpendicular to
the strings.
Falconwood. Pinblock material made of multiple, thin lamina-
tions of maple developed by C.A. Geers Piano Company in
Ohio.
fallboard. Keyboard lid.
false beats. Beats produced by a single string that make it sound
like two or more unison strings that are out of tune.
500 Glossary Sample page from Pianos Inside Out. Copyright © 2013 Mario Igrec.
Fandrich, Darrell, RPT. Founder of Fandrich & Sons Pianos in
Seattle, WA, and inventor of the patented Fandrich Vertical Ac-
tion™.
Fandrich, Delwin, RPT. Piano designer and rebuilder. Founder
of Fandrich Piano Co., Inc.
feeler gauge. Strip of steel used to determine the depth and
length of cracks or gaps. Used extensively in soundboard re-
building.
felt. Material of varying density and hardness; derived from
wool.
fibers. See “wood fibers.”
file. Hand tool used for removal or shaping of metal, wood, or
other materials.
filler. Material used for repairing gouges, cracks, and surface im-
perfections.
finish. Material applied to various surfaces to protect and beau-
tify them.
fish. Extension of the rim, usually made of hardwood, and af-
fixed inside the rim where the bentside joins the cheek; used
to improve sustain in the treble by increasing the stiffness and
therefore the wave impedance of the soundboard. See also
“cutoff bar,” “wave impedance.”
flagpoling. Bending of tuning pins, which adversely affects tun-
ing stability. For a complete explanation, see “Bending and
Twisting of Tuning Pins” on page 108. See also “tuning pin.”
flange. In action parts, the stationary part to which the movable
part is attached. The only exception is the damper underlever
top flange, which moves with the underlever. On piano plate,
the protruding part in front of the pinblock. See also “plate
horn.”
Flügel. “grand piano” in German; from Flügel (wing), to describe
the piano’s shape.
fly. See “jack.”
foam wrap. Thin, synthetic material used for wrapping high-
gloss piano parts.
Forstner bit. Drill bit for drilling flat-bottomed holes. This type of
bit causes less splintering when it exits the hole of an unsup-
ported work piece.
frame. See “plate.”
French polish. Hand-rubbed, low-build shellac finish.
frequency of sound. Describes the pitch, measured in Hertz
(Hz) or cycles per second.
friction (F). Half of the difference between downweight (DW)
and upweight (UW): (DW – UW) ³ 2. Typically 9–17 g.
front rail. Part of the key frame. See also “balance rail,” “key
pin,” “punching.”
front touch. Front rail punching; key dip. See also “baize,”
“punching.”
front weight (FW). Total radius weight, in grams, of the front
segment of the key, measured at standard measurement posi-
tion. Front weight is useful for determining the inertia of the
key, and for comparing keys that have lead weights in different
positions. Typically 30–50 g for key #1. See also “touchweight.”
full-fit. Style of attaching the pinblock to the rim and stretcher.
Used in Steinway & Sons and other quality grands.
fundamental. Primary harmonic or partial; base pitch of a note
in a series of harmonics or partials.
FW. See “front weight (FW).”
gap. Vertical distance between the tip of the jack and the ham-
mer butt in vertical actions. The gap is needed to enable the
jack to reposition under the hammer butt.
gel superglue. Thicker type of superglue suitable for gluing
more types of surfaces than ordinary superglue.
German silver. Material of which traditional action center pins
are made: an alloy of copper, nickel, and zinc. Also known as
“nickel brass.”
gilding. Gold-colored, usually metallic finish on piano plate.
glide. Brass stud with a wide, rounded bottom end, mounted in
the key frame’s balance rail; allows adjusting the contact be-
tween balance rail and key bed. Also referred to as “balance
rail glide,” “dome.”
grand piano. Piano whose soundboard, plate, and strings are
laid horizontally, the strings running in line with the hammers
and hammer shanks.
graphite. Carbon in powder form, used as a lubricant for felt,
leather, wood, and metal.
grinder. Machine used for sharpening, cleaning, and shaping
metal objects; also useful for buffing.
guide notes. Usually, end notes and middle notes in each sec-
tion of the keyboard and action; used to set the regulation for
the rest of the action.
guide rail. See “damper guide rail.”
half-blow distance. The position of the hammer halfway be-
tween its idle position and the strings. This is approximately
when the damper should start lifting. See also “damper lift.”
half-blow pedal. See “soft pedal.”
half-blow rail. In verticals, a rail between the hammer shanks
and the shank rest rail that brings the hammers closer to the
strings when the half-blow pedal is depressed. In some verti-
cals, the hammer rest rail itself swings forward. See also
“shank rest rail.”
half-round dowel. See “balance rail bearing.”
half top. In grands, the front lid. See also “lid.”
hammer. Felt-covered wooden molding mounted on the shank
to produce sound by striking the strings.
hammer-blow distance. See “blow distance.”
hammer butt. The base of the hammer shank in vertical actions.
hammer cushion. See “shank rest felt (or cloth).”
hammer height. Vertical distance between the top of each ham-
mer (in idle position) and the strings.
hammer molding. Wooden strip that forms the core of the pi-
ano hammer. Felt is compressed and glued to the wooden
hammer molding. See also “crown,” “shoulders.”
hammer nose. Tip of the hammer. See “crown.”
hammer rail. In grands, a rail, usually of wood or aluminum, to
which all hammer shanks are affixed. In verticals, same as
“hammer rest rail” or “shank rest rail.”
hammer rest felt (or cloth). See “shank rest felt (or cloth).”
hammer rest rail. See “shank rest rail.”
hammer shank. Wooden shank that carries the hammer at its
end. Grand shanks are pivoted in the shank flanges; vertical
shanks are installed in the hammer butts.
hammer strike weight (SW). Effective weight, in grams, of the
hammer and shank. Typically 9.5–14 g for hammer #1. Also re-
ferred to as “strike weight.”
hammer weight (HW). Weight, in grams, of the hammer head.
Typically 8.0–12.5 g for hammer #1.
hardener. Chemical that increases the hardness of the hammer
felt; usually, a lacquer, lacquer sanding sealer, collodion, or
acrylic solution.
Sample page from Pianos Inside Out. Copyright © 2013 Mario Igrec.
hardening capo tasto V bar. Procedure used in piano-plate
manufacturing and rebuilding to increase the rigidity and
hardness of the V bar.
harmonic. Theoretically ideal overtone.
harpsichord. String instrument, a precursor of the grand piano,
that utilizes plectra instead of hammers to generate sound;
i.e., strings are plucked, not struck.
head. Same as “hammer” or “hammer head.”
heating lamp. Infrared light bulb used to warm up and dry the
soundboard before shimming it; can be used to keep wooden
parts warm to extend working time and penetration of hot
hide glue.
heat-treating capo tasto. See “hardening capo tasto V bar.”
heel. See “tail,” “wippen heel,” “jack tender.”
Herrburger-Schwander. Style of grand action (wippens and
shanks) found in many grand pianos, especially those made
in Europe and Asia during the 20th century.
Hertz. Unit of measurement for frequency of sound. Expresses
the number of vibrations or cycles per second.
Herz-Érard action. Simplified and improved form of the Érard’s
double-escapement action that is the basis of the modern
grand action. First used in pianos by Henry Herz in Paris, and
soon adopted by Broadwood, Collard, Steinway, Bechstein,
and others. Very similar to the modern Herrburger Schwan-
der action design.
hex screw. Has a hexagonal recess in the head; developed for
the automobile industry.
hexagonal string. Steel string of hexagonal profile. Used for
manufacturing universal replacement bass strings whose cop-
per winding can be adjusted in length.
Hexagrip pinblock. Method of building the pinblock with lami-
nations that cross each other at a 60° angle instead of the
usual 90° angle; patented by Steinway & Sons in New York.
hide glue. Traditional adhesive used for gluing wood, cloth, felt,
and leather. Hot hide glue is supplied in granules or flakes, di-
luted in water, and kept warm (at ca. 150°F) in a glue pot
throughout the application. Also available in liquid form,
ready to use at room temperature.
hitch pin. Steel pin in the piano plate to which a string is at-
tached.
hopper. See “jack.”
horn. See “plate horn.”
hot glue. Gummy, thermoplastic glue applied with a special glue
gun. Used for low-strength applications, such as gluing the
felts to the plate.
hot hide glue. See “hide glue.”
humidifier. Device that increases the amount of moisture in the
air.
humidity. Moisture in the air. See also “absolute humidity,” “rel-
ative humidity.”
HW. See “hammer weight (HW).”
hydrogen peroxide. Chemical used for bleaching. Not recom-
mended for soundboards.
hygrometer. Device that measures relative humidity. See also
“psychometer.”
impedance. See “wave impedance.”
individual eye. See “string loop.”
individually tied strings. Stringing the piano with one string
per speaking length. Each string has a loop in its end that ties
it to the hitch pin. Used in pianos by Bösendorfer, Grotrian,
and others. See also “double string,” “string loop.”
Glossary 501
inertial touch force (ITF). Index established by John Rhodes,
RPT and Darrell Fandrich, RPT that represents the force (ki-
netic energy) needed to overcome inertia of the action and
key. Typically between 200 and 300.
inharmonicity. A property of a stiff string, which raises the fre-
quency of its partials.
interval. The “difference in pitch” between two notes played
one after another (melodic interval) or simultaneously (har-
monic interval). See also “adjacent intervals,” “contiguous in-
tervals.”
ironing hammer felt. One of the final voicing procedures;
makes the sound focused and clean.
ITF. See “inertial touch force (ITF).”
Ivorine. Man-made ivory substitute for white key tops. Super-
seded by acrylic tops.
Ivorite®. Yamaha’s white key top material; mimics ivory’s po-
rousness.
ivory. Traditional white key top material derived from elephant
tusk. Ivory trade is banned worldwide.
jack. Part of the wippen that pushes the hammer shank and its
hammer toward the strings, and trips with its front part, also
known as “jack tender,” on the let off button. In grands, the
jack pushes the shank knuckle; in verticals, the hammer butt.
Also referred to as the “fly.” In German, Stosszunge (push
tongue). See also “jack tender,” “wippen,” “let off button,”
“knuckle,” “hammer butt.”
jack heel. See “jack tender.”
jack tender. The front part of the jack, which “escapes” as it
trips on the let off button. Also referred to as “jack heel.” See
also “jack.”
jack spring. Spiral spring between the wippen base and jack ten-
der in verticals.
jigsaw. Also called saber (or sabre) saw, the jigsaw is a handheld
cutting power tool. The maximum cutting width is limited, but
the cutting can be performed at an angle or follow an irregu-
larly shaped line.
Kapsel. In Viennese and other bumping-style actions, a metal
fork fastened to the back of the key, in which the hammer
shank pivots. See also “bumping action.”
key. Wooden lever that transmits the strikes of the player’s finger
to the action and the damper mechanism.
key bed. Part of the piano case that supports the keyboard and
action. In grands, the pedal lyre is suspended from the key
bed. Can also mean “front key punching” or “front baize.”
keyboard. A unit consisting of the key frame with key pins, vari-
ous felts and punchings, and the keys mounted onto it.
key bushing caul. See “caul.”
key bushing. Felt or leather lining glued to the wall of a mortise
in the front of a key, or a mortise in a key button in the middle
of a key. Key bushings limit and cushion the key’s sideways
motion. See also “easing key bushings.”
key button. A strip of wood glued to the middle of the top sur-
face of the key; a hole through it admits the balance pin and is
lined with cloth or leather bushings on either side. Also re-
ferred to as “key chase.”
key carriage. See “rocker.”
key chase (key chasing). See “key button.”
key dip. Key’s total vertical travel, measured at the front of the
key when the key is depressed with moderate force.
key end felt. Felt at the end of the grand key that lifts the
damper underlever.
key frame. Wooden frame that holds the keys.
502 Glossary Sample page from Pianos Inside Out. Copyright © 2013 Mario Igrec.
key-imbalance weight (KIW). Front weight (FW), in grams,
without any leads in the key. Positive if the key tilts forward,
otherwise negative. Typically 3–10 g.
key keeper. See “key stop rail.”
key pin. Metal pin installed in key frame; determines the posi-
tion of the key and the plane in which it swings. Front key pins
typically are oval and balance pins round. Front key pins are
also referred to as “bat pins.”
key rest felt. Cloth of felt on the back rail. Also referred to as
“Back rail cloth.”
key shoe. Hardwood strip glued to the middle of the bottom of
the key to strengthen the key’s balance hole.
key slip. Wooden board in front of the keyboard. Also referred
to as “lock rail.”
key stop rail. In grands, rail mounted over the front segments of
keys to prevent the keys from getting dislocated during a
move, and to prevent them from bouncing up too far during
loud, staccato playing. Also referred to as “key keeper.”
key top. Key covering.
key-weight ratio (KR). Ratio between the weight on the front of
the key, measured at the standard measurement position, and
the weight at the capstan needed to balance the key. Typically
0.45–0.60.
kick board. See “bottom panel.”
killer octave. See “melody octave.”
KIW. See “key-imbalance weight (KIW).”
Kluge. German keyboard manufacturer. See also “Tharan®.”
knuckle. A cylindrical piece of felt covered with leather, with a
wooden core that is glued into a slot on the underside of the
grand hammer shank. Being an interface between the jack
and the grand hammer shank, the knuckle allows escape-
ment. Also referred to as “roller.” See also “escapement,”
“double escapement.”
KR. See “key-weight ratio (KR).”
lacquer. Quick-drying, spray-on finishing material.
laminated. Composed of layers, or laminations. Laminated
wooden structures, such as pinblocks and bridges, resist
warping and cracking, and are structurally stronger than solid
boards. Adjacent wooden laminations are usually arranged so
their wood grains run perpendicular to each other. See also
“pinblock,” “bridge.”
lamp, heating. See “heating lamp.”
lead factor (LF). Expression (e.g., “14x0.65”) that shows how
much lead (e.g., 14 g) is placed where along the front or rear
key segment (e.g., 0.65 of the distance between the balance
hole and the key front).
leads. Weights used to balance the keys while regulating the key-
board, or permanently installed in keys to balance the weight
of the action parts and hammers.
lead weight (LW). Weight, in grams, of the lead or group of leads
installed in the key. First value in the lead factor (LF) expres-
sion, e.g., “14” in “14x0.65.” Typically 12–16 g for large (1/2" )
leads.
leg. Supports a grand piano. Some verticals are equipped with
legs that support the ends of the key bed.
leg plates. A pair of metal plates used to attach legs to a grand pi-
ano. The plate on the leg usually has a protruding, wedge-
shaped flange that wedges into an inversely shaped opening
in the plate mounted on the piano. Also referred to as “lock
plates,” “cleats.”
let off. The highest point (closest to the strings) of the hammer
travel supported by the jack. Also referred to as “set off.” See
also “drop,” “blow distance,” “aftertouch.”
let off button. Device for regulating the let off. Also referred to
as “set off button.”
letter-coded drill bits. System of coding the size of drill bits “be-
tween” the ordinary inch-fractional and wire-gauge sizes.
level. Property of a finish to spread evenly and create a smooth
surface. Slow-drying finishes, such as varnishes and ure-
thanes, level well; fast-drying finishes, such as lacquer, don’t.
Finishes that level well on horizontal surfaces tend to run and
sag when applied too heavily to vertical surfaces. See also “or-
ange peel.”
leveling strings. Adjusting the strings of a unison to be on the
horizontal plane at the hammer strike point.
lever. See “damper underlever.” Also can mean “wippen.”
lever block. See “wippen heel.”
LF. See “lead factor (LF).”
lid. Panel that covers the top of the piano. In grands, the lid con-
sists of two panels, the front lid and the main lid. The key-
board lid is called the “fallboard.” Also referred to as “top.”
lid latch. In grands, the hook and knob in the bentside that latch
the lid to the case. Also referred to as “turnbuckle.”
lid prop. Lid-supporting rod attached to the inside of the case in
grand pianos. Most grands have two props: a regular one, and
a shorter one to be used in chamber music and piano accom-
paniment. Vertical lid props are usually very short. Also re-
ferred to as “prop stick.”
lid prop cup. In grands, a wooden or metal piece on the under-
side of the large lid that receives the end of the lid prop. Also
referred to as “prop stick boss.”
lifter rod. Wooden linkage between the key capstan or rocker
and the wippen in tall uprights. See also “sticker.”
lifting. See “damper lift.”
limit, elastic. See “elastic limit.”
linesman pliers. “Universal” pliers that can be used for grasp-
ing objects as well as cutting them.
linkage of pedals. See “trapwork.”
listing. See “stringing braid.”
lock bar. In grands, rail on the front lid; in verticals sometimes
used for “key slip.” Also referred to as “lock rail.”
lock board. In grands, “stretcher” or “lock bar”; in verticals,
“key slip.”
lock plates. See “leg plates,” “lyre plates.”
lock rail. See “lock bar.”
lock washer. A metal washer that prevents the screw or bolt
from loosening by introducing a spring action between the
screw’s head and the surface. Lock washers can be split or
bent.
long bridge. Piano bridge that connects the strings to the sound-
board and spans the treble and middle sections.
loop. See “string loop.”
lubricant. Material that decreases friction between parts that
make contact. Lubricants not only free the mechanism, but re-
duce its wear.
LW. See “lead weight (LW).”
lyre. In grand pianos, houses the pedals, and is hung from the
key bed.
lyre braces. Wooden or metal struts between the back of the
lyre and key bed, used for countering foot pressure on the
pedals. Also referred to as “lyre stays.”
Sample page from Pianos Inside Out. Copyright © 2013 Mario Igrec.
lyre plates. A pair of cast-iron plates used for attaching the lyre
to the grand piano. The plate on the lyre usually has a pro-
truding, wedge-shaped flange that wedges into an inversely
shaped opening in the plate mounted to the underside of the
key bed. Also referred to as “lock plates,” “cleats.”
lyre stays. See “lyre braces.”
marker. See “paint marker.”
masking tape. Opaque, whitish adhesive tape used for covering
and protecting a piano’s parts and case during painting. Useful
for temporarily marking parts, string gauge numbers, sound-
board separations and cracks, etc.
Material Safety Data Sheet (MSDS). Document describing a
substance’s composition, physical properties, toxicity, health
effects, first aid, and other information. Available directly from
manufacturers of chemical products or through various on-
line resources. A comprehensive list can be found at
http://www.ilpi.com/msds/.
mating hammers to strings. Adjusting the shape of the ham-
mer crown to simultaneously strike all strings in a unison.
MEE. See “Moisture Excluding Effectiveness (MEE).”
melody octave. A range within the lower treble section, approxi-
mately from C5 to E6, where melodies are often presented in
romantic music, but that often has weak volume and sustain.
metal shoe. See “shoe.”
Mirror Glaze®. Line of finish-buffing products made by
Meguiar’s.
missing note. A condition in which the hammer jams and
doesn’t strike the strings when a note is played; usually hap-
pens when the note is quickly repeated, or played loudly after
the key has been slowly released.
moderator pedal/rail. Mechanism in some vertical and, less
commonly, grand pianos that mutes the sound by inserting a
felt or cloth between the hammers and strings. The moderator
is operated either by a hand-operated lever or the middle
pedal. Also referred to as “practice,” “celeste,” or “muffler”
pedal/rail. See also “pedal.”
Moisture Excluding Effectiveness (MEE). A measure of a fin-
ish’s ability to slow the exchange of water vapor between the
coated piece and the surrounding air, expressed as a percent-
age of total effectiveness for a particular species of wood. A
finish with an MEE of 100% would completely seal the coated
piece and prevent any exchange of water vapor. MEE in-
creases with the number of coats applied.
molding. See “hammer molding.”
monkey. See “sostenuto monkey.”
Moto-Tool. See “Dremel®.”
muffler rail. See “moderator pedal/rail.”
music rack (music desk). Stand for sheet music.
muslin. Material for soft buffing wheels.
mute. A device for muting strings during tuning. Felt or rubber
wedges are used in grands; Papps mute, rubber mutes with a
handle, and leather-covered wooden mutes in verticals. See
also “temperament strip.”
mutton tallow. Sheep grease; used as a lubricant.
nap. Orientation of “grain” that makes leather smooth in one di-
rection and rough in the other.
needling hammers. Voicing procedure to soften and/or in-
crease the resilience of the hammer felt.
nippers. Wire-cutting pliers.
noise. Sound of no detectable pitch; comprising a continuously
varying spectrum of frequencies.
nose. See “plate horn.”
Glossary 503
nose. Tip of the hammer. See “crown.”
nose bolt. Device that supports the plate or its struts. Also re-
ferred to as “pillar bolt.”
nose bolt nut. Nut, often decorative, that attaches the plate or
plate strut to a nose bolt. Also referred to as “rose.”
notching. See “bridge notching.”
oblong tuning pins. Tuning pins in old pianos and harpsichords
with a flattened top end instead of the modern square tip.
Octagrip pinblock. Multi-laminated pinblock material made by
Northwest Piano Builders. The wood grains of the laminations
run at 45° to each other.
octave. An interval in which the first partial of the upper note is
at the same frequency as the second partial of the lower note.
This frequency is approximately twice that of the first partial
of the lower note. See also “chromatic scale.”
octave register. Any 12 adjacent chromatic notes bound by an
octave. Octave registers are usually expressed as 12-note
ranges that ascend from any note C. In an electronic tuning de-
vice, the octave register must be defined to increase the accu-
racy of the device’s measurements.
octave tuning. Tuning of octaves after setting the temperament
in the middle section of the piano.
octaves, stretched. See “stretched octaves.”
offset bridge. Bass bridge with a shelf or apron. See also “bass
bridge.”
open-face pinblock. Pinblock in older pianos and several
brands of modern pianos that is not covered by the plate.
orange peel. Effect evident on finished surfaces, especially
those sprayed with a fast-drying finish such as lacquer. Or-
ange peel afflicts finishes that don’t level well. See also “level.”
orbital sander. Power sander that moves the sanding element in
a circular pattern. Not recommended for sanding wood, for
which only straight-line or belt sanders should be used.
outer rim. See “case.”
oval pin. See “key pin.”
over-centering of hammers. Condition caused by the ham-
mer’s length, from shank to tip, being shorter than the vertical
distance between the strings at strike point and the hammer
shank’s center pin. Over-centering is a consequence of the
hammers wearing out or being incorrectly drilled.
overdamping action. Vertical action in which the damper mech-
anism is above the action, not behind it, as in Wornum’s tape-
check action. Also called “bird cage action.”
over-stringing. The bass strings cross over the strings in the
tenor (middle) section. All modern pianos are over-strung.
Also referred to as “cross-stringing.” See also “straight-string-
ing,” “bass section.”
overtones. Sounds generated by a vibrating string. Also referred
to as “aliquotes” and “partials.”
paint thinner. Mineral spirits used for dissolving varnishes.
pan-head screw. Screw with a flat head with rounded edges that
protrudes above the surface. Pan heads are usually found on
sheet-metal screws.
Papps mute. Spring-loaded, tweezer-like mute made of plastic
for muting the strings in vertical pianos during tuning.
parlor grand. Medium-size grand piano, usually between 5' 8"
[173 cm] and 7' [213 cm] long.
partials. See “overtones.”
particleboard. Panel made of wooden particles glued together.
Used in cheap pianos.
504 Glossary Sample page from Pianos Inside Out. Copyright © 2013 Mario Igrec.
PC-7. Epoxy paste that can be used as a filler between the pin-
block and the plate flange.
pedal. Foot lever that lifts all dampers (“damper” or “sustain”
pedal; right), shifts the key frame sideways to soften the tone
(“soft” pedal in grands; left), reduces the hammer-blow dis-
tance (“soft” pedal in verticals; usually left), holds only cer-
tain notes (“sostenuto” pedal; middle), or inserts the modera-
tor cloth between the hammers and strings to mute the sound
(“moderator” pedal; usually middle).
pedal rocker. In vertical pianos, horizontal linkage between a
pedal and a pedal rod.
pedal rod. Vertical linkage between the pedal and a mechanism
it actuates. Modern pedal rods in grands are usually equipped
with adjustable nuts at the top that allow simple regulation of
the pedals.
petroleum jelly. Lubricant used on the threads of screws and
bolts.
Phillips-head screw. Screw with X-shaped head slot. Requires a
Phillips screwdriver.
piano. Stringed percussion instrument with a keyboard; also
used as a dynamic marking in music, meaning to “play softly.”
pianoforte. Term for the instrument derived from Cristofori’s
original invention, which he called a gravicembalo col piano e
forte (harpsichord with soft and loud).
Piano Technicians Guild (PTG). Organization of piano techni-
cians and professionals. See also “Technicians’ Organizations”
on page 523.
pillar bolt. See “nose bolt.”
pilot. See “capstan.”
pilot notes. See “guide notes.”
pinblock. Laminated block of hardwood that holds tuning pins
and prevents them from unwinding under the strings’ tension.
Also referred to as “wrest plank.”
pitch. Frequency of sound, expressed in hertz, e.g., “440 Hz,” or
as a musical note, e.g., “A4.” In the context of action geometry,
an angle, as seen from the side, between the center line run-
ning through the hammer and an imaginary line perpendicu-
lar to the shank that intersects the shank at the middle of the
hammer molding. The angle toward the player is negative
pitch; toward the belly rail, positive pitch. Most hammers
have a 0° pitch angle, but those with positive rake usually
have negative pitch to make the hammer perpendicular to
the strings at strike. See also “rake.”
pitch raise. A process of increasing string tensions to tune a pi-
ano to match a higher frequency of a reference note, such as
A4. Requires compensating for pitch drop, which occurs at dif-
ferent rates in different sections of the piano.
plate. A metal structure inside the piano on which the strings are
suspended. Modern pianos have a three-quarter (up to but
not over the pinblock) or full-size (over the pinblock) plate
made of iron cast in one piece. Also referred to as “frame,” es-
pecially in the context of antique pianos.
plate horn. Called “iron frame nose” in C.F. Theodor Steinway’s
U.S. patent 204,106 (1878), this part of the cast-iron plate trans-
fers the compression force from the plate to the metal shoe in
the belly rail, which transfers the force through the beams to
the rim and back to the plate. The plate horn is usually lo-
cated in the bass/tenor break. Some pianos have two plate
horns, notably old Mason & Hamlin concert grands model CC.
plate webbing. Area of the piano plate around the tuning pins.
player piano. Piano capable of reproducing music. Popular in
the early 20th century, mechanical player pianos used paper
rolls. Holes punched in the roll caused a pneumatic mecha-
nism to actuate hammers. Electronic reproducing pianos such
as Yamaha’s Disklavier and Bösendorfer CEUS® both record
and reproduce music. They record to a removable electronic
medium and provide a MIDI hookup. Newer models can be
linked to a personal computer.
plinth. In verticals, the rail with holes for pedals that supports
the bottom panel.
power tools. Tools powered by an electrical motor.
practice pedal. See “moderator pedal/rail.”
Premium Blue. Trade name for hammers made by Louis Ren-
ner GmbH exclusively for Renner USA.
pressure bar. A vertical protrusion in a horizontal area of the
plate, typically over the pinblock; an extension of a strut.
pressure bars. Metal bars that clamp down the strings under
the tuning pins in vertical pianos.
pressure ridges. Ridges that form in the soundboard as a result
of high humidity causing excessive compression, which
crushes the board’s wood fibers.
projection of sound. The “carrying power” or volume of sound,
as perceived in a larger hall away from the piano.
prolonge. See “abstract.”
prop stick. See “lid prop.”
prop stick boss. See “lid prop cup.”
Protek™. Line of lubricants carried by Pianotek.
psychometer. Device for measuring “relative humidity” in the
air by comparing the temperatures taken by conventional and
wet-bulb thermometers. See also “hygrometer.”
PTG. See “Piano Technicians Guild (PTG).”
pulley key. Key with elongated balance hole, which causes it to
move from front to back during playing.
punching. Felt, cloth, paper, or cardboard cut in a circular shape
with a hole punched through the center. Used on balance and
front key pins, under the keys. Cloth or felt punchings should
be above the cardboard and paper punchings. Also referred
to as “washer.” In the UK, front rail punching is referred to as
“front baize.”
push action. Also known as Stossmechanik, this action style was
pioneered by Cristofori, inspired many forms of the English-
style action in the last quarter of the 18th century, and eventu-
ally led to the development of Érard’s double-escapement ac-
tion. See also “bumping action.”
PVA glue. Polyvinyl acetate glue, such as regular white glue, var-
ious wood glues, etc.
PVC-E glue. Polyvinyl chloride glue used for gluing felts, leath-
ers, and key tops.
quarter-sawing. Sawing lumber in quarters first along the
length, then radially cutting individual boards out of each
quarter, across the grain. Quarter-sawing produces straight, di-
mensionally stable boards that resist warping.
R. See “strike-weight ratio (R).”
R.H. See “relative humidity.”
rails. See “action rails.”
rake. An angle, as seen from the side, that the hammer shank
forms with an imaginary line that passes through the shank
center pin and is parallel with the string at strike. Most pianos
have a 0° rake. Those that have positive rake also have a nega-
tive pitch angle. See also “pitch.”
rattling soundboard. Condition caused by the soundboard sep-
arating from its ribs or the rim (frame). Rattles can also be
caused by debris on the soundboard, and by separations in
the bridges or between the bridges and the soundboard.
Sample page from Pianos Inside Out. Copyright © 2013 Mario Igrec.
rebuilding. Reconditioning the piano to its original or better
condition.
recrowning the soundboard. Rebuilding procedure to restore
the soundboard’s convex shape.
regular-fit pinblock. Style of attaching the grand pinblock to the
rim or frame on each end of the block, but not to the stretcher.
reinforcement of hammer felt. Chemical treatment that stiffens
the low shoulders of piano hammers. In cheap hammers, the
“reinforcement” is merely dye.
relative humidity. The amount of humidity (water vapor) in the
air relative to the maximum amount of vapor air can retain at
a given temperature, expressed as a percentage followed by
the letters “RH,” e.g., “50% RH.”
repetition. See “wippen.”
repetition lever. Feature of the modern double-escapement
grand action: lever on top of the grand wippen that allows the
jack to reposition under the shank knuckle without releasing
the key all the way to its idle position. Also referred to as “bal-
ancier,” “bridge,” “carriage,” “cradle.” In the UK, “repetition
lever” typically refers to “wippen.”
reproducing piano. See “player piano.”
resetting hammer. Hammering the felt of the hammer around
its crown (top) after needling it.
resonance. Effect exhibited by objects that spontaneously start
to vibrate when another object vibrates at a certain fre-
quency. Vibrations of the two objects are sympathetic, or at
the same frequency. “Tuning” one object (for example, adjust-
ing a string’s length, thickness, or tension) can bring it in reso-
nance with another or prevent it from resonating. The entire
piano can be viewed as a set of resonating or non-resonating
objects whose interactions must be carefully controlled to
produce the desired sound.
resonator, tension. See “Tension Resonator.”
RH. See “relative humidity.”
ribs. Wooden “beams” glued to the underside of the sound-
board. Ribs stiffen the soundboard across the grain, and help
crown the soundboard.
rider. See “rocker.”
ridges, pressure. See “pressure ridges.”
rim. Wooden structure, usually of laminated hardwood, that de-
fines the shape of the grand piano and serves as the founda-
tion on which to mount the soundboard, plate, key bed, and
case. Usually made in two stages: inner rim, and outer rim or
case. Steinway & Sons makes the inner and outer rim in one
operation. See also “case.”
rocker. A piece of wood attached to the key that permits the ad-
justment of abstracts, which link keys with wippens. A rocker
has a protrusion in the middle of its bottom surface that acts
as a fulcrum. The screws with which it is fastened to the key at
each end permit adjustment of the height of the wippen and,
therefore, the hammer-blow distance. Also referred to as “key
carriage,” “rider.” See also “abstract,” “pedal rocker.”
rods. See “pedal rods.”
roller. See “knuckle.”
rose. See “nose bolt nut.”
rotary tool. High speed, hand held power tool that can be used
for engraving, shaping, sanding, cutting, and drilling. A popu-
lar model is made by Dremel.
rouge buffing compound. A very fine buffing compound that
produces the ultimate shine on metal objects.
rough-regulating. Action regulation performed after replacing
action parts.
Glossary 505
router. Handheld or stationary power tool for cutting notches of
various profiles and for trimming laminates. In piano rebuild-
ing, used for trimming new bridge caps and new, oversize
white key tops.
rubbing. Procedure after finishing a surface to either satinize the
surface or prepare it for buffing.
sander. Power sanding tool. See also “belt sander,” “orbital
sander,” “vibrating sander.”
sanding sealer. Finishing material, used to fill the wooden sur-
face before applying the top coats of the finish; usually
sprayed on.
sandpaper. Paper coated with abrasives, used for sanding, shap-
ing, and cleaning various surfaces.
satinize. Rub a finished surface with an abrasive and/or steel
wool to give it a satiny sheen. Especially desirable for lac-
quered surfaces.
sawhorse. Stand for temporarily supporting a piano or its parts.
scale design. Term that describes all aspects of piano stringing:
the thickness of strings for each note, their lengths, spacing,
etc. Usually referred to in the context of string thicknesses
and their distribution throughout the scale.
Schwander. See “Herrburger-Schwander.”
seating the string. Bending a string slightly to improve its con-
tact with the bearing points: V bar, outside the bridge pins,
and on each side of plate flanges and duplex terminations.
semi-concert grand. Grand piano approximately 7' 4" [223 cm]
long.
set off. See “let off.”
shank. See “hammer shanks.”
shank rest felt (or cloth). Strip of soft cloth (baize) on shank
rest rail, also referred to as “hammer rest felt”; in Steinway
grands, soft felt squares glued to shank rest felt bases in wip-
pens, also referred to as “hammer cushion.”
shank rest rail. Rail under hammer shanks, covered with shank
rest cloth. Also referred to as “hammer rest rail.” A Steinway &
Sons grand has no rest rail; each wippen is equipped with a
shank rest felt, also referred to as “hammer rest felt.” See also
“half-blow rail.”
shank strike weight (SS). Radius weight, in grams, of the shank
itself. Typically 1.5–2.0 g. See also “hammer strike weight
(SW),” “strike weight.”
shank weight ratio (SR). Ratio between the hammer strike
weight and the knuckle lift force needed to suspend the ham-
mer. The knuckle lift force is a force applied to the knuckle
perpendicular to the knuckle tangent that passes through the
shank center pin.
sharp. Black key covering or the whole black key. See also
“black key.”
sheet-metal screws. Screws with coarse, uniform threads and a
straight shank; commonly used for fastening action parts, and
in soundboard repairs.
shelf. See “bass bridge shelf.”
shellac. Finishing material used for French polish.
shifting key frame. In most grands, the key frame shifts side-
ways when the soft (left) pedal is depressed. This softens the
sound because the hammers move sideways and miss one
string in each unison, or strike the strings between the dense,
grooved areas of the hammer felt.
shift pedal. See “soft pedal.”
shimming. Filling cracks in the soundboard; inserting wedges in
the long bridge; filling a crack or gap between any two parts.
506 Glossary Sample page from Pianos Inside Out. Copyright © 2013 Mario Igrec.
shoe. Metal piece in the belly rail that joins the beams and con-
nects them to the plate horn. The part of the shoe that pro-
trudes through the belly rail into the action cavity is called the
“toe.”
shoulders. Areas of the hammer felt responsible for the re-
bounding of hammers from strings. See also “hammer mold-
ing,” “crown.”
silent piano. Acoustic piano that allows muting the strings with
a rail that blocks the hammers before they reach the strings.
The piano is equipped with sensors and electronics that make
it work like a digital piano; it can be used with headphones,
and connected to a PC via a MIDI interface.
silicone lubricants. Lubricants for metal and felt.
single strings. See “individually tied strings.”
sizing solution. A solution that improves the fit of porous mate-
rials. A sizing solution can be used to free tight key balance
holes, key bushings, and center pin bushings; or to tighten key
balance holes and key bushings when slightly loose. A good
sizing solution for felt, leather, and wood is a 50% to 90% solu-
tion of alcohol and water. Note that all commercially available
alcohol already contains some amount of water.
slap rail. See “stop rail.”
slapping key frame. Key frame that generates “slapping” noises
when the piano is played loudly. Typically, the noises are
caused by gaps between the front rail and the key bed.
sleeves. See “threaded sleeves.”
SMP. See “standard measurement position (SMP).”
soft pedal. Left pedal, often called the “shift pedal” in grands,
which softens the sound either by shifting the keyboard and
the action sideways, or by reducing the hammer-blow dis-
tance (also referred to as “half-blow pedal”), thus reducing
the hammers’ speed at impact. See also “pedal,” “una corda
pedal.”
sostenuto. Mechanism that lets one or more notes ring while
other notes are played normally. With one or more keys de-
pressed, the player depresses the sostenuto pedal, and the
sostenuto mechanism keeps those dampers lifted. Other
notes are damped normally, and can be played with or with-
out the damper pedal. Sostenuto is found in most longer
grands and in high-end uprights.
sostenuto monkey. Felt-and-leather-covered wooden linkage at-
tached to the sostenuto rod in New York Steinway grands.
sostenuto staple. A wire that connects the sostenuto monkey
with the sostenuto rod in most Steinway & Sons grands made
in New York.
sostenuto tab. Protruding part attached to the underlever top
flange that is caught by the sostenuto rod when that under-
lever is lifted and the sostenuto pedal is engaged.
soundboard. Wooden board that transduces the energy of
string vibrations to the air. Also referred to as “belly.”
soundboard rib. One of multiple wooden bars glued to the bot-
tom of the soundboard to stiffen it across the grain and make
it bow upward. Also referred to as “belly bar.”
sound decay. See “decay.”
sound envelope. Sound quality through time. See also “attack,”
“bloom,” “decay,” and “sustain.”
spine. Long, flat side of the case in grand pianos. See also “bent-
side,” “cheek,” “tail.”
spinet. Short vertical piano only a little taller than the keyboard
(36–42" [91–107 cm]). See also “vertical piano,” “console verti-
cal,” “upright piano.”
spun string. See “wound string.”
squaring the hammer. Heating and twisting the hammer shank
to align the hammer’s center line with the plane in which it
moves. See also “burning the shank.”
squaring keys. Aligning sides of keys to vertical plane as part of
a keyboard regulation.
SR. See “shank weight ratio (SR).”
standard measurement position (SMP). Position 13 mm in
from front edge on white key top, or from the front slope on
black key top. See also “balance weight (BW),” “downweight
(DW),” “touchweight (TW),” “upweight (UW).”
staple. See “sostenuto staple.”
stay. Brace or other device that keeps another part from moving.
See also “lyre stays.”
steaming keys. Technique for removing key bushings.
stem. Wire.
sticker. A wooden linkage between the key capstan or rocker
and the wippen in tall uprights. Stickers were also used as
damper lifters in “bird cage” vertical actions. See also “bird-
cage action,” “rocker,” “wippen.”
stop rail. Any rail that stops the motion of another part. Also re-
ferred to as “slap rail.” See also “damper stop rail.”
straight-stringing. Stringing design in antique pianos and all
harpsichords in which all strings are laid out more or less par-
allel to each other. Modern pianos are over-strung.
straps, bridle. See “bridle straps.”
stretched octaves. The effect of string inharmonicity, which re-
quires tuning intervals “wider” (upper note higher or lower
note lower) than they theoretically should be tuned.
stretcher. Structural board in grands behind the open fallboard
and in front of the pinblock. Also referred to as “cornice,”
“lock board.”
string loop. A loop tied on the end of the string, used to attach
the string to the hitch pin. In pianos with individually tied
strings, each string has a loop; in pianos with double strings,
an occasional plain string has a loop. Wound strings always
have a loop and are tied individually. Also referred to as “indi-
vidual eye.”
strike point. The spot on the string where it is struck by the
hammer, expressed as a ratio between the length from the
front string bearing (the V bar, agraffe, or the raised plate
flange) to the strike point, and the length from the strike point
to the front bridge pin. Usually, that ratio is between 1:8 and
1:10 in the middle section and the bass, diminishing to as little
as 1:25 in the treble. Also can mean “tip of the hammer” or
“hammer nose.”
strike weight. Term established by David Stanwood to indicate
the “effective” weight of action parts. The strike weight of a
hammer, for example, is the combined radius weight of the
hammer and shank without the weight of the flange. See also
“front weight (FW),” “hammer strike weight (SW),” “shank
strike weight (SS),” “touchweight (TW),” “wippen radius
weight (WW).”
strike-weight ratio (R). Ratio between balance weight (BW)
plus front weight (FW), and leveraged strike weight (SW) plus
leveraged wippen radius weight (WW). Typically 5.2–6.2 (5.2:1
to 6.2:1).
string. Steel wire with high carbon content. Bass strings are regu-
lar steel strings wrapped with a copper coil.
string bearing. Any point around which a string bends along its
path: tuning pin, counterbearing, V bar, agraffe, pressure bar
(in verticals), bridge and bridge pin, duplex termination, hitch
pin.
Sample page from Pianos Inside Out. Copyright © 2013 Mario Igrec.
stringing braid. Cloth threaded between strings to deaden their
rear segments (backscale). Stringing braid is also used be-
tween hammer shank flanges and the tubular shank rail in
Steinway grands. Also referred to as “listing.”
stringing stud. See “agraffe.”
stripper, chemical. See “chemical stripper.”
strut. A cross-member or brace in a piano plate, cast in one
piece with the plate in modern pianos. Also referred to as
“crossbar.”
stud. See “agraffe.”
superglue. See “cyanoacrylate glue.”
surform plane. Tool similar to a regular plane, but equipped
with a grater-like cutting element on its underside.
sustain. Length of time a note is audible. Applied to a piano’s
tonal envelope, a phase that follows attack and decay. The be-
ginning of the sustain phase is often referred to as “bloom.”
See also “attack,” “bloom,” “decay,” “sound envelope.”
sustain pedal. See “damper pedal.”
SW. See “strike weight,” “hammer strike weight (SW).”
swaging. In wound bass strings, flattening a round steel core
wire to create a rectangular profile the winding can grab onto;
without swaging, the winding would slide off unless the core
wire is “whipped,” a technique popular in older pianos (Fig-
ure 84 on page 35). Swaging is not necessary if the core wire is
of hexagonal profile. See also “bass string.”
tail. In grands, hammer molding under the shank hole; part of
the case on the side opposite the keyboard. Also referred to
as “heel.” See also “bentside,” “cheek,” “spine.”
talcum powder. Used as lubricant, or to absorb moisture from
one’s hands during restringing.
tape-check action. Action in which the repetition and returning
of the hammer to rest position is helped by a tape or strip of
leather. Patented by Hermann Lichtenthal of Brussels, Bel-
gium, subsequently used by Robert Wornum in his vertical pi-
anos.
temperament. A 12-note chromatic scale; tuning corrections
(“tempering”) needed to distribute the 12 adjacent notes of a
chromatic scale so that the intervals between them have par-
ticular beat rates on the level of particular partial pairs (see
“Coincident Partials,” page 96).
temperament strip. A strip of thin felt used for tuning the tem-
perament in the middle section of the piano. See also “mute.”
tender. See “jack tender.”
tensile strength. String tension at which a string breaks.
Tension Resonator. A device found in Mason & Hamlin pianos,
consisting of metal rods with turnbuckles and a metal disc in
the center, which pulls the rim and the belly rail inward.
Tharan®. Key top material made by Kluge.
thermoplastic glues. Glues that soften or melt when heated. All
PVA glues are thermoplastic to some extent. Low-creep PVAs
are less thermoplastic, which makes them easier to sand.
thinner. Liquid used to dilute a finish or contact glue. Common
thinners are alcohol for shellac, paint thinner for varnishes,
lacquer thinner and acetone for lacquer finishes. Two-compo-
nent finishes require proprietary thinners.
threaded sleeves. Metal inserts, threaded with a coarse thread
on the outside and a fine, machine thread on the inside, used
for machine screws in wooden parts.
three-quarter plate. Plate in pre-modern pianos that extends to,
but not over the pinblock.
tie wire. See “bridle wire.”
timbre. Sound quality or sound “color.”
Glossary 507
toe. Tip of the metal shoe that protrudes through the front of the
belly rail. The plate horn is attached to it with a metal wedge.
toluol (toluene). Solvent used in finishing products and adhe-
sives. Faster-drying than xylol.
toning. See “voicing.”
top. See “lid.”
top door. See “upper panel.”
top stack. The assembly mounted on the grand key frame: ac-
tion brackets and rails (action rack), action parts, and the sos-
tenuto brackets and rail in New York Steinways. Also referred
to as “action stack.” See also “action.”
touchweight (TW). Term used to denote the same amount of
change or effect on downweight (DW), upweight (UW), and
balance weight (BW).
trapwork. Levers mounted on the underside of the key bed in
grand pianos that link the pedals with the damper, sostenuto,
una corda, or other mechanism.
traveling. Adjusting the swing plane of action parts by shimming
their flanges.
trichord. Three strings tuned to the same pitch. See also “bi-
chord.”
tripoli. Very fine abrasive used as lubricant and buffing com-
pound.
Tubular Metallic Frame. Steinway’s patented action frame (U.S.
patents no. 81,306 for vertical action and no. 93,647 for grand
action, issued in 1868 and 1869, respectively, to Theodor Stein-
way). The frame consists of metal action brackets and action
rails that are hardwood dowels encased in brass tubing of spe-
cial profile. The rails are soldered to the racks and are not ad-
justable.
tuning. Adjusting the pitch of each string of a piano.
tuning hammer. Tuning wrench.
tuning pin. Metal dowel inserted through the plate into a hole in
the pinblock that suspends the string and permits adjustment
of its tension. Modern tuning pins are lightly threaded, have a
hole for the string becket, and a square top end. Also referred
to as “wrest pin.” See also “flagpoling.”
turnbuckle. In grands, knob in the bentside that latches the lid
to the case. See also “lid latch.”
TW. See “touchweight (TW).”
twisting bass string. Bass strings must be twisted in the direc-
tion in which their copper wrappings point in order to tighten
the wrapping and prevent it from rattling against the steel
core.
two-component finish. A modern finish that hardens through a
chemical reaction between two components. A two-compo-
nent finish commonly used on pianos is polyester.
ultrasonic humidifier. Humidifier that disperses water into the
air using a membrane that vibrates at ultrasonic frequencies.
una corda pedal. Italian for “one string”; a term used for “ac-
tion-shifting soft pedal.” It originates from a time when two
strings per unison were common, and shifting a grand’s key-
board and action sideways caused the hammer to miss one of
the strings. In modern pianos with three strings per unison in
the tenor and treble sections, the shifting makes hammers
strike two of three strings, or strike all three strings with the
softer areas of the hammer felt. See also “pedal,” “soft pedal.”
undercarriage. See “wippen.”
underlever. See “damper underlever.”
unison. An interval between a note and itself. In piano construc-
tion, refers to “all strings of one note.” The bass section can be
strung with one, two, or three strings per unison. Lowest tenor
508 Glossary Sample page from Pianos Inside Out. Copyright © 2013 Mario Igrec.
unisons have two or three strings, and the rest of the piano
three strings per unison.
upper panel. In vertical pianos, a vertical panel that encloses
the top part of the piano, above the fallboard, from the front.
Also referred to as “top door.”
upright piano. Vertical piano, taller than ca. 46" [117 cm]. See
also “vertical piano,” “console vertical,” “spinet.”
upweight (UW). Amount of weight, in grams, placed on the key
at the standard measurement position, that the key will lift on
its own to the key dip of about 4 mm. Typically 20–32 g. See
also “balance weight (BW),” “downweight (DW),” “standard
measurement position (SMP),” “touchweight (TW).”
V bar. Bottom portion of the capo tasto bar; acts as a front string
termination.
vertical piano. Piano whose soundboard, plate, and strings are
laid vertically. Considered inferior to the grand piano, mainly
because the action in verticals doesn’t perform as well as the
grand action. See also “upright piano,” “console vertical,”
“spinet,” “grand piano.”
vibrating sander. Power tool for sanding various surfaces.
Avoid using an orbital sander on wooden surfaces because it
vibrates in a circular pattern and tears wood fibers. Instead,
use a straight-line sander parallel to wood grain.
voice-down hammers. Dense hammers that require reducing
their tonal brightness, or “voicing them down,” by needling
their felts.
voice-up hammers. Less dense hammers that require increas-
ing their tonal brightness, or “voicing them up,” typically by
applying a chemical hardening agent to their felts.
voicing. Adjusting the tonal qualities of a piano by manipulating
the shape, density, and resilience of the hammers, and adjust-
ing their interface with the strings. Other techniques may be
used to even out the voicing, such as adjusting the string
downbearing, mass-loading the soundboard, changing the im-
pedance of the soundboard assembly, reshaping and harden-
ing the V bar, rescaling the piano, tuning the rear duplex, etc.
Also referred to as “toning.”
vortex chiller. Device that chills compressed air. Used to cool
down cutting tools in applications that generate a lot of heat,
e.g., pinblock drilling.
washer. See “punching.”
water separator. Device that removes the moisture condensed
in the air compressor.
wave impedance. Property of the soundboard and bridges that
causes energy to be reflected back to the vibrating string, thus
softening the attack and prolonging the sustain of sound. See
also “cutoff bar,” “fish.”
WD-40®. Water-displacing agent and mild lubricant. Does not
contain silicones.
webbing. See “plate webbing.”
wedge for key bushings. See “caul.”
weighting of keys. Procedure for determining the weight that
needs to be installed in, or removed from, each key to pro-
duce optimal response of keyboard and action.
Weldbond®. Trade name for a strong PVA glue.
Wetordry™. Sandpaper made by 3M Company that can be used
for wet or dry sanding.
whipped bass string. Bass string in which the winding is first
loosely wound toward the end of the core wire, then tightly
wound in the opposite direction, over the first winding (Figure
84, page 35). Whipping prevents the winding from sliding on
the core wire without the core being swaged, as is customar-
ily done today. Whipping also may lower inharmonicity in
bass strings. See also “bass string,” “wound string.”
wippen. Device that links the key with the hammer shank and
hammer. Consists of the wippen base, wippen heel, wippen
flange, and the jack with its spring and, in grands, repetition
lever and the repetition spring. In verticals, the wippen car-
ries the jack, backcheck, and bridle strap hook in the front,
and the damper spoon in the back. Also referred to as “lever.”
wippen heel. Part of the wippen base that rests on the key cap-
stan. Also referred to as “lever block.”
wippen radius weight (WW). Effective weight, in grams, of the
wippen, measured at the center of the heel. Typically 17–21 g.
See also “hammer strike weight (SW),” “shank strike weight
(SS),” “strike weight.”
wippen rail. Rail, usually of wood or aluminum, to which the
wippens are affixed.
wippen stack weight (WSW). The weight with which the wip-
pen, with the hammer and shank on it, presses the key cap-
stan: (SW × SR × WR) + WW.
wippen weight ratio (WR). The ratio between the force applied
to the jack by the knuckle (assuming the force is perpendicu-
lar to the line between the shank center pin and the top of the
jack) and the lift force at the wippen heel felt to keep the wip-
pen in balance. Typically around 1.5.
winding. A winding of copper, steel, or aluminum, used on bass
strings to slow their rate of vibration without reducing the ten-
sion at which they are stretched. See also “bass strings,”
“whipped bass string,” “wound string.”
wire gauge. Numbers used to indicate string thickness. Piano
strings normally range from #13 for the highest notes to be-
tween #19 and #23 for the lowest notes in the tenor section.
String gauges in quality pianos are distributed in half num-
bers, e.g., #13, #13.5, #14, #14.5, etc., up to #17 or #18, and in
whole numbers thereafter.
wire tie. A piece of pliable metal or plastic wire lined with paper
or plastic, used to tie plastic bags and food items by wrapping
the tie around the piece(s) and twisting its ends together.
wood fibers. Cellular strands, also referred to as “wood grain,”
that give wood its strength along their length. Excessive dry-
ness causes wood fibers to separate from each other, resulting
in cracks.
wound string. Also referred to as “spun string.” See “bass
string,” “winding.”
WR. See “wippen weight ratio (WR).”
wrest pin. See “tuning pin.”
wrest plank. See “pinblock.”
WSW. See “wippen stack weight (WSW).”
xylol (xylene). Solvent used in finishing materials and adhe-
sives. Slower-drying than toluol.
yellow wood glue. A thermoplastic PVA glue suitable for wood
joints that are not exposed to continuous stress.
Sample page from Pianos Inside Out. Copyright © 2013 Mario Igrec. 517

Appendix D

Resources

Note: Major piano parts suppliers are in bold text.

Abel Piano Hammers Arledge Music Wire Blackstone Valley Piano

See “Helmut Abel GmbH.”
Absolute Piano Restoration
http://www.absolute-piano.com
Tel: (978) 323-4545
Panel-only or pre-crowned soundboards,
rebuilding services.
Affleck Piano
http://www.affleckpianotuning.com
Tel: (604) 316-6940
Piano tools and supplies sold internation-
ally. Piano decals. Piano service eBooks.
Piano Scale Design Program. Piano
benches & accessories.
Alfred Jahn GmbH & Co. KG.
http://www.pianoteile.com
Tel: +49-9560-98120
Piano supply house. Parts, tools, and acces-
sories for pianos, reed organs, and histor-
ical keyboard instruments. Rebuilding ser-
vices.
Allied Piano/LakeoneUSA
http://AlliedPiano.com
Tel: toll free (888) 622-7426, (215) 491-3045
Distributor for specialty piano service and
furniture finish repair products.
AMS Piano Tools
http://www.amspianotools.com
Tel: (630) 851-6060
Piano tools and tuning hammers.
http://www.pianostrings.com http://www.pianoandorgankeys. com
Tel: (615) 255-7818 Michael Morvan
Piano bass strings. Tel: (508) 278-9762
Cell: (508) 340-6443
AS Estonia Klaverivabrik Piano and organ keyboard restoration and
http://www.estoniapiano.com services.
Tel: +372 644 1841
Piano manufacturer. See also “Laul Estonia Blüthner USA, LLC
Piano Factory.” http://www.bluthnerusa.com
Tel: toll free (800) 954-3200
Baldwin Piano & Organ Company Fax: (517) 886-6000
Subsidiary of Gibson Guitar Corp. Piano manufacturer. See also “Julius
http://www2.gibson.com/ Blüthner Pianofortefabrik GmbH.”
Products/Pianos/Search.aspx
Tel: (615) 871-4500 Bolduc
Piano manufacturer. See “Pianos Bolduc.”
Bechstein, C. Borgato®
http://www.bechstein.de http://www.borgato.it
Tel: +49 30 31515 200 Tel: +39 0444 436367
Piano manufacturer. See also “Bechstein Makers of handcrafted concert-grand
America LLC.” pianos.
Bechstein America LLC Boston Piano Company
http://www.bechstein.com http://www.steinway.com/boston
david@bechstein-america.com Tel: (718) 721-7711
David Skidmore, President Piano manufacturer. Owned by Steinway &
Tel: (732) 444-3255 Sons, manufactured by Kawai.
Piano manufacturer. See also
“Bechstein, C.” Bösendorfer USA
http://www.boesendorfer.com
Beethoven Pianos Piano manufacturer. See also “Yamaha
http://www.beethoven pianos.com Corporation of America, Piano Division,”
Tel: toll free (800) 352-0002, (212) 765-7300 “L. Bösendorfer Klavierfabrik GmbH.”
Piano dealer, piano rebuilding and refin-
ishing services including soundboard
replacement, accessories.
518 Resources Sample page from Pianos Inside Out. Copyright © 2013 Mario Igrec.

Brooks, Ltd. Delacour Pianos Faulk Piano Service

http://www.brooksltdonline.com
BrooksLtd@sbcglobal.net
Tel: toll free (800) 326-2440, (860) 434-0287
Piano supply house. Hammer replacement
and other services.
http://pianomaker.co.uk http://www.faulkpiano.com
Tel: +44 1202 731 031 Charles Faulk
Bass string design and manufacture, Tel: (785) 776-8323, (479) 855-9595
research and development, restoration of Rigid, lightweight tuning hammers and
pre-World War I pianos. specialty tools.

Bundesverband Klavier e.V. “BVK” DETOA Albrechtice s.r.o. Faust Harrison Pianos
http://www.pianos.de http://www.detoa.cz/en/ http://www.faustharrisonpianos. com
Association of German piano builders. Tel.: +420 483 356 330 Tel: (212) 489-3600
Manufacturer of piano keys and key Piano dealer, piano rebuilding and refin-
C.A. Geers Piano Company frames. ishing services including soundboard
http://www.geerspiano.com replacement, accessories.
Tel: (513) 941-7666 Driscoll Tuning Levers
Makers of Falconwood Pinblock planks. Carbon-fiber tuning levers. See “Thomas Fazioli Pianoforti, S.R.L.
Driscoll Piano Service.” http://www.fazioli.com
CAUT (College And University Techni- Showroom:
cians) mail list Dryburgh Adhesive Products Tel: +39 02 76021990
http://ptg.org/mailman/listinfo/ http://www.dryburghadhesive.com Factory:
caut Tel: toll free (800) GLUE-ALL, Tel: +39 0434 72576, +39 0434 72026
A forum for college piano technicians. A (908) 850-5208 Piano manufacturer.
searchable archive is at http://ptg.org/ Cyanoacrylate (CA) adhesive products.
pipermail/caut/. Filzfabrik Wurzen GmbH
Essex http://www.filzfabrik-wurzen.de
The Chicago School for Piano Technology Piano manufacturer owned by Steinway & Tel: +49 03425 - 89540
http://www.pianotechschool.com Sons, manufactured by Young Chang. See Makers of felt for piano hammers,
Tel: (312) 666-7440 “Boston Piano Company.” dampers, keyboards, stringing, and
School for aspiring piano technicians. bellywork.
Erwin’s Piano Restoration
Chuck Behm’s Piano Promo Productions http://www.erwinspiano.com Fletcher & Newman
http://www.pianopromoproductions.com Tel: (209) 577-8397 See “H.J. Fletcher & Newman Ltd.”
Products for website marketing and promo- Complete piano restoration including
tion. soundboard replacement and redesign, Fujan Products
sitka spruce soundboard panels, specialty http://www.fujanproducts.com
Cory Care Products tools. Steve Fujan
http://www.corycare.com Tel: (918) 630-5880
Tel: toll free (800) 552-CORY, Estonia Extremely stiff and lightweight tuning
(952) 469-5354 Piano manufacturer. See “Laul Estonia hammers (levers).
Key top and finish cleaning and polishing Piano Factory” and “AS Estonia
products; odor removal products. Klaverivabrik.” Gerald Cousins, RPT
http://www.gcousins.com
Cremona Resonant Woods Fandrich & Sons Tel: (301) 452-0911
http://www.cremonaresonant woods.com http://www.fandrich.com Maker of CATIPULT laser alignment
Italian spruce soundboards. Tel: (360) 652-8980 systems.
Piano manufacturer and importer. Refin-
Dampp-Chaser Corporation ishing, accessories, Fandrich Vertical Grand Piano Solutions
http://www.pianolifesaver.com Action™ by Darrell Fandrich. http://www.grandpianosolutions.com
Tel: (828) 692-8271 Jim Ialeggio
Dampp Chaser™ humidity control systems Fandrich Piano Company Tel: (978) 425-9026
for pianos. http://www.fandrichpiano.com Complete rebuilding and redesign services.
Tel: (360) 736-7563 Soundboard replacement. Customized
Davenport Tools Design, fabrication, and remanufacturing touch. Steinway action rail replacement.
http://www.rcdavenport.com services. Founded by Delwin Fandrich. Key and action designs.
Richard Davenport, RPT
Specialty piano tools. Fandrich-Rhodes™ Gravagne, Nicholas, RPT.
http://www.mypianotech.com/WB See “Nick Gravagne Products.”
David Love Piano Service and Restoration Makers of Weightbench keyweighting
davidlovepianos@comcast.net system. Grotrian Piano Company GmbH
Tel: (415) 661-3666 http://www.grotrian.de/
Action analysis, redesign, rebuilding and Fastenal® Tel: +49 (0)531-21010-0
balancing, soundboard design and replace- http://www.fastenal.com Piano manufacturer.
ment, complete rebuilding services. Tel: (507) 454-5374
Retail store chain carrying fasteners, tools, H.J. Fletcher & Newman Ltd.
David Rubenstein Pianos equipment, materials, and supplies. http://www.fletcher-newman.co.uk
See “Rubenstein Pianos.” Tel: +44 1732 886555
Piano supply house.
Sample page from Pianos Inside Out. Copyright © 2013 Mario Igrec.
Hailun USA
http://hailun-pianos.com
Tel: (877) 946-8078
Piano manufacturer.
Hans Velo
http://home.kpn.nl/velo68/
Inventor of magnetic touchweight and fric-
tion-control systems, and action-behavior
measuring devices. Author of Easy String
Calc software.
Heckscher & Co., Ltd.
http://www.pianotrade.co.uk
Tel: +44 20-7387-1735
Piano supply house. Keyboard restoration
services, piano moving.
Heinrich König & Co. KG
http://www.heinrichkoenig.de
Tel: + 49 61 01 53 60 0
Surface repair products. See also “Allied
Piano/LakeOneUSA.”
Hellerbass®, Heller Klavierbau
http://www.hellerbass.de
Tel: +49 (0) 62 26 - 42 444
Bass strings, piano restoration.
Helmut Abel GmbH
http://www.abel-pianoparts.de
Tel: +49 (0) 79 59 / 24 64
Abel brand piano hammers and action
parts (carried by most U.S. piano parts
suppliers).
Hurstwood Farm Piano Studios
http://www.hurstwoodfarmpianos.co.uk
Tel: +44 1732 885050
Designers and suppliers of Phoenix System
technologies in Steingraeber-Phoenix
pianos and Phoenix Pianos. Piano dealer
and manufacturer. See also “Steingraeber-
Phoenix” and “Steingraeber & Söhne.”
Instrument Covers
Attn: Dennis or Jill Haley
Tel: toll free (800) 274-4543, (503) 588-4001
Piano covers.
Inventronics, Incorporated
http://www.accu-tuner.com
Tel: toll-free (800) FAST440, (978) 649-9040
Makers of Accu-Tuner® electronic tuning
device.
Isaac Pianos
http://www.isaacpiano.com
Tel: (416) 229-2096
Piano hammers, custom bass strings,
Toneplus Plexiglas and acetone hammer
hardening solution.
Jahn
See “Alfred Jahn GmbH & Co. KG.”
John Dewey Enterprises, Inc.
E-mail: jdent@hughes.net
Tel: (217) 595-5535
Steinway action rail replacement services,
tubular rail dowel replacement, wooden
frame replacement.
John Nelson Woodworking
http://www.johnnelson
woodworking.com
Tel: (401) 635-4733
Processed cow-bone key tops, keyboard
recovering, rebushing, and restoration.
Julius Blüthner Pianofortefabrik GmbH
http://www.bluethner.de
Tel: +49 3 4297 - 75130
Piano manufacturer. See also “Blüthner
USA.”
Kawai America Corp.
Tel: 800-421-2177 x868
Piano Parts:
Tel: (310) 631-1771
Piano manufacturer. Replacement parts.
Keyboard Carriage
http://www.keyboardmotorcycleshipping.
com
Tel: (270) 737-5797
Long-distance piano moving in the U.S.
Kimball Piano USA, Inc.
http://www.kimballpianousa.com
Tel: (312) 212-3635
Piano manufacturer.
Klavierhaus
http://www.klavierhaus.com
Tel: (212) 245-4535
Piano dealer, piano rebuilding and refin-
ishing services including soundboard
replacement, accessories.
Klavier- und Flügeltransporte
http://www.klaviertransporte.com
Portal site with links to European piano
moving companies.
Kluge Klaviaturen GmbH
http://www.kluge-klaviaturen.de
Tel: +49 2191 69 02 80
Manufacturer of piano keys and key
frames, Ivoplast® and Tharan® key tops,
ebony sharps.
König
See “Heinrich König & Co. KG.”
L. Bösendorfer Klavierfabrik GmbH
Tel: +43/(0)/2622/27530
Showroom:
Tel: +43/(0)1/504 66 51-0
Piano manufacturer. See also “Bösendorfer
USA.”
Resources 519
Laoureux Felt
http://www.laoureux.com
Tel: +33 2 35 74 21 87
Manufacturer of piano felts.
Laul Estonia Piano Factory
http://www.estoniapiano.com
Tel: (845) 947-7763
Piano manufacturer. See also “AS Estonia
Klaverivabrik.”
Lee Valley Tool Company
http://www.leevalley.com
Tel: (613) 596-0350
Canadian retail store chain carrying fine
woodworking tools.
The Leveler Company
http://www.levelwithme.net
Tel: (630) 335-9761
Makers of QuicKey Leveler™ key leveling
tools and software.
Levitan Tuning Levers
http://levitantuninglevers.com
High-performance tuning levers, available
through Pianotek Supply Co.
LOCK-N-STITCH Inc.
http://www.locknstitch.com
Tel: toll free (800) 736-8261, (209) 632-2345
Cast iron repair products.
Louis Renner GmbH & Co. KG
http://www.louisrenner.com
Tel: +49-7034-6450-0
Manufacturer and supplier of piano parts,
tools, and accessories. Complete rebuilding
services. See also “Renner USA.”
The Mapes Piano String Co.
http://www.mapeswire.com
Tel: (423) 543-3195
Steel and bass strings, tuning pins.
Mason & Hamlin Piano Company
http://www.masonhamlin.com
Tel: (916) 567-9999
Piano manufacturer. Action parts by Wes-
sell, Nickel & Gross. PianoDisc reproducing
system.
Meguiar’s Inc.
http://www.meguiars.com
Tel: toll free (800) 347-5700, (714) 752-8000
Mirror Glaze® products, buffing com-
pounds, cleaners, sealers, polishes and
waxes. Available in the U.S. in auto-part
stores.
Meyne Klaviertechnik GmbH
http://www.meyne-klaviertechnik.de
Tel: +49 (531) 355 71 10
Standard and custom tools for the piano
industry.
520 Resources
Modern Piano Moving
http://www.modernpiano.com
Tel: toll free (800) 737-5600
Long-distance piano moving in the U.S.
Mohawk Finishing Products, Inc.
http://www.mohawk-finishing.com
Tel: toll free (800) 545-0047, (828) 261-0325
Wood touchup, repair and finishing
products.
Moondog Manufacturing
http://www.moondog
manufacturing.com/
Tel: (425) 252-0757
Makers of Moondog Grand Piano Tilter.
Mother Goose Tools
http://www.mothergoosetools.com
Joe Goss
Tel: (208) 278-5257
Specialty piano tools.
Music Sorb
http://musicsorbonline.com
Humidity control agent for pianos and
musical instruments.
New England Piano String & Supply Co.
Tel: (617) 926-9311
Custom bass strings.
NewOctave Corporation
http://www.newoctave.com/
Tel: (503) 338-7425
Piano parts manufacturer and supplier.
Makers of NewOctave Global™ hammers.
North Bennett Street School
http://www.nbss.org
Tel: (617) 227-0155
School of piano technology.
Nick Gravagne Products
http://www.gravagne.com
Soundboards, pinblocks, instructional
videos, action geometry software.
Overs Piano
http://overspianos.com.au
Tel: +61 (0)2 9736 2332
Custom piano makers. Rebuilding and
redesign services.
Paul L. Jansen and Son, Inc.
http://www.pljansen.com
Tel: toll free (800) 236-2437, (920) 231-5433
High quality artist benches, piano covers,
PianoHorse™ (see also “The Piano Wran-
gler”), caster cups, accessories.
Paul Poletti
http://www.polettipiano.com
Construction and restoration of historic
pianos.
Sample page from Pianos Inside Out. Copyright © 2013 Mario Igrec.
Pearl River Piano Group America Ltd. Pianotek Supply Co.
Tel: (909) 673-9155 http://www.pianoteksupply.com
Piano manufacturer. Pianos made by Tel: toll free (800) 347-3854, (248) 588-9055
Guangzhou Pearl River Piano Group, Piano supply house. Keyboard restoration,
Guangzhou, China various other services.
Perzina, GEBR Pianoworld.com
http://www.perzinapianos.com http://www.pianoworld.com
Tel: +31-83-85- 27748 A comprehensive website on piano-related
U.S. importer: Piano Empire, Inc. topics. Numerous databases and forums for
Tel: toll free (800) 576-3463, (562) 926-1906 piano owners and technicians.
Piano manufacturer. Pianos made by
Yantai-Perzina Piano Manufacturing Co. Pitchlock Inc.
Ltd, Yantai, China http://www.pitchlock.com
Tel: (814) 883-7213
Petrof, spol. s r.o. Makers of TouchRail™ touchweight control
http://www.petrof.com system and piano string couplers.
Tel: +420 495 712 407
In the U.S.: Popular Woodworking Magazine
Petrof U.S.A., LLC http://www.popular woodworking.com
www.petrofpianosusa.com Woodworking topics.
Tel.: (770) 564-4974
Piano manufacturer. Replacement parts. PPG Industries, Inc.
Ditzler Finishes
Pianos Bolduc (available throughout the U.S. in automo-
http://www.PianosBolduc.com tive paint supply stores)
Tel: (418) 397-5057 Hi-tech two-component finishes developed
Soundboards, BolducBlock pinblocks, for automotive and aviation industries.
piano supplies in Canada, piano dealer.
Pure Sound
Piano Carriage http://www.puresound-wire.com
http://www.pianocarriage.com Stainless steel strings for modern and
Tel: toll free (800) 33-TUNER historical pianos.
(800) 338-8637
Piano moving and storage. Randy Potter School of Piano Technology
http://www.pianotuning.com
Piano Forte Supply Tel: (541) 382-5411
http://www.pianofortesupply. com A complete correspondence home-study
Jurgen Goering course in piano tuning, repairing, regu-
Tel: (250) 754-2440 lating, voicing, apprentice training, and
Specialty supplier of hard-to-find parts, business practices.
tools, and materials.
Ravenscroft Pianos
The Piano Wrangler http://www.RavenscroftPianos. com
http://www.pianowrangler.com Spreeman Piano Innovations, LLC.
Tel: (512) 452-6458 Tel: (480) 664-3702
Piano moving service, makers of Piano- Makers of custom handcrafted pianos.
Horse™ piano tilter.
Renner USA
Pianobuyer.com http://www.rennerusa.com
http://www.pianobuyer.com Tel: (480) 575-1700
A comprehensive guide to buying acoustic Genuine Renner parts, supplies, accesso-
& digital pianos. Searchable database. ries, and tools. See also “Louis Renner.”
Piano Promo Productions Reyburn Piano Service, Inc.
See “Chuck Behm’s Piano Promo http://www.reyburn.com
Productions.” Tel: toll free (888) 763-8440, (616) 340-7277
Makers of Reyburn CyberTuner® software.
pianotech
http://my.ptg.org Reyburn Piano Tech
Old mail list: http://www.reyburnpiano.com
http://www.ptg.org/mailman/listinfo/ Tel: (616) 696-0500
pianotech Makers of Reyburn CyberHammer™ impact
Piano Technicians Guild’s forum. The old tuning levers.
list’s archive is available at
http://ptg.org/pipermail/pianotech.
Sample page from Pianos Inside Out. Copyright © 2013 Mario Igrec. Resources 521

Ronsen Piano Hammer Company, Inc. Steingraeber & Söhne KG Veritune, Inc.
http://www.ronsenhammer.com http://www.steingraeber.de http://www.veritune.com/
Tel: toll free (800) 864-0233, (845) 657-2395 Tel: +49 (0) 921-64049 Tel: toll free (888) VERITUN,
Piano hammers and related services. Piano manufacturer. See also “Stein- (773) 793-6530
graeber-Phoenix.” Electronic tuning devices and software.
Röslau Stahl- und Drahtwerk GmbH.
http://www.roeslau-draht.com Steingraeber-Phoenix Walter Piano Transport Inc.
Tel: +49 (0)9238 8090 U.S. distributor: http://www.walterpiano transport.com
Röslau piano, harpsichord, and zither Atlantic Music Center, Brian Gatchell Tel: (574) 674-6139
strings, wound bass strings. http://www.atlanticmusiccenter. com Long-distance piano moving in U.S.
Tel: (888) 725-6633
Rubenstein Pianos Steingraeber & Söhne pianos with Phoenix Wapin Company LLP
David Rubenstein System technologies. See also “Hurstwood Michael Wathen
http://www.rubensteinpianos.com/ Farm Piano Studios.” http://www.wapin.com
Tel: (310) 322-1551 Wapin Piano Bridge system.
Makers of handcrafted pianos. Steinway & Sons Piano Makers
http://www.steinway.com Wessell, Nickel & Gross
Ruggero Piano Service Parts Department: http://www.wessellnickelandgross.com
http://www.ruggeropiano.com parts@steinway.com (916) 419-2727
Tel: (919) 839-2040 Tel: toll free (800) 366-1853, (718) 204-3150 Hammers, high performance piano parts
Rebuilding services. Parts Department for Europe: made from composite materials. Sister
service@steinway.de company of Mason & Hamlin.
Samick Music Corporation Tel: +49 40 8539 1147
http://www.smcmusic.com Piano manufacturer. Replacement parts, Wm. Knabe & Co.
Parts department: hardware, training, rebuilding services. http://www.knabepianos.com
Tel: (615) 206-0077 ext. 103 Piano manufacturer. PianoDisc® system.
Service department: ext. 148 STEMCO - Crystal Soundboard™ See also “Samick Music Corporation.”
Piano manufacturer. http://www.stemco.nl
Tel. +31 (0)299 652134 Yamaha Corporation of America, Piano
Schaff Piano Supply Co. Glass soundboards. Division
http://www.schaffpiano.com http://www.yamaha.com/
Tel: toll free (800) 747-4266, (847) 438-4556 Stephen Paulello Piano Wire pianos.htm
Piano supply house. Various services. http://www.stephenpaulello.com Parts Department
Piano strings, piano design. Tel: (714) 522-9011
Sherwin-Williams Co. Piano manufacturer. Replacement parts.
Finishing products. Stores throughout the Stuart & Sons
U.S. http://www.stuartandsons.com Young Chang North America Inc.
Piano Australia Pty Ltd http://www.youngchang.com
Spurlock Specialty Tools Tel/Fax: +61 2 4961 3771 Piano Service Department:
http://www.spurlocktools.com Micro manufacturer of contemporary Tel: (657) 200-3490
Tel: (707) 452-8564 piano designs. Piano manufacturer.
Tools, jigs, cauls, supplies.
Thomas Driscoll Piano Service ZipWall®, LLC
Stanwood Piano Innovations Inc. http://tomdriscollpianoservice.com http://www.zipwall.com
David Stanwood, RPT Tel: (508) 485-0369 Tel: (800) 718-2255
http://www.stanwoodpiano.com Carbon-fiber tuning levers. Dust barrier products
Tel: (508) 693-1583
Inventor of TouchDesign™ system, action TPR Tools, LLC
designing and redesigning, customizing http://tprtools.com
action touch response, rebuilding. Christopher Brown, RPT
Tel: (978) 486-0610
Action and keyboard regulation jigs and
tools including the Grandwork™ Regulation
Station.
Sample page from Pianos Inside Out. Copyright © 2013 Mario Igrec. 523

Appendix E

Technicians’ Organizations

Australia Germany South Africa

Australasian Piano Tuners and Bund Deutscher Klavierbauer e.V. South African Association of Professional
Technicians Association http://www.bdk-piano.de Piano Tuners
http://www.aptta.org.au/ International http://www.sapianotuners.co.za/
Canada International Association of Piano Build- Spain
Canadian Association of Piano ers and Technicians Asociación Española de Técnicos y
Technicians http://www.ptg.org/iapbt/ Afinadores de Pianos (ASETAP)
http://www.pianocanada.ca/ Italy http://www.asetap.es/
Ontario Guild of Piano Technicians Associazione Italiana Accordatori Sweden
http://www.ogpt.ca/ Riparatori di Pianoforti Sveriges Pianostammare och Tekniker-
La Fraternité des Accordeur et http://www.aiarp.it/ förening (SPTF)
Techniciens de Piano du Québec Japan http://www.sptf.com/
http://www.fatpq.ca/ Japan Piano Tuners Association Switzerland
China http://www.jpta.org/ Schweitzerischer Verband der
China Musical Instrument Association & Korea Klavierbauer
Piano Tuner Association (CPTA) Korea Association of Piano Tuners http://www.svks.ch/
4 Xizhaosi Zhongjie Street, Chongwen Dis- http://www.tuners.or.kr/ Taiwan
trict, Beijing, PR China The Netherlands Taiwan Piano Technicians Association
Tel: 86-10-67111770 Vereniging voor Pianotechnici Nederland (TPTA)
Denmark (VvPN) 7F-8 No. 2, Lane 60, Section 2, Shing-Sheng
Dansk Pianostemmer-Union http://www.vvpn.nl/ North Road, 10447 Taipei, Taiwan
http://www.dpif.org/ Tel: +886 2-2536-8480
New Zealand E-mail: tpta.tuners@msa.hinet.ne
England New Zealand Piano Technicians Guild
Piano Tuners’ Association http://www.aptta.org.au/branches/ USA
http://www.pianotuner.org.uk/ new-zealand.aspx Master Piano Technicians
http://www.master-piano-techs.org
Europe Norway
European Union of Piano Makers Norsk Piano Stemmernes Forening Piano Technicians Guild
Association (Europiano) http://www.nptf.no/ http://www.ptg.org
http://www.euro-piano.org/ Nordic countries Venezuela
Finland NPTA Asociación Venezolana de Afinadores de
Suomen Pianovirittäjät ry http://www.sptf.com/ Pianos y Tecnicos de Instrumentos
http://www.pianonvirittajat.fi/ Musicales
Russia http://degen8.tripod.com/
France Russian Association of Piano Makers
L’Association Francaise des Accordurs- President: R. Kerer, 14/2 Herzen Street,
réparateurs de Pianos Moscow 103009, Russia
http://www.europiano-france.org/
Sample page from Pianos Inside Out. Copyright © 2013 Mario Igrec. 525

Appendix F

Measurement Conversions

Table 1: Tuning Pins Table 3: U.S. Bridge Pin Sizes

Tuning pin French Bridge pin Recommended drill bit

No.
diameter No.
No.
2 0.260" [6.60 mm] 24
No. Diameter (U.S. wire Diameter
1 0.265" [6.75 mm] 241/4
gauge)
01/2 0.270" [6.90 mm] 241/2
0 0.275" [7.00 mm] 243/4 #6 0.076" [1.930 mm] #48 .076" [1.930 mm]
2/0 0.280" [7.10 mm] 25 #7 0.086" [2.185 mm] #45–44 0.082–0.086" [2.083–2.185 mm]
3/0 0.285" [7.25 mm] 251/4 #8 0.096" [2.438 mm] #42–41 0.093–0.096" [2.362–2.438 mm]
4/0 0.290" [7.35 mm] 251/2 #9 0.109" [2.770 mm] #36 0.106" [2.692 mm]
5/0 0.295" [7.50 mm] 253/4 #10 0.135" [3.430 mm] #30 0.128" [3.251 mm]
6/0 0.003" [7.65 mm] 26
Table 4: European Bridge Pin Sizes
Table 2: Tuning Pin Lengths Bridge pin
Length No. Diameter Length
3/0 0.0728" [1.85 mm] 53/64" [21 mm]
Inches mm
4/0 0.0787" [2.00 mm] 55/64" [22 mm]
2" 52
5/0 0.0846" [2.15 mm] 29/32" [23 mm]
21/8" 55
6/0 0.0925" [2.35 mm] 61/64" [24 mm]
21/4" 57
7/0 0.0984" [2.50 mm] 63/64" [25 mm]
23/8" 60
8/0 0.1043" [2.65 mm] 11/32" [26 mm]
21/2" 64
9/0 0.1142" [2.90 mm] 17/64" [28 mm]
10/0 0.1220" [3.10 mm] 17/64" [28 mm]
526 Measurement conversions Sample page from Pianos Inside Out. Copyright © 2013 Mario Igrec.

Table 5: Modern Piano (Music) Wire Sizes

Wire Diameter Approx. Length

gauge European U.S. wire
no. wire
(Feet per (meters
(mm) (mm) (inches) pound) per kg)
12 0.725 0.737 0.029 463 310
12.5 0.750 0.762 0.030 430 288
13 0.775 0.787 0.031 404 270
13.5 0.800 0.813 0.032 377 253
14 0.825 0.838 0.033 354 238
14.5 0.850 0.864 0.034 335 224
15 0.875 0.889 0.035 315 212
15.5 0.900 0.914 0.036 298 200
16 0.925 0.940 0.037 282 190
16.5 0.950 0.965 0.038 266 179
17 0.975 0.991 0.039 253 170
17.5 1.000 1.016 0.040 243 162
18 1.025 1.041 0.041 233 155
18.5 1.050 1.067 0.042 220 147
19 1.075 1.092 0.043 210 140
19.5 1.100 1.118 0.044 200 134
20 1.125 1.143 0.045 194 129
21 1.175 1.194 0.047 177 118
22 1.225 1.245 0.049 161 108
23 1.275 1.295 0.051 144 96
Sample page from Pianos Inside Out. Copyright © 2013 Mario Igrec. 527

Index

Numerics composite parts 375

compressed 68
rails, repairing 240
rebuilding, overview 325
facing off 439
grooved, effects on tuning 132
105 System 336 diagram 64 regulating 166 reducing height of 439
16th Tone Piano 94 Double Repetition in verticals 77 regulating on the bench 141 replacing 436
1867 Exposition in Paris 13 double-escapement 5, 12 regulation, effects on tuning 129 to rebuild or replace 326
3M 267, 338 dropped 68, 113, 140, 320 removing 136 Air
microfinishing film 202 English 9 removing from keyboard 154 dehumidifying 85
409 89 escapement of jack 76 repairing 240 humidifying 86
Fandrich 68 repetition, speed of 77 Air conditioner 86, 328
Albert Steinway 13, 76
A frame stability in verticals,
inspecting 191
Schwander 77
single-escapement 4 Alcohol 144, 145, 147, 155, 156, 158,
Abel 66, 71, 72, 340, 383 geometry 273, 303 spread 149, 280, 282, 287, 315 161, 179, 182, 191, 213, 217, 221,
hammers 72, 384 geometry troubleshooter 304 tape-check 11 237, 238, 264, 265, 337, 338, 352,
Naturals 71 grand, inserting into the piano troubleshooters 304 353, 356, 437, 439, 449, 478
Abrasive cord 338 137 Tubular Metallic Frame 66, 68 as sizing agent 215, 491
Abrasives, in buffing compounds grand, rebuilding 373 vertical 68 as solvent for shellac 480
364 grand, regulating 166 vertical, development of 15 as suspension for blue chalk 449
ABS grand, removing 136 vertical, Double Repetition 77 as suspension for chalk 240, 364,
Carbon 17, 66 grand, removing from keyboard vertical, rebuilding 408 365
Styran 66 379 vertical, regulating 189 denatured 144
Absolute humidity 84 grand, rough-regulating 394 vertical, removing 140 ethyl 144, 222
Absolute Piano Restoration 236, grand, transporting 137 vertical, rough-regulating 416 for reflowing finish 481
288, 292, 313, 314, 394, 459, 466 grand, types 63 Viennese 3, 341 isopropyl 144, 222
Académie Royale des Sciences 3 Herz-Érard 63, 320 Action Geometry Program 273 methyl 144
Accelerated Action 59, 164, 300, how it works 76 Action rack rubbing 89, 90, 136, 144
315, 347, 496 in relation to damper 77 checking 152 Alcohol lamp 156, 168, 169, 194,
Accu-Tuner 125 leather 341 repositioning 315 196, 243
Acetone 338, 384 leverage (see also “Distance Action spread 282 Aleene’s 336, 358
Acid, used in making hammer felt leverage,” “Weight ratio”) 279 Acu-Just 56, 424, 427, 428, 429, 430, Alexandre-Françoise Debain 76
71, 384 leverage, altering 312 432, 433, 434, 436 Alfons Huber 3
Acoustic Glue (see “Bolduc, leverage, changing through key Adhesive tape 337 Alfred Dolge 4, 5, 13, 14
Acoustic Glue”) travel 283, 284 Adhesives (see “Glue”) Aligning
Acousticraft 203 missing notes 82 Adjustable Leverage Action 315 action parts 167
Acoustics, of room 209 modifying 378 Adrien de la Fage 76 grand damper heads 183
Acrylic 215, 217 parts with flanges, traveling 168 Aeolian mode 94 Alignment of hammers, checking in
as hammer felt hardener 217 parts, comparing in grands 376 Affleck Piano Tuning 419 grands 149
for key tops 354 parts, repinning and rebushing Aftertouch Aliquot 36
AcryliKey 238 244 adjusting in verticals 195 Allen Wright 89, 157, 171, 211, 213,
Action 24, 63 parts, rubbing 153 checking 153 228, 237, 261, 423, 425, 472
Accelerated in Steinways 59, parts, sluggish due to verdigris grand, regulating 173 Allied Piano/LakeOne USA 263, 265,
315, 347 246, 374 insufficient 171 483
Birdcage design 68 parts, testing the fit in grands 377 recording 344 Alpheus Babcock 12, 15
bracket 22 parts, to rebuild or replace 374 Agraffe 13, 21, 22, 56 Altering action leverage ratio (see
bracket bolt 140 parts, traveling, squaring, broken, extracting 262 “Action, leverage”)
brackets, expanding 142, 149 aligning 167 friction 131 Aluminum oxide 338
bumping type 3, 5 push type 3 reamer 437 Aluminum piano 25
cloth (Sticker cloth) 340 rails 66 Agraffes Amazing GOOP 336
528 Index
American Steel & Wire Company 44
Americus Backers 7
André Bolduc 259, 472, 473
André Oorebeek 157, 208
André Stein 8
Andrea Coen 2
Angle of grain in soundboards 49
Angle vise 387
Anodized aluminum capstans 314
Antique Finishers 335
Antique pianos, rebuilding 319
Antoine Bord 13
Anton Stelzhammer 25, 27
Anton Walter 5, 6
Apostles, twelve 8
Applicators for hammer hardener
218
Apron in bass bridges 20, 40
Ari Isaac 384
Arledge Music Wire 422
Ascending intervals 95
Assembly 65 (see “Franklin glue”)
Assist spring (see “Wippen
assist spring”)
Attack 43
August Kögler 13
Aural tuning 118
AvantGrand 63
B hexagonal core 36
Babcock, Alpheus 12, 15
Bach, Johann Christian 8
Bach, Johann Sebastian 2, 9
Back (frame in verticals) 24
Back rail 22, 58
Back stop (see “Catcher”)
Backaction 22, 74, 300, 406, 407
weight 302, 309
Backcheck 22, 76
felt in verticals 340
leather (see “Buckskin”)
wires in grands, replacing or not
369
wires, types 371
Backchecking
grand, regulating 174
importance 77
regulating in verticals 196
Backchecks 62
aligning to hammer tails in
grands 170
grand, height 368
grand, inspecting 153
grand, rebuilding 368
grand, replacing 369
grand, square and align 170
installed low, ramifications 368
releathering 369
rubbing against hammer tails in
grands 175
vertical, aligning to back stops
196
vertical, inspecting 189
Backers, Americus 7
Backscale 49
Badura-Skoda, Paul 212
Balance holes 237
checking 155
in keys, reaming 350
loose, repairing 237
reaming 351
Balance key bushings 22
Balance point of key, moving 315
Balance rail 22, 58
Sample page from Pianos Inside Out. Copyright © 2013 Mario Igrec.
bearing 58, 59, 163, 164 Blackstone Valley Piano 61, 88, 235, separated, effects on tuning 132
felt punchings 340 237, 345, 346, 348, 355, 356, 357, setting the downbearing 475
glides, adjusting 159 360, 361, 364, 367, 400 shimming to increase crown 467
glides, lubricating 155 Blade, sostenuto (see “Sostenuto, Bridge pins 21, 23, 40
pins 76 rod blade”) drilling holes for 477
punchings 59 Blanchet et Roller 10, 76 friction with 131
Balance weight 276, 278 Blankets 329 grooved, effects on tuning 132
Balancier 22 Bleaching installing 479
Baldassin, Rick 103, 128 hammer felt 71 loose, effects on tuning 132
Baldwin 31, 36, 49, 56, 140, 193, 319, soundboard 469 loose, repairing 256
378, 424, 433, 434, 436, 459 white key tops 363 Bridges 36
Ball-peen hammer 214, 215 Blending of wool 71 diagnosing before rebuilding 322
Ballpoint pen spring 189 Blind dowel marker 454 graphiting 478
Bamboo skewers 241 Block, sanding 337 inspecting before restringing 419
Band saw 330 Bloom, in sound envelope 44 rebuilding 472
Bar soap 145 Blow distance 275 Bridle straps 140, 341
Bar, cutoff 46 regulating in grands 170 adjusting 191, 198
Barclay, R. 320 Blow, half (see “Half-blow”) replacing 411
Bartolomeo Cristofori 1, 4, 6 Blue chalk 449 Broadwood 7, 8, 9, 11, 12, 15, 37,
Baseboard 76 Blue Point hammers 71, 72 43, 320
block or bracket noises 493 Blued tuning pins 421 Broadwood, Thomas 12
in verticals 24, 252 Blushing of lacquers 479 Brooks, Ltd. 384
noises 494 Blüthner 34, 43, 63, 319 Broukal, Thomas 67
strengthening attachment of 494 Bob Flexner 479 Brown, Christopher 141, 142, 201
Bases of jacks in verticals, Bobbling 10, 151, 172, 195, 196 Bruce Dornfeld 149
inspecting 191 Boisselot & Sons 76 Brush
Bass bridge 20, 36, 40 Bolduc 329, 435, 444 cosmetics, for applying powder
Bass section, tuning 119 Acoustic Glue 336, 454 lubricant 157
Bass strings 34 pinblock router bit 442, 444 for dusting the plate 90
making 34
pinblocks 451
see also “pianos Bolduc”
for tuning pin holes 421
suede 156
replacing in grands 231 Bolduc, André 259, 472, 473 Brushing varnishes, on
swaging (see “Swaging bass Bolduc, Christian 259, 472, 473 soundboards 470
strings”) Bolts 339 Bubble gauge string leveler 204
twisting 231 Bookcase piano 8 Buckskin 241, 341
Beam, lack of, affecting melody Bord, Antoine 13 Buffing
octave 458 Boring specifications for drilling compounds 364
Beams 19, 20, 23, 24, 27, 131 hammers 386 finish 483
Beats 96 Bösendorfer xiii, 3, 5, 15, 17, 19, 20, sponge 484
false 41, 132 24, 25, 29, 30, 31, 32, 34, 35, 40, white key tops 364
in intervals 112 44, 47, 51, 52, 53, 54, 55, 58, 67, Bulbs, infrared, heating 460
Bechstein 12, 13, 54, 57, 254, 319, 116, 165, 169, 175, 181, 214, 319, Bumping action 3
320, 441, 461, 464 320, 353, 399, 441, 483, 484, 501 Bungee cord 415
grand plate cracks 254 open-face pinblock 456 Burlap, used to apply lacquer filler
open-face pinblock 456 Boston piano 28 482
Becket 223, 260 Bottom panel noises 494 Burnish 145, 147, 156, 350, 473, 478
Bedding a key frame (see “Key Bowman, Keith 109 graphite 145
frame, bedding”) Brace, ratchet 333 Bushing
Bees’ wax 340 Brackets, expanding (see “Action, cauls or “wedges” 348
Beethoven Pianos 37 brackets, expanding”) cloth (felt) 341, 348
Beethoven, Ludwig van 6, 11, 12 Brady, Stephen 221, 374, 437 Bushings
Behm, Chuck 409, 410, 411, 412, Brahms, Johannes 13, 70 damper guide rail, replacing 402
413, 415, 440 Braid, stringing 341 in action parts, replacing 246
Bell, in Steinway grands 21 Brass in keys 58, 61
Belly rail 19, 20, 21, 27, 28, 49, 186, bar, for squaring keys 162 in plate 326
434, 459, 463 bristle suede brush 156 leather 490
lack of beam 458 chopstick voicer 210 wooden, in plate, for tuning pins
Bellymen felt 22, 340 decal, installing 484 54
Belt sander 331, 332 weights, improving sustain with Bushmaster 349
Bench regulating 141 459 Butt, of the hammer in verticals 76
Bending force 101 Breakpoint, dynamic (see Butterfly spring 67, 176, 288, 320
Bentside 8, 46, 50 “Dynamic breakpoint”) Button
Bevel, on edge of soundboard 50 Brian Capleton 107 drop in grand shanks 77
Bill Spurlock 194, 286, 393 Bridge 23 let off 68, 76
Billings flange 410, 415 bass 20, 36, 40 Buzzes
Binder clips 308 cap 37 diagnosing 489
Biofelt Project 384 cap, replacing 473 effect on tuning 133
Bird cage action 11 cracks, repairing 256
Bird, Lonnie 446
Bird’s eye 143
floating 39
joints, repairing 258
C
Birdcage vertical action 68 long 20, 36, 37 C.F. Theodor Steinway (see
Birkett, Stephen 300 notching 41, 478 “Steinway, C.F. Theodor”)
Black key tops 22 offset, bass 40 CA glue 221, 238, 247, 255, 256, 336,
replacing 365 repairs 256 367
Black keys 94 root 37 treating pinblock with 255
Sample page from Pianos Inside Out. Copyright © 2013 Mario Igrec. Index 529

Cabinet piano 8 for soundboard shimming 466 Contraction of plate 54 felts in grands, replacing 400
Cadenza S 384 Chopin, Frederic 13 Cord, abrasive 338 felts in verticals, replacing 413
Calculating leads 297 Chopstick voicer 210, 213, 214 Core, hexagonal, in bass strings 36 guide rail 22
Caliper 247, 274, 344, 351, 417, 422, Christian Bolduc 259, 472, 473 Cork grease 145, 268, 270, 493 guide rail bushings 181
446, 448 Christoph Gottlieb Schröter 3, 6 Cornice (see “Stretcher”) guide rail bushings, replacing
Cam for locking grand legs 28 Christopher Brown 141, 142, 201 Corrosion 89, 319 402
Cantrell, Norman 136 Chromatic Cory 89 head 22, 74
Cap electronic tuner 124, 125 Cottage piano 10 heads with wires, replacing 404
on bridges 37 scale 94 Cotton swab, for polishing agraffe heads, aligning, in grands 183
on bridges, replacing 473 Chrome buffing compound 364 holes 437 heads, refinishing 401
Capleton, Brian 107 Chuck Behm 409, 410, 411, 412, 413, Council of National Defense 16 lever 77
Capo tasto 6, 21, 34, 56 415, 440 Countersinking screws 339 levers 192, 197
grooved V bar, effects on tuning Cigarette lighter (see “Lighter”) Couperin, François 6 lift rod 192
132 Circle of fifths and fourths 117 Coved hammer tails 73 mechanism (see “Backaction”)
patent 13 CITES 355 Cow bone key tops 355 noises in grands 181
Capstan Clair Davies xvii Cracks pedal 74
block (capstan boat) 314 Clamps 333 in pinblock, repairing 256 pedal lift, regulating 179
let off (see “Let off buttons”) spring 311 in plate 253 regulation in grands 182
Capstan screw (see “Key capstans”) Clanking noise in soundboard, shimming 460, repairs 248
Carbon fiber 25, 54 Clatter 491 465 spoon, in verticals 77
composite shanks 66 Claude Debussy 76 Craig McDougal 9 spoons in verticals, adjusting
soundboard 19 Claude Montal 75, 76, 275 Crail, Gordon 268 197
Carding felt 71 Clavecin 9 Crane 329 springs in verticals, lubricating
Carl Sauter 94 Clavecin à maillets 3 Crawford, Matthew 318 192
Carpenter’s Wood Glue 335, 391 Clavichord xv, 3 Creaking noise stop rail 77
Carrillo, Julian 94 Clavicytherum 7 in grand pedals 493 stop rail, adjusting 178
Case 20, 23, 28 Cleaning 89, 141 in verticals 490 system in grands, design flaws
cast-iron 25 Clear Coat laminating resin 336 Creepage of glue 28, 319, 334, 335, 182
Caster 23 Clementi, Muzio 9 336, 358, 454, 467 system in grands, rebuilding 400
socket 28 Clicking noises 491 Crescendo key punchings 59, 340, system, description 74
Cast-iron Climate 347 system, rebuilding overview 325
case 25 control in a shop 328 Crescendo Publications 208 system, with threaded wires,
plate 50 effects on refinishing 479 Crimp of wool fibers 71 modifying 404
Catalyzed finishes, repairing 265 humidity 83 Cristofori, Bartolomeo 1, 3, 4, 6 underfelt 74
Catcher, aligning backcheck to 196 Cloth 341 Critica musica 2 underlever 77
CATIPULT 392 emery 338 Critical recoat time 471 underlevers, aligning to key end
Cauls for key bushings 348 Crosby Brown Collection of Musical felts 407
for key bushings 348 Clothes moths (see “Moths”) Instruments 1, 2 underlevers, rebuilding vs.
for pressing hammer felt 71 Cobalt drill bit 451 Cross bars (see “Struts”) replacing 405
CAUT x, 434, 509, 516, 518 Coen, Andrea 2 Cross block (see “Belly rail”) wire 22
Cedar balls, as moth repellent 88 Coincident partials 96, 121 Cross-stringing (see “Over- wire touching a string 183
Ceiling, dynamic (see “Dynamic Cold-drawing steel wire 34 stringing”) wires, lubricating 181
ceiling”) Cold-pressed hammers 71 Crowbar 280, 443, 445 Damper action 22
Cembalo 9 Cole, Michael 2 Crown Damper Bean Bag 185
Cement, contact 336 College of William and Mary 7 in soundboards 20, 48 Damper lift 150, 180, 181, 182, 183,
Centennial International Exhibition Collodion 217 in soundboards, affected by 185, 248, 346, 400, 405, 423
14 Colonial Williamsburg Foundation humidity 84 defined 77
Center pins 4, 7, 9, 358 in soundboards, forcing 466 delayed 491
friction 77 Combing felt 71 in soundboards, increasing 460, grand, regulation 183
in hammer butts, inspecting 191 Comparing grand action parts 376 467, 475 late 130
of shanks, inspecting in grands Composite in soundboards, measuring 461 uneven 253
153 action parts 375 of piano hammer 70, 208 with pedal in verticals (see
Centers for Disease Control and plate 440 Crystal Soundboard 45 “Pedal, damper lift”)
Prevention 136 Compound, buffing 364 Cupola plate 56 Damper lift rod 74, 147, 192, 197,
Central (de)humidification 86 Compressed action 68 Cutoff bar 46 253, 490, 494
Ceramic magnet 204 Compression set 251, 457 Cutting Damper stop rail
CEUS, by Bösendorfer 17 Compression-crowned leather and felt 342 adjusting 152
Chalk 422 soundboards 49 new pinblock 445 Dampers 74
blue (see “Blue chalk”) Compressor 331, 479 Cyanoacrylate glue (see “CA glue”) grand, rebuilding 400
buffing ivory tops with 240, 365 Computer Numerical Control (CNC) CyberHammer 110 grand, regulating 180
for stringing 224 61 CyberTuner 126 low, effects on tuning 130
on tuning pins 323 Conair 214 Cymbal-Clavir 3 vertical, rebuilding 413
Cheating jack 494 Concert Level 204 vertical, regulating 196
Cheek 8 Concert String Tool 203 D Dampp-Chaser 85, 87, 88, 90
block (see “End block”) Condensation of moisture 84 Daniel Levitan 103, 109, 111, 114,
disease 11, 12, 320 Condenser, in air-conditioner 86 Dag 22, 145, 156, 160 130
Chemical Conklin, Harold Jr. 45, 46, 56, 459 stop screw, adjusting 152 Darije Kos 461, 464
hardeners 216 Conn Strobotuner 124 Dain, Richard 17, 19, 25, 43, 45 Darrell Fandrich 17, 68, 69, 273, 290,
stripper 481 Conrad Graf 11, 12 Dale Erwin 416 292, 298, 299, 300, 378, 458, 501
Chen, Hailun and Faye 17 Console humidifier 87 Damper 77 Dave Roberts 419
Chickering 13, 14, 319 Consonance 95 block 74 Davenport Tools 203, 204
Chickering, Jonas 12 Consonant intervals 97 blocks and strips in verticals 413 David G. Hughes 321
China 16 Contact adhesives (cement) 336 felt, flat 74 David Huggins 274
Chipping to tune new strings 129 Contiguous M3s 117 felt, noise 490 David Kirkland 16, 27, 56
Chisel 333 Continuous curved bridge 38 felts 22, 74, 340 David Stanwood 144, 214, 273, 283,
530 Index Sample page from Pianos Inside Out. Copyright © 2013 Mario Igrec.

286, 288, 290, 291, 309, 315, 506 for drilling hammers 387 in a rebuilding shop 329 in keyboard 59
David Sutherland 2 Drilling Érard, Pierre 12, 13, 320 in verticals, inspecting 191
Davies, Clair xvii bridge pin holes 477 Érard, Sébastien 12, 13, 77, 320 on dampers in verticals,
de la Fage, Adrien 76 hammer heads 386 Eric Johnson 45 replacing 413
de Zwolle, Henri Arnaut 1 pinblock 451 Erwin, Dale 416 on grand dampers, replacing 400
Debain, Alexandre-Françoise 76 vertical piano hammers 414 Erwin’s & Sons pinblock 451 replacing 340
Debussy, Claude 76 Driscoll CF Tuning Lever 110 Erwin’s Piano Restoration 48, 281 replacing, overview 326
Decal Drop Escapement of jack 76 Ferdinand Hoffman 6
brass letters, installing 484 adjusting in grands 172 escutcheon 489 Ferrini, Giovanni 1
soundboard, applying 472 button in grand shanks 77 Estonia 73 File 333
Decay, of sound 43, 44 regulating 172 ETDs 125 Nicholson 237, 382
Dehumidifier 86, 328 screw 22 Ether 217 Filler, pore, for lacquer 482
Dehumidifying air 85 testing by feel 174 European strings, wire gauges 34 Filling surface for finishing 482
with air conditioner 86 Dropped action 68, 113, 140, 320 Europiano xvi Filter/separator 479
Deicing, in dehumidifier 86 Dryburgh Adhesive 255 Evaporator, in air-conditioner 86 Fine, Larry 17
Del Mela, Domenico 8 Duct tape 337 Exhibition Finish
Delaminated pinblock, repairing Dulcimer 2, 6 Centennial 14 blushing 479
256 Duncan Enterprises 336 in Paris in 1867 13 buffing 483
Delignit 28, 441, 451, 456 Duplex 36 Expanding action brackets (see refinishing 479
Deluxe Hammer Boring Jig 387 bar, friction with 131 “Action, brackets, expanding”) repairing 263
Delwyn Fandrich 17, 459 portion of strings 62 Expression pedal 75 satinizing 264, 484
Density resonances 133 Extracting broken agraffe 262 soundboard, refinishing 468
in soundboards 50 termination 22 Eyedropper 218 touching up 263
of hammers 72 Dvor Trakoscan 11 types 480
Descending intervals 95
Design 19
Dynamic breakpoint 300
Dynamic ceiling 49, 298
F Finishing
hazards 480
DETOA 60 Dynamic touchweight 276, 298 Fabric softener 215 materials, protecting from water
Dewey, John 242, 375 Facing off agraffes 439 vapor 84
Diagnosing E Faivre 12, 47 Fish, for increasing sustain in treble
piano before rebuilding 321 Falconwood 28, 441 46
Diagram Easing key bushings 352 Fallboard 22, 28 Fitting new pinblock 448
action 64 Eastern Europe, as piano market 16 removing 136 Flagpoling of tuning pins 54, 107
grand piano cross section 22 Easy String Calc 46, 419 Fallboard lock 91 Flange of the plate, fitting pinblock
Diaphragmatic soundboard 47 Ebony False beats 41, 132, 256 to 441
Diatonic scale 94 black key tops 365 False bridge 37 Flanges of hammer shanks 77
Didymic comma 98 sealing 367 Fan, effects on tuning (see Flannel buffing wheel 365
Disc sander 331 Echo 490 “Reflection of sound”) Flat damper felt 74
Dishwashing detergent 338 Eclectic Products 336 Fandrich 15 Flat-head screws 339
Disklavier 17 Ecsaine 341 vertical back 25 Flexner, Bob 479
Dissonance 95 Ed Foote 214 vertical piano action 68 Flitz 156, 425, 437
Dissonant intervals 97 Edges, touching up 263, 484 Fandrich Vertical Action 69, 77 Floating
Distance leverage 279 Edwin Good 13 Fandrich, Darrell 17, 68, 69, 273, bridge 39
Distance multiplier 295 Effects of environment on pianos 83 290, 292, 298, 299, 300, 378, 458, pinblock 33, 441
Ditanaklasis 10 Elastic limit 33 501 soundboard 46
Ditonic comma 98 reaching and exceeding 128 Fandrich, Delwyn 17, 459 Florence 1
Dolge, Alfred 4, 5, 13, 14 Elbows 409 Fandrich-Rhodes 273, 274, 299 Flügel 3, 9
Dolly 268 Electricity in the shop 328 Fast Grab 336 Foote, Ed 214
Domenico del Mela 8 Electronic tuning 124 Fasteners 339 Force, bending, in strings 101
Domenico Scarlatti 2 corrections 126 Fatigue, of strings 34 Forcing soundboard crown 466
Don Anthonio da Braganza 2 Ellis, James F. 46 Faulk Piano Service 109 Fractured key, repairing 234
Donhauser, Peter 8 EMC (see “Equilibrium moisture Faust Harrison Pianos 35, 47, 52, 58 Frame 19, 24
Dorian mode 94 content”) 49 Faye Chen 17 rails, restoring 344
Dornfeld, Bruce 149 Emerson, George “Frank” 17, 47 Fazioli 17, 29, 36, 42, 48, 53, 55, 75, Tubular Metallic 66, 68
Double Cupola plate 56 Emery cloth 338 138, 398 underlever (see “Underlever
Double Repetition vertical action 77 Empfindsamer Stil 9 Feeler gauge 258, 449, 450, 461 tray”)
Double strings 224 Encore 384 Felt vertical 24
Dowel, pitman 23 End block 22 affected by humidity 85 François Couperin 6
Dowels adjusting 152 cutting 342 Frank E. Morton 44
for repairing stripped screw removing 136 for key bushings 348 Frank Emerson 17, 47
holes 240 English Action 9 for timpani 340 Frankfurt Musikmesse xvi
supporting the plate 20 English Double Action 10 friction with strings 131 Franklin glue 335, 336, 454
Downbearing 21 Enharmonic notes 94 gluing 342 Franz Jacob Späth 9
improving by installing thinner Envelope, of sound 43, 383 in hammers 70 Franz Joseph Haydn 11
pinblock 449 Environment, effects on pianos 83 in hammers, rinsing (see Franz Liszt 13, 82
measuring 419 Environmental Protection Agency “Rinsing”) Fred Sturm 69, 109, 124, 130, 155,
of strings 48, 54, 84 xvii interwoven with thread 340 165, 193, 210, 215
of strings, diagnosing 322 Epoxy 256, 336 manufacture of 71 Frederic Chopin 13
setting with new bridge cap 475 in soundboard cracks 318 on hammers, ironing 214 Frederick the Great of Prussia 2
Downweight 276 soaking the soundboard with on hammers, resetting during Frederick Vietor 59
Dremel 331 459 voicing 211 Frequency of sound 43
Dresden 2 Equal temperament 99 plain 340 Friction 276, 443
Drill 331 Equilibrium moisture content 49, punchings 59 changing during key travel 278
Drill bit, laminate-trimming (see 460 types 340 controlling 306
“Laminate-trimming bit”) Equipment Felts in action center pins 77
Drill press 331 for spraying finishes 479 in dampers 74 Friedrich Marpurg 3
Sample page from Pianos Inside Out. Copyright © 2013 Mario Igrec. Index 531

Front rail 22, 58 action, rough-regulating 394 Hamburg Steinway 16, 21, 31, 59, Hammering
key pins 58 backchecks, rebuilding 368 67, 313, 369, 384 overhardened hammers 214
Front weight 291, 297, 398 Centennial 14 Hammer 22 tuning pins 230, 254, 417
calculating 294 damper system design flaws 182 ball-peen (see “Ball-peen Hammers 70
ceiling 291, 293, 397 damper system noises 181 hammer”) affecting the tuning 133
estimating 296 damper system, rebuilding 400 boring jig 387 checking alignment and spacing
Fujan Products 109 damper system, regulating 180 crown 70, 208 in grands 149
Fuji Silysia Chemical, Ltd. 85 damper underlevers, rebuilding felt 70, 340 cold-pressed 71
Full-fit pinblock 33, 441 vs. replacing 405 felt, ironing 214 dense, voicing 209
Functioning of an ideal hammer 208 diagram 22 felt, resetting 211 drilling and tapering in verticals
Fundamental pitch 96 hammers, replacing 383 felt, rinsing (see “Rinsing”) 414
jack, split 243 felt, sanding 211, 216 glue for installation of 391
G keyboard vs. vertical keyboard
343
felt, sanding top layer 393
felt, steam-treating 71, 214
gluing onto shanks 391
grand, replacing 383
Gap, between jack and hammer keyboard, inserting 137 felt, treated with hardeners 216 grooved, unresilient 133
butt, adjusting 195 keyboard, removing 136 hardener (see “Hardener”) in verticals, replacing 414
Garnet sandpaper 338 knuckles, repairing (see head 76 installing 390
Gauge numbers, marking on plate “Knuckles, repairing”) heads, drilling 386 manufacture 71
with stencils 440 legs 28 heads, inspecting 153 marking 387
Gauge, bubble 204 legs, removing and installing 268 height, regulating in grands 170 mating to strings 207
Geib, John 4, 10 lid 28 ideal, functioning 208 needling 210
Geigenwerk 1 lid, removing and installing 268 mass, changing (see “Strike new, voicing 394
Gel, superglue 336 lyre, removing and installing 271 weight, changing”) over/under-centering (see
Geometry (see “Action geometry”) pedals, noises 493 molding 71 “Over-centering,” “Under-
George “Frank” Emerson 17, 47 piano restringing 423 molding materials 73 centering”)
Gerald Cousins 392 pinblock types 440 properties 70 replacement, deciding on weight
German loop 225, 231 pinblock, replacing 440 rail 22 of 286
German silver 143 shank rest felt (see “Shank rest rebounding 70 reshaping before regulating
Gertz, Richard 14, 25 felt”) rest rail, adjusting in grands 178 action 166
Gilding, refinishing piano plate 439 wippens, traveling 170 shoulders 70, 208 selecting 383
Gillis, Ian 4 Grand Piano Solutions 242, 416 shoulders, needling 211 shaping tails 71
Giovanni Ferrini 1 Grand Plate Puller 329, 435 strike point 73, 208, 375 soft, voicing up 216
Giraffe 8 Grandwork 204, 205 strike weight (see “Strike squaring 168
Giustini, Lodovico 2 Grandwork Regulation Station 141 weight”) steam-treating (see “Steam-
Glass Granite sanding block 359 tails, shaping and tapering 388 treating hammer felt”)
sanding block 359 Graphite 145 tails, types 73 variations 72
soundboard 45 Graphiting bridges 478 Tapering Jig (also see “Spurlock voicing 73
Glazbala Kos 461, 464 Gravagne, Nick 273, 393, 468 Specialty Tools”) 385 warm-pressed 71, 384
Glides 22 Gravicembalo col piano e forte 1 underfelt 73 Hand stops 6
adjusting 159 Grease, cork 268, 270, 493 weight 72, 275, 283 Hand tools 333
lubricate 155 Great Depression 15, 16, 321 Hammer butt Hands Off fallboard lock 91
Glover’s needles 210 Gregor Heller 232 Billings flange (see “Billings Hans Velo 46, 306, 311, 419
Gloves 146, 422 Gregory Graham 143 flange”) Hantavirus Pulmonary Syndrome
applying powder lubricant with Grid, sanding 338 center pins, inspecting 191 136
158 Griffa & Figli 5 in verticals 76 Hard Wax 264
inspection 221 Grijalva, Robert 458, 459 in verticals, rebuilding 411 Hardener
wearing during regulation 135 Grinder 331 leathers and felts, inspecting 191 applying to hammer felt 218
Glue 334 Grossbach, Jan 263 Schwander 411 for hammers 216
creepage of (see “Creepage of Grotrian 24, 25, 31, 35, 37, 38, 159, spring 77 voicing overhardened hammers
glue”) 186, 225, 319, 339, 366, 501 spring, variations in 68 215
for installing hammers 391 Growing action brackets (see springs, inspecting 191 Hardening hammer felt 71
for key bushings 349 “Action, brackets, expanding”) Hammer shank 22, 76, 376 Hardwood insert, for repairing
sizing 237 Guide notes 142 center pins, inspecting in grands action rails 242
thermoplasticity 335 regulating 166 153 Harmonic bar 13
Gluing felt and leather 342 Guide rail drop button 77 Harmonic intervals 95
Golfer’s glove 422 bushings 181 flange 22 Harmonic minor scale 94
Good, Edwin 13 bushings in grand pedals, noises ratio 282 Harmonic Piano 94
Gordon Crail 268 493 rest cloth, on rail 340 Harmonic series 95
Gottfried Silbermann 2, 6 bushings, easing 248 rest felt 22, 340 Harmonics (see also “Partials”) 95
Goudonnet 76 Gym chalk 422 rest rail, regulating 178 Harold Conklin Jr. 45, 46, 56, 459
Gouges, repairing 264 split, repairing 243 Harpsichord xv
Gradient, in tone (see “Tonal
gradient”)
H strike weight 286
weight ratio 288
Harrison, Michael 94
Harshness, tonal, removing 211
Graf, Conrad 11, 12 Hackbrett 2 Hammer shanks Hawkins, John Isaac 10
Graham, Gregory 143 Hailun Chen 17 gluing hammers onto 391 Haydn, Franz Joseph 11
Grain angle, in soundboards 49 Hailun Piano Company 17, 47 grand, comparing 376 Haydn, Joseph 8, 9
Grand Half pedaling 185 grand, replacing 380 Hazards in finishing and refinishing
action and keyboard, Half step 94 grand, traveling 167 480
transporting 137 Half-blow heating and twisting 168, 393 Head
action diagram 64 distance 181, 197 in verticals, replacing 414 hammer 76
action rails 66 pedal 198, 275 made of carbon fiber composite hexagonal on bolts 339
action rebuilding 373 rail 194, 198 66 Hearing protection xvii
action types 63 Half-moon punchings 315 old, reusing 385 Heat gun 194, 196, 243
action, regulating 166 Half-round dowel (see “Balance rail stubs, cutting 393 Heating and twisting shanks 168,
action, removing 136 bearing”) Hammer Square tool 167 393
532 Index
Heating lamps 255, 256, 460, 461
Hebenstreit, Pantaleon 2, 3, 6
Height of grand backchecks 368
Heinrich Neuhaus 76
Heli-Coil 243, 262
Heller, Gregor 232
Hellerbass 232, 422
Helmholtz, Hermann von xviii, 97
Hemorrhagic Fever with Renal
Syndrome 136
Henri Arnaut de Zwolle 1
Henri Herz 12, 320
Henri Pape 10, 13
Herbert A. Shead xvii
Hermann Kluge 16
Hermann Lichtenthal 11, 507
Hermann von Helmholtz xviii, 97
Herrburger-Schwander 320
wippens 67
Hertz (Hz) 97
Herz, Henri 12, 320
Herz-Érard 63, 320
Hex screws 339
Hexagonal
core in bass strings 36
head on bolts 339
Hexagrip pinblock 28, 32
Hickey, Jeffrey 262
Hide glue 334, 335
High gloss 483
lacquer, repairing 264
High Performance Super Glue Gel
336
High-build finish 481
High-speed
rotary power tool 331
steel drill bits 451
History 1
Hitch pins 21, 22
Acu-Just (see “Acu-Just”)
Hi-tech finishes 483
Hoffman, Ferdinand 6
Hoist 329
Holes
for screws, repairing 240
in keys 237
Hollow mill 437
Horn (see “Plate horn”)
Hot hide glue 334
Hot Stuff 255
Hot-melt glue 337
Huber, Alfons 3
Huggins, David 274
Hughes, David G. 321
Humidifier 87, 328
Humidifying air 86
Humidity 83
effects on tuning 130
increasing 86
lowering 85
relative vs. absolute 84
Hurstwood Farm Piano Studios 19,
43, 45
Hydrogen peroxide 363
Hygrometer 85
Hypo oiler 218
I Jan Grossbach 263
Ialeggio, Jim 242, 416
Ian Gillis 4
Ibach 319
Ignace Pleyel 10
Igor Stravinsky 63
Igrec, Seni 82
Sample page from Pianos Inside Out. Copyright © 2013 Mario Igrec.
Imadegawa hammers 72, 384 Jim Schmitt 262 under 163
Impact tuning lever 110 Johann Andreas Stein 3, 6, 8, 9, 12 legs, fitting under 112
Impedance in soundboards 44 Johann Christian Bach 8 leveling strings from 205
Increasing soundboard crown 475 Johann Sebastian Bach 2, 9 lubricating 145, 147, 155, 179
Individually-tied strings 224 Johann Socher 3 positioning key frame on 208
Industrial Revolution 8, 11 Johannes Brahms 13, 70 pounding into 112
Industrial scale production 13 Johannes Pohlman 9 protecting during restringing 427
Inertia 275, 298, 304 Johannes Zumpe 9, 10 removing in verticals 430
benefits 299 John Dewey Enterprises 242, 375 sostenuto dowel in 137, 188
reducing 309 John Geib 4, 10 transmitting noises 62, 96
Inertial Touch Force 273, 299, 300 John Isaac Hawkins 10 underlever tool on 183
Infrared heating bulbs 460 John Nelson Woodworking 355 using for tuning fork 116
Inharmonicity 41, 101 John Parham 253 Key bushings 22, 58, 61
of intervals (see “Interval John Rhodes 273, 290, 292, 299, cauls 348
inharmonicity”) 300, 501 checking 155
of strings 34 John Watson 4, 7, 89, 136, 320 easing 155, 352
variations between scale designs Johnson, Eric 45 leather 490
107 Joints, on bridges, repairing 258 loose, repairing 236
Inherent vice 319 Jolly, Roger 165 replacing 347
Insects 88 Jonas Chickering 12 Key buttons 22, 60, 61
Insert, hardwood, for repairing Jones, Scott 283, 311 cracked, repairing 234
action rails 242 Joseph Haydn 8, 9 replacing 236
Inserting grand action and Jude Reveley 236, 288, 292, 313, Key capstans 62, 76
keyboard 137 314, 394, 459, 466 checking 155
Interval 94, 95 Julian Carrillo 94 lubricating 155
consonant v. dissonant 97 repositioning 313
inharmonicity 103, 106 K Key dip
Inventronics 125 checking in grands 149
Ionian mode 94 Kawai 17, 66, 197, 319, 375 constraints 275
Ironing hammer felt 214 Kehl, Roy 56 measuring 344
Isaac hammers 384 Keith Bowman 109 regulating 164
Isaac Pianos 422 Keith McGavern 262 setting inside the piano 161
Isaac, Ari 384 Kelly 16 Key end felts 22, 340
Isocyanates 483 Kent Webb 16, 85, 146 replacing 353
ITF (see “Inertial Touch Force”) Key 22, 94 Key frame 22, 58
Ivoplast 354 balance felt punchings 340 “bedding” to key bed 159
Ivorine key tops 354 balance holes, reaming 351 back rail 22, 58
Ivorite key tops 355 balance point, moving 315 balance rail and pins 58
Ivory block (see “End block”) bedding 159
chipped, repairing 238 damper lift (see “Damper lift”) checking 154
from fossil mammoth 355 fractured, repairing 234 cloths and felts 59
key tops 355 front felt punchings 340 cloths and felts, effect on noises
Ivory soap 145 height, measuring 343 63
leads 22, 62, 397 end block (see “End block”)
J level, observing 149 flexing 141, 167
mortise, broken 234 front pins 58
Jack 22, 76 pulley (see “Pulley key”) front rail 22, 58
bases in verticals, inspecting 191 ratio 280 gaining access to 140
binding on knuckle 156 rest felt 340 grasping 136
center pins, in verticals 191 stop rail 22, 159, 166, 343 holes, stripped, repairing 240
cheating (see “Cheating jack”) stop rail, removing 153 immobilized 251
gap, adjusting 195 weight ratio 291 inspecting 154
grand, aligning to knuckle 176 Key bed 20, 22, 24, 30, 57, 74, 76, lubricating 155, 179
in grands, split 243 136, 164, 179 preparing for rebushed keys 350
realigning to repetition lever attaching lyre to 271 rebuilding vs. replacing 326, 343
opening 156 bending 160 restoring 344
spring 77 blocking hitch pins in verticals return spring, lubricating 156
springs in verticals, inspecting 233 shift, diagnosing 149
189 bowed 205 shifting type 158
tender 22 curvature of 141, 164, 173 shimming, to adjust curvature of
tender, lubricating 158 curvature, measuring 344 175
Jacks damaging 268 Steinway balance rail bearings
inspecting in grands 156 distance to strings, altering 449 59
regulating in pianos with let off distance to strings, measuring Key pins 58
capstans 177 344, 423 checking 154
James F. Ellis 46 fitting key frame to 159 cleaning and lubricating 154
James Geiger 15 flexing 493 friction, checking 149
Janissary effects 8
glides in 160
hammers perpendicular to 204
replacing 345
Key punchings, felt 59
Jansen & Son 268 hollowed 141, 160, 205 Key shoe 60, 61
Japan 16 in vertical, action supports on regluing 238
Jean Marius 3 140 Key slip 22, 28
Jeffrey Hickey 262 in verticals 28 removing 136
Jigsaw 332 key frame, fastened to 136 Key tops 58, 61
Jim Ialeggio 242, 416 key level adjustment screws, black 22
Sample page from Pianos Inside Out. Copyright © 2013 Mario Igrec. Index 533

Magic line 282, 377, 378

black, replacing 365
cleaning 89
L Leveling strings 202
with ceramic magnets 204 Magnesium carbonate 422
porous white, sanding 363 Lacquer 217 Lever Magnet, for string leveling 204
porous, tools and materials 358 as hammer felt hardener 216 damper, adjusting 197 Magnetic Balanced Action 306, 311
regluing and replacing 238 blushing 479 damper, in verticals 77 Magnetic Friction Reduction 306
sealing ebony 367 high-gloss 483 repetition 76 Magnetically Accelerated Action
white 22 pore filler 482 underdamper in grands (see 311
white, bleaching 363 sanding sealer 482 “Damper, underlever”) Maintenance 83
white, buffing 364 satin, repairing 264 Leverage (see “Action, leverage”) periodic 89
white, loose 491 Special Repair (see “Special Levitan Tuning Levers 109 Major scale 94
white, replacing 354 Repair Lacquer”) 264 Levitan, Daniel 103, 109, 111, 114, Maleic resin 499
white, scraping 363 thinner 338 130 Mammoth ivory 355
Keyboard 58 Lacquer stick 264 Lichtenthal, Hermann 11, 507 Mapes 224, 422
effects of noises on tone 62 Lafargue Pianos 127 Lid 23 Maria Barbara, queen or Spain 2
felts 59 Laible, Ulrich 4 as a surface for regulation 137 Marius, Jean 3
grand, inserting 137 LakeOne USA 482 grand 28 Marking hammers 387
grand, removing the action from Laminates, plastic, for key tops 354 grand, removing and installing Marpurg, Friedrich 3
379 Laminate-trimming bit 236, 358, 361, 268 Mary Oey 320
grand, transporting 137 400 keyboard 28 Masking tape 337
how it works 76 Lamination sheet 201 prop 23 Mason & Hamlin 14, 15, 25, 27, 30,
in grands, removing 136 Lamps, heating 255, 256, 460 Lift, of dampers (see “Damper lift”) 36, 38, 39, 65, 67, 319, 378, 504
in verticals, regulation 158 Lanolin 145, 210, 215 Lifting piano plate 435 Mass
noises 59 Laoureux 384 Light in a rebuilding shop 328 in soundboards 44
rebuilding 342 Lap of wool 71 Lighter 194, 196, 243 of hammers, reducing 71
rebuilding vs. replacing 326, 343 Larry Fine 17 Limit, elastic, in strings 33 Massage, trigger point xvii
rebuilding, overview 326 Lavender, as moth repellent 88 Linesman pliers 333 Material Safety Data Sheet 217, 334
regulating 158, 161 Lead Lip balm 145 Materials xvii
regulating on the bench 141 corroded 89 Liquid hide glue 335 compatibility 318
removing top stack from 154 placement 299 Liquid Sandpaper 263 for black key tops 365
taking measurements 343 weights 295 Liquid Wrench 434, 437 for finishing soundboards 469
Key-Brite 89 weights, calculating 297 Liszt, Franz 13, 82 for pinblocks 441
Key-imbalance weight 295 weights, in keys 22, 62, 397 Lock bar 23 for rebuilding 334
Keys 94 weights, installing/removing 397 Lock washers 339 for white key tops 354
balance pin hole 61 wire 308 LOCK-N-STITCH 254 Mathias Müller 10
balance pin holes, reaming 350 Lead factor 292, 295 Locrian mode 94 Mathushek 15, 68, 321
checking 153 Leads Lodovico Giustini 2 Mating hammers to strings 207
cleaning 154 calculating 295 Logitudinal mode of vibration 44, 46 Mattheson 2
leaded to adjust touchweight 396 loose, repairing 236 Long bridge 20, 36 Matthew Crawford 318
leading temporarily 161 Leather 341 Long stick 23 Matthias Stöckle 467
manufacture 61 affected by humidity 85 Longman & Broderip 358 McDougal, Craig 9
properties 60 bushings 490 Lonnie Bird 446 McFerrin, W.V. 142
repairing 234 cutting 342 Louis Renner GmbH 64, 467 McGavern, Keith 262
rubbing 153 gluing on wood 342 Low-creep PVA glue 336 McLube 1708L 478
sanding on key frame 357 nap of 341 LPS 1 114 McLube 444NPB 145
sluggish 234 replacing 340 Lubricants 145 Mean-tone temperament 99
spacing between, regulating 162 replacing on grand backchecks Lubricating Measuring
squaring 162 369 damper levers and springs 192 downbearing 419
steaming to remove bushings LED head light 221 hammer butts 191 relative humidity 85
347 Leg 23 key frame and key bed in grands soundboard crown 461
weighting 397 plates 28 179 Mechanical damping 142
Kick board 140 Legato xviii, 63, 112, 174, 183, 397, knuckles 156 Mechanism 24, 57
Killer octave (see “Melody octave”) 490 lid hinge pins 268, 270 how it works 76
Kirkland, David 16, 27, 56 Legs 28 pedals 493 modifying 378
Klaus Wogram 45 removing and installing 268 repetition spring and notch 157 MEE (see “Moisture Excluding
Klavierhaus 36, 52, 57 Lens case 222, 287 screws with bees’ wax 340 Effectiveness”)
Kluge 61, 355 Lentz 76 vertical damper springs 192 Meguiar 90, 264, 265, 471, 483, 484
Kluge, Hermann 16 Lessons in tuning 111 voicing needles 210 Melodic intervals 95
Knabe 14, 319 Let off voicing needles with lanolin 210 Melodic minor scale 94
Knee levers 6 adjusting in grands 171 Ludwig van Beethoven 6, 11, 12 Melody octave 42, 46, 49, 50, 73,
Knuckle 385 adjusting in verticals 194 Lumber, quarter-sawn (see 204, 386
distance 278 button cloth, brushing and “Quartersawn Menzerna 265, 483
distance, altering 312 ironing 158 lumber”) Metal
jack binding on 156 buttons 22, 68, 76 Lydian mode 94 affected by humidity 85
Knuckles 22 buttons in grands, replacing 379 Lyre 23 gluing felt on 342
grand, inspecting 156 buttons in verticals, replacing detached pedal box 251 soundboard 45
lubricating 156 411 for pedals in grands 74 Metrology, of touchweight 273
repairing 244 buttons, lubricating 158 removing and installing 271 Metropolitan Museum of Art 1, 2
repositioning 313 capstans 68 repairing 249 Meyne Klaviertechnik 214
Kögler, August 13 rail 22 Mice 88
König 263, 264 rail, removing 177 M Michael Cole 2
Korea 16 screw, extracting 233 Michael Harrison 94
Korg 124, 126 testing by feel 174 Machine screws 339 Michael Wathen 43
Korg chromatic tuners 126 Letraset stencils for gauge numbers Machinist oil 145 Micro powder lubricant 145
Kos, Darije 461, 464 on plate 440 Machinist’s center drill 437 Microfinishing film 202
Kotibe 384 Leveler Company 163 Maffei, Scipione 1, 2, 6 Micrometer 34, 225, 227, 422
534 Index Sample page from Pianos Inside Out. Copyright © 2013 Mario Igrec.

Microtonal tunings 94 Nannette Streicher 3, 12 Over-centering of hammers 375, noises 493

MIDI 17 Nap of leather 341 386, 387 Pédale d’expression 75
Mike Morvan 61, 88, 235, 237, 345, Natural Felt 384 Overdamper action (see “Birdcage Pedals 6, 8, 74
346, 348, 355, 356, 357, 360, 361, Natural minor scale 94 action”) description 74
364, 367, 400 Needles Overdamping 11, 12 diagnosing 149
Miles, Poppy 238 glover’s 210 Overpull 128 loose, repairing 249
Millenium III action 17 lubricating 210 Overs Pianos 17 noisy 492
Minor scale 94 lubricating with lanolin 210 Overs, Ron 17 regulating 179
Mirror Glaze 90, 264, 265, 482, 483, Needling hammers 210 Over-stringing 13, 20, 36, 37, 56, 73, repairing 249, 250, 253
484 Neuhaus, Heinrich 76 227 Penetrating oil 434
Missing notes 82 New touchweight metrology 273 Overtone 95 Periodic maintenance 89
checking in grand actions 153 Nicholson file 237, 382 Overview of rebuilding procedures Perma-Grit 202
Notes, missing 494 Nick Gravagne 273, 393, 468 323 Peroxide, hydrogen, for bleaching
Mixolydian mode 94 Nickel plating on steel strings 34 Oxidized white key tops 363
Modal analysis 45 Nickel-plated tuning pins 421 key capstans 155 Perspiration, effects on piano
Modal scale 94 Nippers for cutting wire 333 key pins 154 strings 224
Mode of vibration 46 Noises Peter Donhauser 8
Moderator
pedal 76
action parts 490
buzzes (see “Buzzes”)
P Peterson Strobe Tuner 126
Petrof 36, 311, 410
pedal, regulating 198 clanking, in pedals (see Paint (see also “Finish”) 263 Petroleum jelly 145
Modifying “Clanking noise”) Paint thinner 338 used on plate flange 454
action 378 clatter (see “Clatter”) Painter’s tape 337 Pfeiffer, Walter 273
grand dampers with threaded clicking (see “Clicking noises”) Panels Philadelphia Centennial Exhibition
wires 404 creaking (see “Creaking noise”) in pianos 28 14
pitman dowel 408 damper felt (see “Damper, felt in verticals, removing 137 Phillips head screws 339
Moisture noise”) of particleboard 28 Phillips, Ruth 263
condensation of 84 effects on tuning 489 Pan-head screws 339 Phoenix 19, 56
Moisture (see also “Humidity”) 83 in grand damper system 181 Pantaleon Hebenstreit 2, 3, 6 Phoenix Piano Company 25, 54
Moisture-absorbing agent 85, 87, 91 in keyboard 59 Pantalon 2 Phoenix Pianos 319
Moisture-excluding effectiveness in pedals 492 Pape, Henri 10, 13 Phrygian mode 94
84, 319, 469, 470 in vertical pedals 493 Papps mute 111, 112 Piano
Molding keyboard, affecting tone 62 Parham, John 253 diagram 22
of hammers 71 oinking (see “Oinking noise”) Paris Conservatory 9 Harmonic, by Michael Harrison
of hammers, materials 73 outside piano, effects on tuning Paris exhibition in 1867 13 94
Molitor 458 133 Paris Green 136 prepared 224
Monkey, sostenuto, removing 379 rattles (see “Rattles”) Parsons, Tremaine 419 Sixteenth Tone 94
Montal, Claude 75, 76, 275 sizzling 489 Partials Piano Forte Supply 59, 202, 208,
Moondog Grand Piano Tilter 268 squealing (see “Squealing coincident 96, 121 340, 347
Mortise (see “Key, mortise”) noise”) prominence of 101 Piano Life Saver System (See
Morton, Frank E. 44 zings (see “Zing noise”) Particleboard 28 “Dampp-Chaser”)
Morvan, Mike 61, 88, 235, 237, 345, Nomenclature, musical xviii Parts Piano Scale Design Program 419
346, 348, 355, 356, 357, 360, 361, Norman Cantrell 136 action, comparing in grands 376 Piano String Couplers 121
364, 367, 400 Nose 27 action, rebushing 246 Piano Technicians Guild xvi, 124,
Moth balls 88 Nose bolts 20, 131 action, repinning 244 126, 419, 458
Mother Goose 204 cups or nuts 20, 22 Pattern of tuning pins 131 Piano Technicians Guild
Moths 88 Nossaman, Ron 452 Paul Badura-Skoda 212 Foundation 15
Moto Tool 331 Notching, bridges 41, 478 Paul L. Jansen & Son, Inc 268 Piano Technicians Journal 253, 419,
Mouse infestation (see “Rodents”) Notes 94 Paul Revenko-Jones 437 458
Mover’s blankets (see “Blankets”) Nuts, used with bolts as fasteners Paulello, Stephen 17, 224 Piano Wrangler Equipment Co. 268
Moving Grand Piano 267 339 Pedal 23 PianoDisc 149
Mozart, Wolfgang Amadeus 3, 6, 9, damper (sustain) 74 PianoHorse 268
11 O damper lift 402 Pianos Bolduc 259, 434, 435, 444,
MSDS (see “Material Safety Data damper lift rod 192 445, 446, 449, 451, 452, 453, 454,
Sheet”) O.S. Kelly 16 damper lift, in verticals 196 455, 458, 473, 514
Müller, Mathias 10 Oblong tuning pins 110 damper, regulating 179 Pianotech x, 262, 383, 458, 516, 520
Multi-laminated pinblock 451 Observations before rebuilding half-blow (see “Half-blow, Pianotek 91, 255, 265, 274, 346, 349,
Multiple chemical sensitivity 479 grand action 375 pedal”) 384, 407, 414, 437, 458
Music desk (see “Music rack”) Octagrip 28 linkage 74 Pianoworld.com x, xvi, 383, 516, 520
Music nomenclature xviii Octave 94 lyre 74 Piccolo piano 10
Music rack 23 melody (see “Melody octave”) moderator 76 Pierre Érard 12, 13, 320
removing 136 tuning 116 moderator, regulating 198 Pinblock 20, 21, 22, 28
Music Sorb 85, 87, 91 Octaves, stretched 119 noises in grands 493 as precondition for tuning 131
Music typesetting 11 Oey, Mary 320 practice 76 Bolduc router bit (see “Bolduc,
Music wire (piano strings) 33 Offset bass bridge 40 right 74 pinblock router bit”)
Musikmesse Frankfurt xvi Ohlendorf, Rick 234 rods 23, 76 brushing holes 421
Muslin buffing wheel 364 Oinking noise 490 soft (see “Soft pedal”) drilling 451
Mute, tuning 112 Old Brown Glue 335 sostenuto 74, 76 fitting to the plate 54
Mutton tallow 145, 158 Oorebeek, André 157, 208 sostenuto, regulating 186 floating 33, 441
Muzio Clementi 9 Open-face pinblock 33, 440 sustain (see “Pedal, damper”) full-fit 33, 441, 444
Mylar 424 replacing 456 trapwork in grands (linkage) 76 Hexagrip 28, 32
Orange-peel look 470, 483 vertical damper lift 190 inspecting before restringing 419
N Orbital sander 332 whoosh 183, 491 installing thinner to improve
Organizing a rebuilding shop 328 Pedal box, detached 251 downbearing 449
Nails 339, 403 Outer rim (Case) 23, 28 Pedal rods materials 441
NAMM xvi Oval head screws 339 adjusting 180 open face 33, 440, 456
Sample page from Pianos Inside Out. Copyright © 2013 Mario Igrec.
regular-fit 33, 441
repairs 254
replacing or rebuilding,
overview 326
replacing, in grands 440
types, in grands 440
Pins
balance rail 58, 76
bridge 21
bridge, installing 479
front, on key frame 58
hitch, Acu-Just 56
in bridges 40
in bridges, repairing loose 256
tuning 21
tuning, oblong 110
tuning, problems with 130
Pitch
lowering 129
raising 128
Pitchlock Inc. 121, 311
Pitman dowel 23, 408
lubricating 493
modernizing 408
regulating 179
Plain felts 340
Planer, portable power 332
Planer/jointer 331
Planes 333
Plastic
acrylic for key tops 354
black key tops 365
elbows 409
laminates for key tops 354
Plastic cleaner 484
Plastic piano 25, 66
Plastic polish 484
Plate 20, 22, 50
bolt 22
bushings 54, 326
bushings, applying CA glue to
255
changing inner tensions 133
composite 440
contraction 54
cracked 131
cracked, repairing 253
cupola 56
hitch pins 21
inspecting before restringing 419
internal stress 54
lifting out of the piano 435
loose 130
lowering 449
manufacture 54
marking gauge numbers on with
stencils 440
nose bolts 20, 131
rebuilding, overview 326
regilding (refinishing) 439
reinstalling 436
removing 433
resonances 133
screws, tightening 130
stress 54
struts 22
struts, effects on tuning 133
support dowels 20, 22
suspension, nonstandard 433
three-quarter 33, 440
three-quarter, replacing
pinblock 456
Plate horn 21, 27, 28, 29, 204, 434,
436
Plate Puller 329, 435
Index 535
Plates in grand legs 28
Playability 273, 303, 306
Q fractured key 234
key button 234
improvement road map 310 Quartersawn key shoe 238
Plexiglas 215, 384 keys 61 soundboard separations 459
Pleyel 13 lumber 50, 61 soundboard to ribs and rim 463
Pleyel, Ignace 10 lumber, for bridge caps 474 split hammer shank 243
Pliers 333 lumber, for pinblocks 443 Regular-fit pinblock 33, 441
Plugs, hardwood 241 lumber, for soundboards 44, 441 Regulating 135
Plunge router 331 Queen Maria Barbara of Spain 2 action 166
Pohlman, Johannes 9 Quick Dry Tacky Glue 358 as periodic maintenance 89
Polishing 89 QuicKey Leveler 163, 164 blow distance in verticals 195
Polyester finish 28, 265, 481 Quicktite 336 damper spoons 197
Polyurethane 481 dampers in verticals 196
Polyvinyl glues (see “PVA glue,”
“PVC-E glue”)
R grand action 166
grand action, rough 394
Poppy Miles 238 Rack for music, removing 136 grand damper system 180
Pore filler 482 Rail guide notes 166
Porous key tops, tools and materials belly 21 jacks in pianos with let off
358 half-blow (see “Half-blow, rail”) capstans 177
Portable power tools 331 Rails key dip inside the piano 161
Portable upright 10 damaged, repairing 240 key frame glides 159
Portugal 1 in piano action 66 keyboard 158, 161
Pounding stick 112 Railsback curve 102, 104 on piano’s lid 137
Powell, Sam 278 Raised plate flange 21 on the bench 141
Power tools 330 Raising pitch 128 pedals 179
Practice pedal 76 Raking buffing wheel 365 soft pedal 178
Precision Dip Force Gauge 164 Range, expanding 12 sostenuto 186
Precision TouchDesign 273, 309 Rasps 333 touchweight 396
kit 274, 292 Ratchet brace 333 vertical action 189
Prellleiste 3 Ratio of action leverage (see Regulation Station (see “Grandwork
Prellmechanik 3 “Action, leverage”) Regulation Station”)
Premium Blue hammers 73, 384 Rats 88 Reinforcement, of hammer felt 73
Pre-needling hammers 386 Rattles Relative humidity 84
Prepared piano 224 diagnosing 489 Releasing tension of strings 421
Pressure bars 24, 430 effect on tuning 133 Renaissance 99
Pressure iron 6 in soundboard 261 Renner 5, 24, 58, 66, 67, 71, 210,
Pressure plates 339 Ravenscroft 17, 41 247, 374, 380, 383, 406, 467
Pressure ridges 49 RC&S (see also “rib-crowned”) hammers 384
Priming surface for finishing 482 soundboard 49 Renner USA 68, 282, 384, 387, 407
Pro Grade by 3M 338 Real-Time Specialties 125, 126 Repairs 221
Projection of sound, increasing 211 Reamalgamation solvent 481 Repetition
Prokofiev, Sergei 63 Reaming grand lever height, regulating
Prolube 192 agraffe holes 437 177
Prolube (see “Protek, Prolube”) holes in hammers 391 see “Wippen” 67
Protecting hearing xvii key balance holes 350 speed of 77
Protek Rebounding of hammers 70 Repetition lever and spring 22, 76
CLP 114, 144, 145, 146, 148, 193, Rebuilding 317 lubricating 157
246, 249, 490 shop requirements 327 see also “Spring, repetition”
MPL-1 145 Recrowning soundboard 460 Repetition-assisted English action
Prolube 114, 145, 192 Reducing height of agraffes 439 13
PSCALE 419 Refinishing 479 Repinning action parts 244
Psychometer 85 grand damper heads 401 Replacing
PTG (see “Piano Technicians overview 327 agraffes 436
Guild”) piano plate 439 black key tops 365
Pull saw 393, 394 soundboard 460, 468 bridge cap 473
Puller, of grand plate 329, 435 Reflection of energy 6 bridle straps 411
Pulley key 237, 314 by bridge pins 41 broken string 223
Pulling piano to pitch 128 by bridges 36 damper felts in verticals 413
Punchings by Phoenix rim 54 damper guide rail bushings 402
balance rail 59 by plate 28, 51 damper heads with wires 404
Crescendo 59, 340, 347 by V bar 56 felts and leathers 340
front 340 helped by pinblock 33 grand backchecks 369
half-moon 315 in soundboard 44, 49 grand damper felts 400
Pure Intonation tuning 94 Reflection of light 264, 484 grand damper underlevers 406
Pure Sound 224, 422 by acrylic key tops 356 grand hammer shanks 380
Push action 3 Reflection of sound grand hammers 383
PVA glue 335, 366 by fan 112, 133 grand pinblock 440
low creep 336 effect on voicing 209 grand wippens 379
PVC-E glue 336, 366, 367 Reflective foil 364 hammers and shanks in
Pyramid piano 8 Reflowing verticals 414
Pythagorean finish 481 key bushings 347
comma 98 hammer hardener 215 key button 236
temperament 99 old finish 481 key end felts 353
Regilding piano plate 439 key pins 345
Regluing key tops 238
536 Index Sample page from Pianos Inside Out. Copyright © 2013 Mario Igrec.

let off buttons 379 Rotary sander 332 SEER 86 Soft Wax 264
pinblock 441, 456 Rotary tool, high speed 331 Seesawing hammer and key 368, Softener, fabric 215
string in verticals 233 Rough-regulating 371 Sohmer 43
strings 418 grand action 394 Seiko 126 Solvents 338
vertical action parts 408 vertical action 416 Selecting hammers 383 Son, Sam 149
white key tops 354 Round-head screws 339 Semitone 94 Sostenuto 63, 121
Repositioning Router 331 Seni Igrec 82 blade 187, 188
action rack 315 Roy Kehl 56 Separations bracket spring clamp 379
key balance point 315 Royal Blue 73, 384 in soundboards, regluing 459 height gauge 188
key capstans 313 RR action 69 on bridge joints, repairing 258 monkey 154
knuckles 312, 313 Rubbing, to clean satin finishes 90 Sergei Prokofiev 63 monkey, removing 379
wippen rail 315 Ruth Phillips 263 Series of harmonics 95 noises 493
Resetting hammer felt during Seven Years’ War 8 pedal 74, 76
voicing 211
Reshaping hammers before
S Shank (see “Hammer shank”)
Shaping hammer tails 71, 388
pedal, adjusting 180
regulating 186
regulating action 166 SAE 20W oil 145 Sharps, replacing 365 rod 22, 63, 404
Resonances Sam Powell 278 Shead, Herbert A. xvii rod blade 187
duplex 133 Sam Son 149 Sheet-metal screws 258, 259, 261, rod, lubricating 186
in soundboards 45 Sander 331, 332 339, 463, 464, 465 rod, removing 379
in the plate 133 Sanderson Accu-Tuner 125 Shelf Sound 43
Resonator, tension 25 Sanding in bass bridges 20, 40 envelope 43
Resonator, Treble Tone 458 block 337, 357 underlever (see “Underlever regulating (see “Voicing”)
Resonators, in spruce 44 block, glass or granite 359 tray”) sustain, related to rim or frame
Resorcinol 337 grid 338 Shift pedal (see “Soft pedal”) 25
Restringing 418 hammers 211, 213, 216 Shifting key frame (see “Soft pedal”) transmission through bridges 36
grand pianos 423 hammers, cupped 386 Shigeru Kawai 17 transmitted to soundboard 43
overview 326 keys on key frame 357 Shimming volume 209
vertical pianos 430 porous white key tops 363 chisel 466 waves, reflection (see
Reveley, Jude 236, 288, 292, 313, sealer, applying 482 long bridge (see “Soundboard, “Reflection of energy”)
314, 394, 459, 466 sponge 338 crown, increasing”) Soundboard 20, 23, 43
Revenko-Jones, Paul 437 top layer of hammer felt 393 soundboard cracks 318, 460, 465 bleaching 469
Revolving screen humidifier 87 Sandpaper 337 Shock absorption, as a result of clamping to rim 50
Reyburn CyberTuner 126 3M microfinishing film 202 friction 142 compression set 457
Reyburn Piano Service 125 sanding grid 338 Shoe 21, 27, 434, 436 compression-crowned 49
Reyburn Piano Tech 110 Satin lacquer Shop cracks, shimming 318, 460, 465
Rhodes, John 273, 290, 292, 299, repairing 264 climate, effects on refinishing crown (see “Crown”)
300, 501 rubbing 90 479 decal, applying 472
Rib-crowned soundboards 49 Satinizing finish 264, 484 equipment and tools 329 density 50
Riblets 458 Sauter 15, 41, 68, 77 organizing 328 diaphragmatic 47
Ribs Sauter, Carl 94 requirements 327 finishing materials 469
in soundboards 20, 23, 45, 50 Saw, pull (see “Pull saw”) Shoulders fish 46
loose, effect on tuning 133 Sawhorse 268, 270, 271, 329, 435, of hammers 70, 208 floating 46
regluing soundboard to 463 448, 461 of hammers, needling 211 impedance 44
Richard Dain 17, 19, 25, 43, 45 Scale 94 Silbermann, Gottfried 2, 6 inspecting before restringing 418
Richard Gertz 14, 25 break 133 Silent piano 194 made of carbon fiber 19
Rick Baldassin 103, 128 design 51 Silica 85 manufacture of 50
Rick Ohlendorf 234 design, effects on tuning 133 Silicon-carbide 201, 202, 222, 227, pressure ridges 49
Ridges, pressure, in soundboards variations in inharmonicity 107 337, 338 rattling, repairing 261
49 Scarlatti, Domenico 2 Silicone lubricants 145 rebuilding 457
Rim 19, 23, 24, 25 Schaff Piano Supply Co. 182, 227, silumin 25 rebuilding, overview 327
composite 24 358, 384, 404, 407, 414 Silver, German 143 recrowning 467, 475
inspecting before restringing 419 Schmitt, Jim 262 Simple Green 89 refinishing 468
laminated (continuous) 24 Schröter, Christoph Gottlieb 3, 6 Single (individually tied) strings 224 reflection (see “Reflection of
outer (case) 28 Schwander 14, 67, 68, 175, 192, 288 Sixteenth Tone Piano 94 energy”)
spruce, in Bösendorfer 25 action 77 Sizzling noises 489 regluing to ribs and rim 463
stiffness 44 butt spring 410 Skid board 268 repairing or replacing 458
Ring bridge 38 hammer butt 411, 413 Sleeves, threaded for screws 339 resonances 45
Rinsing Scientific notation xviii Sliding friction 443 rib-crowned 49
hardener from felt 215 Scipione Maffei 1, 2, 6 Sliding key frame (shifting key ribs (see “Ribs, in
trough 216 ScotchBlue 267 frame) 158 soundboards”)
Rippen 25, 27, 66 Scotch-Brite 263 Sling psychometer 85 shimming (see “Shimming
Robert Grijalva 458, 459 Scott Jones 283, 311 Slotted-head screws 339 soundboard cracks”)
Robert Wornum 10, 11, 507 Scraping, porous white key tops 363 Sluggish soaking with epoxy 459
Robert Young 103, 106 Scratches, repairing 264 action parts in verticals stiffness and mass 44
Roberts, Dave 419 Screw 339 (verdigris) 374 thickness 44
Robinson Strate-Mate 203 capstan 76 keys 234 Soundboard Repair System 466
Rodents 88, 136 countersinking 339 Soap Soundboard steel 90, 489
Rods in pedal linkages 76 extractor 262 as lubricant 493, 494 Sound-generating components 33
Roger Jolly 165 holes, repairing 240 bar 145 Southerland, David 2
Ron Nossaman 452 thread repair 243 Socher, Johann 3 Southwell, William 8
Ron Overs 17 threaded metal sleeves for Socket, for grand casters 28 Spacing
Ronsen 71, 72 machine screws 339 Soft pedal 74 between keys, regulating 162
Root, of bridge 37 Screw stringer 14 regulating 178, 180 of hammers, checking in grands
Rosin 421 Screwdrivers 333 voicing for 213 149
Röslau 224, 422 Sébastien Érard 12, 13, 77, 320 Soft pencil 145 Spain 1
Sample page from Pianos Inside Out. Copyright © 2013 Mario Igrec.
Spanner 333
Späth, Franz Jacob 9
Speaking lengths, unequal 41
Special Pressing hammers 384
Special Repair Lacquer 264
Spine 8
Spinet grand 15, 321
Splicing a string 223
Spokeshave 333
Sponge
buffing (see “Buffing sponge”)
tack 469
tack, by Meguiars 471
Spoon, grand wippen 22
Spoons, damper, in verticals 77
adjusting 197
Spraying
equipment for finishing work 479
Spraying finish on soundboard 471
Spring
butterfly (see “Butterfly spring”)
hammer butt 77
hammer butt, variations in 68
jack in verticals, inspecting 189
jack, in verticals 77
repetition 76, 77
repetition, lubricating 157, 158
repetition, regulating 175
Spring clamp 311, 411
for key bushings 348
for key fronts 358
on sostenuto bracket 187, 379
Spring-assisted wippen (see
“Wippen, spring-assisted”)
Springs
hammer butt, inspecting 191
vertical damper lever,
lubricating 192
Spruce 44
as material for piano keys 60
quartersawn 50
resonators 44
shims for soundboard cracks
466
Spurlock Specialty Tools 145, 185,
349, 385, 466
Spurlock, Bill 194, 286, 393
Square piano 15
Mathushek’s Spinet Grand (see
“Spinet grand”)
rebuilding 321
Squaring
hammers 168
keys 162
Squeak 493
Squealing noise 490
Stability
in tuning 84
of action frame in verticals,
inspecting 191
Staccato xviii, 11, 63, 76, 97, 112,
148, 172, 178, 181, 183, 185, 186,
187, 278, 300, 301, 397, 497
Staff 94
Standard measurement position 276
Stanwood
Adjustable Leverage Action 315
TouchDesign Kit (see “Precision
TouchDesign, kit”)
Stanwood, David 144, 214, 273, 283,
286, 288, 290, 291, 309, 315, 506
Staple
in hammers 73
sostenuto, in New York Steinway
grands 187
Index 537
Star-shaped back 25 Stravinsky, Igor 63 Strip mute 111, 112, 113, 116, 117,
Static Streicher, Nannette 12 118
friction 443 Streicher, Nannette and Johann Stripper, chemical, for removing
touchweight 276 Andreas 3 finishes 481
Stationary power tools 330 Strength, tensile of strings 33 Strobotuner 124
Steaming keys to remove bushings Strengthening attachment of Structure 24
347 baseboard 494 as precondition for tuning 131
Steam-treating hammer felt 71, 214 Stress, in piano plates 54 unstable 319
Steel string (see “String”) Stretch, in tuning 103 Struts 22
Steel wool 265, 338 Stretched octaves 119 in plate, effects on tuning 133
wax 145, 265 Stretcher 20, 22, 205 Stuart & Sons 17, 43, 56, 75
Stegemann, A. 68 detaching pinblock from 444 Stuart, Wayne 17, 43
Stein, André 8 Strike point 73, 208 Sturm, Fred 69, 109, 124, 130, 155,
Stein, Johann Andreas 3, 6, 8, 9, 12 adjusting 375, 394 165, 193, 210, 215
Steingraeber & Söhne 15, 17, 19, 43, adjusting, in verticals 193 Sugar pine, for piano keys 60
45, 75 Strike weight 275, 286 Sugaring 214
Phoenix 56 changing 308 Super Lube 145
Steinway 38, 41 ratio 294 Superglue (see “CA glue”)
Accelerated Action 59, 315, 347 spread 302 SuperJet 238
bell 21, 496 String 22 Support spring (see “Wippen
console verticals 430 bass, twisting 231 assist spring”)
Diaphragmatic soundboard 47 becket 223 Surface
hammers 384 broken, replacing 223 of porous key tops, treating 363
soundboard edge, beveled 50 downbearing (see wooden, filling and priming 482
Tubular Metallic Frame 66 “Downbearing”) Surform plane 333
tubular rails, repairing 242 duplex segment 62 Sustain 43, 44, 209
wippens 67 German loop 225, 231 of sound, increasing 211
Steinway & Sons xi, 5, 13, 14, 16, 17, leveling 202 of sound, related to rim and
21, 22, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, new, tuning 230 frame 25
33, 35, 38, 39, 40, 42, 44, 45, 47, segments, effects on tuning 131 pedal 74
51, 52, 53, 54, 55, 56, 58, 59, 65, speaking segment length in pedal, regulating 179
68, 72, 130, 143, 146, 154, 159, unisons 41 Swaging bass strings 34
163, 164, 172, 175, 186, 187, 188, splicing 223 Syntonic comma 98, 117
217, 225, 227, 237, 242, 244, 246, stiffness 101 System Three 336, 459
247, 250, 252, 260, 261, 271, 282, touching a grand damper wire
292, 300, 319, 325, 347, 352, 354, 183 T
377, 380, 383, 384, 395, 407, 442, String bearings, diagnosing 322
459, 472, 484, 486, 496, 499, 501, String level 204 Tack rag 482
507 Stringer II 227 Tack sponge 469, 471, 482
Hamburg 16, 21, 31, 59, 67, 313, Stringing 423 Tactile Response System 63
369, 384 backscale 49 Tail, of piano 8
hammers 384 braid 341 Tails
history 13 design 36 of hammers 73
Steinway, Albert 13, 76 types of 224 of hammers, shaping and
Steinway, C.F. Theodor 21, 27, 36, Strings 33 tapering 388
37, 38, 50, 56 affected by perspiration 224 Talcum powder 145, 421
Steinway, Theodore E. 21 bass 34 Tap wrench 262, 437
Steinweg (see “Grotrian”) binding 131 Tape
Stelzhammer, Anton 25, 27 diagnosing 322 adhesive 337
Stencils, dry transfer for gauge double 224 duct 337
numbers on plate 440 downbearing 54, 84 masking 337
Step 94 downbearing, diagnosing 322 Tape-check action 11
Stephen Birkett 300 downbearing, measuring 419 Tapering
Stephen Brady 221, 374, 437 elastic limit 33 hammer tails 388
Stephen Paulello 17, 224 fatigue 34 vertical piano hammer moldings
Stephen Paulello Piano Wire 422 handling 224 414
Stick 23 individually-tied 224 Technisches Museum, Vienna 5, 6,
pounding, for tuning 112 inharmonicity 34, 41 8, 10, 15, 27
Sticker 140 mating hammers to 207 Teflon 66, 145, 146, 161, 246, 247,
Sticker cloth (see also “Action new, tuning 129 350
cloth”) 340 nickel-plated 34 Temperament 94, 97
Stiffness releasing tension of 421 circle 117
in soundboards 44 replacing 418 Pythagorean 99
of bass strings 34 replacing, overview 326 strip (see “Strip mute”)
of strings 101 setting the downbearing 475 tuning 117
Stöckle, Matthias 467 slipping 132 Temperature
Stodart, William 7, 8 steel 34 effects on pianos 87
Stop rail tensile strength of 33 effects on relative humidity 84
for dampers 77 to key bed distance, measuring effects on tuning 130
for keys 22, 159, 166, 343 344 Tensile strength of strings 33
for keys (see “Key, stop rail”) touching tuning pins 132 Tension gauge 291, 292, 398
Stossmechanik 3 unequal speaking lengths 41 Tension of strings, releasing 421
Straight-stringing 27, 36, 38, 47 voicing each in a unison 213 Tension Resonator 14, 25, 27
Straps, bridle 341 wire gauge 34 Tenuto xviii, 174
Strate-Mate 203, 205 wound (bass) 34 Termites 88
538 Index Sample page from Pianos Inside Out. Copyright © 2013 Mario Igrec.

Testors 263 Touchweight 273, 275, 276, 396 wippen”) panels, removing 137
TFL-50 145 adjusting 396 Turkish music 8 piano, creaking noise 490
T-handle tap wrench 262, 437 calculating 294 Twelve Apostles 8 piano, development of 15
Tharan 355 controlling 308 Twisting a bass string 231 piano, noises in pedals 493
Theodor Steinway 21, 27, 36, 37, 38, evaluating when replacing Two-component finishes piano, rebuilding 320
50, 56 hammers 307 high-gloss 483 piano, restringing 430
Theodore E. Steinway 21 glossary 290 repairing 265 pressure bars 430
Thermoplastic PVA glues 335 issues 304 Typesetting music 11 raised plate flange 21
Thomas Broadwood 12 metrology 273 Vibrating sander 332
Thomas Broukal 67
Thread
troubleshooter 306
Toxic chemicals 136
U Vibration
longitudinal mode 44, 46
repair kit 243 TPR Tools 141, 142, 167, 204, 205 Ulrich Laible 4 mode of 46
wood 339 Trakoscan 11 Ultimate Wood Glue 335 transversal mode 46
Threaded metal sleeves 339 Transmission Ultrasonic humidifier 87, 328 Vice, inherent 319
Threaded sleeve 262 of sound 43 Umbrella tool 249 Viennese action 3, 13, 341
Threaded wires in grand dampers, of sound, through bridges 36 Una corda pedal (see “Soft pedal”) Vietor, Frederick 59
modifying 404 Transporting grand action and Under-centering of hammers 278, Vise, angle, for drilling hammers 387
Three-quarter plate 440 keyboard 137 375, 386, 387, 449 Voicing 73, 199
replacing pinblock 456 Transversal mode of vibration 46 Underfelt dense hammers 209
Tilt, of action parts 168 Transverse bar (see “Capo tasto”) in dampers 74 for shifting soft pedal 213
Tilting of tuning pins 452 Trapwork 23, 76 of hammers 73 lubricating needles with lanolin
Timbre 96, 209 lubricating 179 Underlevel 204, 205 210
evening variations in 213 Trautwein xiii Underlever tray 22, 248, 251, 270, mating hammers to strings 207
of sound (tone color) 209 Traveling 404, 406, 407, 493 new hammers 394
Timpani felt 340 action parts with flanges 168 replacing 407 resetting hammer felt 211
Tips of shanks, cutting 393 grand dampers 182 Underlevers 22 soft hammers 216
Titebond 50 336, 454 grand shanks 167 aligning to key end felts 407 Volume 209
Titebond glue 335, 391 grand wippens 170, 380 distance to key bed, measuring of sound, increasing 213
Titebond III Ultimate Wood Glue 335 vertical hammers 193 400 of sound, lowering 212
Titebond Liquid Hide Glue 335 vertical wippens 191 functioning 77 Vortex tube chiller 32, 33, 439, 442,
Toe 21, 434, 436 TravelSmart 214 lubricating 182 451
Toe rail 253 Tray, underlever (see “Underlever of grand dampers, rebuilding vs. VS Profelt 215
noises 494 tray”) replacing 405
Tokiwa 374
Toluol 338
Treble Tone Resonator 458
Treble tuning 112, 121
replacing 406
Understring felt 22, 340
W
Tonal gradient 70, 199 Tremaine Parsons 419 Understring-style string leveling tool W.V. McFerrin 142
Tone Trigger point massage xvii 204 Walter 49
affected by keyboard noises 62 Tritone 97 Unison Walter Pfeiffer 273
color (see also “Timbre”) 209 Troubleshooter affected by temperature changes Walter, Anton 5, 6
color, evening 213 action geometry 304 130 Warm-pressed hammers 71, 384
effect on perception of touch 302 aftertouch 305 tuning 114 Warpage 83
evaluating 208 touchweight 306 voicing 213 of keys 60
quality, defined by prominence Trough (see “Rinsing, trough”) Unshaped plastic laminates for key Water separator 479
of partials 101 Tubular action rails 340 tops 354 Water vapor 84
regulating (voicing) 73 Tubular Metallic Frame 66, 68 Unstable structure 319 Waterfalls 481
Tone Collector 27 Tubular rails, repairing 242 Upweight 276 Water-white finish 469
Tone Resonator 458 Tunability 131 Wathen, Michael 43
Toneplus 384 TuneLab 126 V Watson, John 4, 7, 89, 136, 320
Tonewood 44 Tuners, electronic 125 Wave impedance 44
Tool, rotary, high speed 331 Tuning 93 V bar 56, 114 Wave velocity 101
Tools as periodic maintenance 89 friction 131 Wavelength 101
hand 333 lowering pitch 129 grooved 132 Wax, as lubricant for steel wool (see
in a rebuilding shop 329 new string 129, 230 Vagias snap-on elbows 409 “Steel wool, wax”)
power, portable 331 stability, affected by humidity 84 Vapor, protection from 84 Wayne Stuart 17, 43
Toothpick 240 Tuning hammer 107 Varnish 481 WD-40 114
Top stack 63, 148, 151, 157, 159, 201, choosing 109 brushing, on soundboards 470 as lubricant 145
240, 291 Tuning pin 22 Velo, Hans 46, 306, 311, 419 Webb, Kent 16, 85, 146
affecting the measurement of bending 130 Velocity leverage (see “Leverage”) Weber 149
wippen assist springs 311 bushings in the plate 54 Veneer 28 Wedge
avoiding having to remove 161 holes, drilling in new pinblock Ventilation 328 for increasing soundboard
moving forward or backward 451 during refinishing 479 crown 467
315 torque, improving 255 Verdigris xvii, 145, 246, 247, 374, 385 locking grand legs 28
removing from keyboard 154 twisting 130 Verituner 102, 126 Wedges or cauls for key bushings
tilt forward 157 Tuning pins 21 Vertical 348
tilted forward 146 brushing holes 421 action 68 Weickert felt 72
tipping forward 157 hammering 254 action diagram 64 Weickert Special hammers 71
turning upside down 157 hammering down 230 action regulation 189 Weighing new hammers 386
Torque 143 jumpy 130 action, rebuilding 408 Weight
Touch, adjusting weight of 396 loose 130 action, removing 140 balance model 289
TouchDesign (see “Precision oblong 110 action, rough-regulating 416 of touch (see “Touchweight”)
TouchDesign”) offset pattern 131 backcheck felt 340 ratio (see “Strike-weight ratio”)
Touching up replacing, overview 326 Fandrich, back 25 strike (see “Strike weight”)
edges 484 tightness of 130 keyboard regulation 158 Weight ratios 287
finish 263 tilt 452 keyboard vs. grand keyboard Weightbench 273, 299
TouchRail 311 Turbo wippen (see “Spring-assisted 343 kit 274
Sample page from Pianos Inside Out. Copyright © 2013 Mario Igrec. Index 539

Weighting keys 397 292, 294, 297, 309, 310, 311, Wires Wornum, Robert 10, 11, 507
Weights 312, 397 backcheck, to replace or not 369 Wound strings (bass strings) 34
brass, used for improving assist spring, too strong 276, 394 fluted in grand backchecks 371 Wrenches 333
sustain 459 butterfly spring (see “Butterfly threaded in grand backchecks Wrestplank (see “Pinblock”)
lead, in keys 397 spring”) 371 Wright, Allen 89, 157, 171, 211, 213,
lead, installing/removing 397 center pins, in verticals 191 Wixey angle gauge 417 228, 237, 261, 423, 425, 472
Weldbond 336, 391 flange 22 Wogram, Klaus 45 Wurlitzer 149
Well temperament 99 Herrburger-Schwander 67 Wolf fifth 99 Wurzen 72
Weltman 3 jack 76 Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart 3, 6, 9, AA felt 384
Wessell, Nickel & Gross 62, 66, 143, radius weight 288 11
169, 243, 244, 247, 280, 312, 314, rail 22 Wood X
319, 325, 341, 345, 346, 374, 375, ratio 280 affected by humidity 84
381, 385, 386, 388, 391, 407, 434 repetition lever, spring 76 compression set in 457 Xylol 338
West System 336 repetition spring 76, 77 expansion 83
Wet bulb 85
Wetordry sandpaper 338
spoon 22
spring-assisted 67, 297, 309, 311
gluing felt and leather on 342
screws 339
Y
White stack weight 291 thread on screws 339 Yamaha 16, 17, 25, 61, 63, 66, 68, 69,
buffing compound for white key Steinway 67 warpage 83 89, 126, 170, 171, 172, 176, 192,
tops 364 weight ratio 291 Wood-boring insects 88 198, 227, 251, 252, 355, 380, 382
glue 336 Wippen radius weight 288, 309 Wooden surface, preparing for Yellow wood glue 335
key top 22 Wippen rail, repositioning 315 finishing 482 Young Chang 149
key tops, replacing 354 Wippens 67, 409 Woodworms 88, 319 Young, Robert 103, 106
keys 94 checking 157 Wool 71
White, William 275
Whole step (whole tone) 94
grand, comparing 376
grand, replacing 379
for piano hammer felt 71
steel 338
Z
Whoosh noise (see “Pedal, grand, traveling 170, 380 Wool, lap of 71 Zachariae 76
whoosh”) in verticals, rebuilding 409 Woolly mammoth ivory 355 Zap a Gap 255
William Southwell 8 Wire Workbench 329 ZAP-08 255
William Stodart 7, 8 cutting pliers 333 Worksheet Zing noise 490
William White 275 handling 224 action leverage 281 Zither 3
Winding, copper, on bass strings 34 lead 308 front-weight 293 Zumpe, Johannes 4, 6, 9, 10
Wippen 22, 76 piano strings 33 hammer strike weight 285
assist spring 67, 178, 287, 291, Wire gauge 34 Touchweight 277
Sample page from Pianos Inside Out. Copyright © 2013 Mario Igrec.
Selected Bibliography
Books, Articles, Videos,
Online Resources
Allen, Frederick. “Steinway.” American Heritage of Invention and
Technology (I & T), Volume 9/Number 2, Fall 1993, p. 34.
[ISSN: 0896-7296]
American Association of Museums. Code of Ethics for Museums.
Available at http://www.aam-us.org/museumresources/ethics/
coe.cfm.
American Institute for Conservation. Code of Ethics and Guide-
lines for Practice. Available by searching “Code of ethics” at
http://www.conservation-us.org.
American Steel & Wire Co., Editors of. Piano Tone Building.
[1919] Vestal, New York: Vestal Press, 1985. [Transcripts of
Technicians’ Conferences 1916–1918]
Askenfelt, Anders, ed. Five Lectures on the Acoustics of the Piano.
Stockholm: Royal Swedish Academy of Music, 1990. Available
at http://www.speech.kth.se/music/ 5_lectures/. [Seminal text
on piano design]
Askill, John. Physics of Musical Sounds. New York: Van Nostrand,
1979.
Atkinson, Rick. “Pianomorte.” The New York Times, 9 August
1993, sec. A, p. 10. [Closing of the Bechstein factory]
Backus, J. The Acoustical Foundations of Music. New York:
Norton, 1969.
Bechstein piano case numbers. http://webvoice.blogspot.com/
bechstein/case-number.htm.
Badura-Skoda, Eva. “The Anton Walter fortepiano—Mozart’s be-
loved concert instrument. A response to Michael Latcham.”
Early Music, Vol. 28 No. 3, August 2000, pp. 469–473.
http://em.oxfordjournals.org/content/XXVIII/3/469.extract.
509
Appendix C
Badura-Skoda, Eva. “Prolegomena to a History of the Viennese
Fortepiano.” Israel Studies in Musicology 2, 1980. Available at
http://books.google.com.
Baldassin, Rick, RPT. “Formulas for Inharmonicity.” Piano
Technicians Journal, July 1988, pp. 16–19.
Baldassin, Rick, RPT. “Inharmonicity and Inharmonicity Formu-
las.” Piano Technicians Journal, December 1988, pp. 18–25.
Baldassin, Rick, RPT. On Pitch: The Integration and Equation of
Aural and Electronic Tuning Techniques, revised ed. Salt Lake
City, UT: Rick Baldassin, 2007.
Baldassin, Rick, RPT. “Raising Pitch.” Piano Technicians Journal,
June 1989, pp. 24–25.
Baldwin. “Downbearing with the Accu-just [sic] System.” Techni-
cal Service Note, no date. Currently available from the CAUT
library at http://my.ptg.org (search “Accujust”).
Barclay, R.L., ed. The Care of Historic Musical Instruments. Ot-
tawa, ON, Canada: Canadian Conservation Institute, 1997.
Available at http://cimcim.icom.museum/iht/.
Barclay, R.L., ed. Recommendations for the Conservation of Musi-
cal Instruments: an Annotated Bibliography. CIMCIM, 1993.
Available at http://www.music.ed.ac.uk/euchmi/cimcim/
iwt1.html.
Barron, James. Piano: the making of a Steinway concert grand.
New York: Times Books, 2006.
Bartholomew, Wilmer T. Acoustics of Music. New York: Prentice
Hall, 1942.
Basalla, George. The Evolution of Technology. Cambridge: Cam-
bridge University Press, 1988. Excerpts available at
http://books.google.com.
Bavington, Peter. Clavichord Tuning and Maintenance, 2nd ed.
London: Keyword Press, 2010.
Beethoven, Ludwig van. Klaviersonaten, Band I. Urtext. Munich:
G. Henle Verlag, 1980.
510 Bibliography Sample page from Pianos Inside Out. Copyright © 2013 Mario Igrec.
Behm, Chuck. “Small Shop—Big Results: A Field Test of Brushed-
on Finishes.” Piano Technicians Journal, May 2009, pp. 14–17.
Benade, Arthur H. Fundamentals of Musical Acoustics, 2nd ed.
New York: Dover, 1990.
Berner, A., J. H. van der Meer, G. Thibault, and N. Brommelle.
Preservation and Restoration of Musical Instruments: provi-
sional recommendations. London: International Council of Mu-
seums, 1967.
Biemiller, Lawrence. “Notes From Academe.” The Chronicle of
Higher Education, March 9 1994, sec. A, p. 47. [Restoration of
historical pianos by Edward Swenson]
Bird, Lonnie. “Resawing on the Bandsaw.” Fine Woodworking,
January/February 2007, pp. 38–42.
Birkett, Stephen. “Static and Dynamic Balancing of a Piano Key.”
Available at http://www.fortepianos.com/piano%20action.htm.
Bishop, John and Graham Barker. Piano Manual. Sparkford, Yeo-
vil, Somerset, United Kingdom: Haynes Publishing, 2009.
[Buying, maintaining, repairing, regulating, and tuning a piano
for pianists and piano owners]
Blackham, Donnell E. “The Physics of the Piano.” Scientific
American, December 1965. [also available in The Physics of
Music, San Francisco: W. H. Freeman and Company, 1978, and
in Earle Kent, Musical Acoustics, Stroudsburg, PA: Dowden,
Hutchinson & Ross, Inc., 1977.]
Bolduc, André and Christian. “Repairing a Bass Bridge Leaving
Treble Strings Installed,” Europiano, Issue 3, 2010, pp. 40–50.
Bolduc. See “Pianos Bolduc.”
Bowman, Keith, RPT. “Tuning Lever Design & Maintenance.”
3-part series. Piano Technicians Journal, January 2001, pp. 29–
32; February 2001, pp. 16–19; April 2001, pp. 18–23.
Boyce, David. David Boyce Piano Services. Website at
http://www.davidboyce.co.uk. [Well-illustrated repair and resto-
ration procedures, information on birdcage pianos, rarely en-
countered designs]
Bozarth, George and Stephen Brady, RPT. “Johannes Brahms
and His Pianos.” Piano Technicians Journal, July 2000, pp. 42–
55.
Brady, Stephen H., RPT. Under the Lid: The Art & Craft of the
Concert Piano Technician. Seattle: Byzantium Books, 2008.
Brady, Stephen H., RPT. A Piano Technician’s Guide to Field Re-
pairs, 2nd ed. Kansas City: Piano Technicians Guild, 2008.
Available for purchase at http://www.ptg.org.
Brady, Steve, RPT. “Piano Plate Breakage: A Case Study.” Piano
Technicians Journal, November 2000, pp. 26–27.
Brekne, Richard, RPT. “Of Touchweight and Ratios or, The Bal-
ance of the Action.” Available at http://home.broadpark.no/
~rbrekne/referhtml/touchweight.html.
Bressette-Mills, Jack, RPT. “The Thoughtful Technician, Part 4.”
Piano Technicians Journal, September 2002, pp. 32–34.
Briggs, G. A. Pianos, Pianists, and Sonics. Idle, U.K.: Wharfedale
Wireless Works, 1951.
Bunger [Evans], Richard. The Well-Prepared Piano, 2nd Ameri-
can ed. San Pedro, CA: Litoral Arts Press, 1981. [A guide to
“prepared piano”]
Busby, Jim, RPT and John Dewey. “Aluminum Screw Hole Re-
pairs,” Piano Technicians Journal, September 2007, p. 10.
Cantrell, Norman, RPT. “Of Mice and Men and Pianos: A Look at
Hantavirus in Relation to Piano Technicians.” Piano Techni-
cians Journal, May 1997, pp. 22–23.
Cobble, Thomas, RPT. “A First Look at Steingraeber’s Phoenix
Bridge Agraffes.” Piano Technicians Journal, November 2009,
pp. 22–23.
Cole, Michael. “The Pantalon - and what it tells us.” In Thomas
Steiner, ed., Instruments à claviers - expressivité et flexibilité so-
nore. pp. 63–88.
Cole, Michael. The Pianoforte in the Classical Era. Oxford: Claren-
don Press, 1998.
Cole, Michael. Square Pianos. Website.
http://www.squarepianos.com/.
Cole, Michael. “The Twelve Apostles? An Inquiry into the Ori-
gins of the English Pianoforte.” Early Keyboard Journal, Vol. 18,
2000, pp. 9–52.
Campbell, Murray and Clive Greated. The Musician’s Guide to
Acoustics. London: J.M. Dent & Sons Ltd., 1987. [Exhaustive
survey in theory of sound and acoustics of musical instru-
ments]
Canadian Association for Conservation of Cultural Property and
the Canadian Association of Professional Conservators. Code
of Ethics and Guidance for Practice, 3rd ed. Ottawa, ON, Can-
ada: CAC & CAPC, 2000. Available at http://www.cac-accr.ca/
pdf/ecode.pdf.
Capleton, Brian. Theory and Practice of Piano Tuning. Malvern,
United Kingdon: Amarilli Books, 2007.
Chapin, Miles & Rodica Prato. 88 Keys: The Making of a Steinway
Piano. New York: Clarkson Potter, 1997.
Chang, Chuan C. Fundamentals of Piano Practice. Self-published,
2009. Available from http://www.pianopractice.org. [Part 2 con-
tains instructions on tuning and minor repairs]
Christiana, Asa. “Shop Vacuums.” Fine Woodworking, Tools &
Shops issue, 2012, pp. 70–74.
Clinkscale, Martha Novak. Makers of the Piano 1700 – 1820.
Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1993. Available in database
form at http://earlypianos.org/. [List of piano makers]
“Clothes Moths: Integrated Pest Management in the Home.” Pest
Notes. Publication 7435. University of California Division of
Agriculture and Natural Resources, December 2000. Available
at http://www.ipm.ucdavis.edu/PMG/PESTNOTES/pn7435.html.
Closson, Ernest. History of the Piano. 2nd ed. Trans. Delano
Ames. London: Paul Elek, 1974.
Cohen, H. F. Quantifying Music: The Science of Music and the First
Stage of the Scientific Revolution, 1580–1650. Dordrecht, Hol-
land: D. Reidel Publishing Co., 1984. [History of tuning theo-
ries and practices]
Crawford, Matthew B. Shop Class as Soulcraft: An Inquiry into the
Value of Work. New York: The Penguin Press, 2009.
Crombie, David. Piano: Evolution, Design and Performance. New
York: Barnes & Noble, 2000.
Cushing Smith, Mary, ed., Jim Ellis, RPT, and James Arledge,
RPT. “False Beats,” Q&A Roundtable, Piano Technicians Jour-
nal, December 2005, pp. 12-–14.
Davies, Clair. The Trigger Point Therapy Workbook, 2nd ed. Oak-
land, CA: New Harbinger Publications, Inc., 2004. [Addressing
pain by massaging muscular “trigger points”]
Davis, Bob, RPT and Dale Erwin, RPT. “Everyday Voicing.” 7-part
series. Piano Technicians Journal, May 2003, July to October
2003, December 2003, January 2004.
Dewey, John A. “Steinway Action-Rail Replacement.” Piano Tech-
nicians Journal, October 2006, pp. 20–21.
Sample page from Pianos Inside Out. Copyright © 2013 Mario Igrec.
Dietz, Franz Rudolf. Das Intonieren von Flügeln/Grand Voicing.
Frankfurt, Germany: Das Musikinstrument, 1968.
Dietz, Franz Rudolf. Steinway Regulation/Das Regulieren von
Flügeln bei Steinway. Frankfurt, Germany: Das Musikinstru-
ment, 1981. ISBN 3-920112-16-4.
Dolge, Alfred. Men Who Have Made Piano History. Vestal, New
York: The Vestal Press, 1980. Originally published as Pianos
and Their Makers, Vol. II. Covina, CA: Covina Publishing Co.,
1913.
Dolge, Alfred. Pianos and Their Makers. Covina, CA: Covina Pub-
lishing Co., 1911. Available at http://www.archive.org.
Dornberg, John. “Beyond Perfect Pitch: How Ernst Kochsiek
Makes Great Pianists Sound Their Best.” Connoisseur, October
1986, p. 151.
Dornfeld, Bruce, RPT. “Replacing Young Chang Growing Action
Brackets.” Piano Technicians Journal, August 2009, pp. 26–27.
Dresdner, Michael. “Flow Chart Part 3: Sealers and Pore Fillers.”
Woodworker’s Journal, June 2008. Available at http://
www.woodworkersjournal.com.
Dubal, David. The Art of the Piano: Its Performers, Literature, and
Recordings, 3rd ed. Pompton Plains, NJ: Amadeus Press, 2004.
[CD of rare piano recordings included]
Dufau, P.A.(Pierre Armand), Paul Emile Benaimé, and M. Tahan.
Claude Montal, facteur de pianos (aveugle); sa vie et ses
travaux. Paris: Didot Frères, Fils et Cie, 1857. Available at
http://digital.lib.uiowa.edu.
Duffin, Ross W. How Equal Temperament Ruined Harmony (and
Why You Should Care). New York: W.W. Norton, 2007.
Eder, Alan, RPT. Non-Traditional Piano Use. Valencia, CA: Califor-
nia Institute of the Arts, 1994. DVD. To order, contact Alan
Eder at aeder@calarts.edu.
Ehrlich, Cyril. The Piano, A History, 2nd ed. Oxford: Clarendon
Press, 1990. [Contains a list of piano makers since 1851 in
Appendix I]
Eigeldinger, Jean-Jacques. “Chopin and Pleyel.” Clavier Compan-
ion, May/June 2010, Vol. 2 No. 3. Available at http://www.
claviercompanion.com/may-june-2010/chopin-and-pleyel/.
Ellis, Jim, RPT. “An Analysis of a Broken Plate.” Piano Techni-
cians Journal, November 2000, pp. 28–32.
Emerson George F., RPT, Keith Bowman, RPT, Mike Carraher,
RPT. Hailun Piano Service Manual. Richland, WA: Hailun USA,
2011. Available at http://www.hailun-pianos.com.
Engelbrecht, Jüri, Avo Mägi, and Anatoli Stulov. “Grand Piano
Manufacturing in Estonia: the Problem of Piano Scaling.” Proc.
Estonian Acad. Sci. Engin., 1999, v.5, N.2, pp. 155–167. Available
at http://www.cs.ioc.ee/~stulov/Engart.pdf.
Eschete, Ken, RPT. “Epoxy Consolidation: An Alternative
Method for Restoring Piano Pinblocks.” Piano Technicians
Journal, April 2009, pp. 22–25.
Fandrich, Darrell, RPT. “Riblet Update,” Tips, Tools & Tech-
niques, Piano Technicians Journal, November 2007, pp. 8–9.
Fandrich, Delwin, RPT. “Are Soundboards All They’re Cracked
Up To Be?” Piano Quarterly, Summer 1992, p. 63.
Fandrich, Delwin, RPT. “The Designer’s Notebook: Last Resort
Soundboard Repairs.” 4-part series. Piano Technicians Journal,
June 2002, pp. 19–22, July 2002, pp. 19–22, August 2002, pp. 18–
21, September 2002, pp. 28–30.
Fandrich, Delwin, RPT. “Running out of the Good Stuff.” Piano
Technicians Journal, November 2011, pp. 14–18.
Books, Articles, Videos, Online Resources 511
Fine, Larry. Acoustic & Digital Piano Buyer. Palm Springs, CA:
Brookside Press, published semiannually. Free version is
available at http://www.pianobuyer.com.
Fine, Larry. The Piano Book, 4th ed. Boston, MA: Brookside
Press, 2001. [Consumer guide for buying new and used
pianos]
Flexner, Bob. Understanding Wood Finishing: How to Select and
Apply the Right Finish, 2nd ed. East Petersburg, PA: Fox Chapel
Publishing (American Woodworker series), 2010.
Fostle, D.W. The Steinway Saga: An American Dynasty. New York:
Scribner, 1995.
Frisch Walter. Brahms and His World. Princeton, NJ: Princeton
University Press, 2009.
Funke, Otto. Das Intonieren von Pianos und Flügeln. Frankfurt,
Germany: Das Musikinstrument, 1977. ISBN 3-920112-60-1.
[Essay on tone regulating]
Funke, Otto. The Piano and How to Care for it. Trans. C.H.
Wehlau. Frankfurt, Germany: Das Musikinstrument, 1961.
[Practical aspects of piano care and maintenance]
Gaines, James R., ed. The Lives of the Piano. New York: Holt,
Rinehart & Winston, 1981. [Essays]
Galembo, Alexander. “Perception of Musical Instrument by Per-
former and Listener.” From the 2001 conference Human Super-
vision and Control in Engineering and Music. Available at
http://www.engineeringandmusic.de/individu/galealex/
Galambo-Paper.html.
Galembo, A., Askenfelt, A., Cuddy, L. L., & Russo, F. A. “Percep-
tual significance of inharmonicity and spectral envelope in the
piano bass range.” Acta Acustica, 90, 2004, pp. 528–536.
Available from http://digitalcommons.ryerson.ca/cgi/
viewcontent.cgi?article=1005&context=psych.
Gallaway, Kent, RPT. “Epoxy Pinblock Consolidation in an Up-
right Piano: A Report.” Piano Technicians Journal, July 2010,
p. 12.
Gazette musicale de Paris. Paris: Gazette musicale de Paris, 1834,
1835. See also “Revue et gazette musicale de Paris.” Available
at http://www.archive.org.
Good, Edwin M. Giraffes, Black Dragons, and Other Pianos, 2nd
ed. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2001.
Goold, Madeline. Mr. Langshaw’s Square Piano: The Story of the
First Pianos and How They Caused a Cultural Revolution.
London: Corvo, 2008.
Granholm, John, RPT, ed. “Impact Tuning Levers and Ergonom-
ics.” Piano Technicians Journal, January 2008, pp. 10–12.
[Interview with Dean Reyburn]
Gravagne, Nick, RPT. “Bearing on the Old Soundboard.” Piano
Technicians Journal, November 1988, pp. 19–21.
Gravagne, Nick, RPT. “Downbearing: An Introduction.” Piano
Technicians Journal, February 1988, pp. 23–24.
Gravagne, Nick, RPT. “Elements of Quality Soundboard Con-
struction.” Piano Technicians Journal, November 1987,
pp. 23–25.
Gravagne, Nick, RPT. “How Much Crown Should There Be?”
Piano Technicians Journal, April 1987, pp. 23–26.
Gravagne, Nick, RPT. “Lowering the Plate: Part One.” Piano Tech-
nicians Journal, April 1989, pp. 28–31.
Gravagne, Nick, RPT. “Plate Lowering: Part Two.” Piano Techni-
cians Journal, May 1989, pp. 27–30.
512 Bibliography Sample page from Pianos Inside Out. Copyright © 2013 Mario Igrec.
Gravagne, Nick, RPT. Downbearing and Bridge Notching Video.
DVD. Available from http://www.gravagne.com.
Gravagne, Nick, RPT. Soundboard Installation Video. DVD. Avail-
able from http://www.gravagne.com.
Grossbach, Jan. “Repairs to Matt Finishes.” Europiano, Issue 2,
2012, pp. 31–37.
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Piano Technicians Journal, October 2006, pp. 16–18.
Hall, Donald E. Musical Acoustics: An Introduction. Belmont, CA:
Wadsworth Publishing Co., 1980. [A thorough, well-illustrated
textbook]
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Schmitt, RPT.” A document from a meeting of the Portland
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Hirschkorn, Martin, John McPhee, and Stephen Birkett. “Dy-
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Hoadley, R. Bruce. Understanding Wood: A Craftsman’s Guide to
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Hohf, Bob, RPT. “Bechstein Pinblocks: Part III.” Piano Techni-
cians Journal, March 1997, pp. 18–23.
Hoover, Cynthia Adams. “The Great Piano War of the 1870s.”
From A Celebration of American Music: Words and Music in
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Huber, Alfons, ed. Das österreichische Cembalo: 600 Jahre Cem-
balobau in Österreich. Tutzing, Germany: Hans Schneider,
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Huggins, David, RPT. “Affordable Vertical Touchweight Refine-
ment.” Piano Technicians Journal, June 2012, pp. 28–31.
Hughes, David G., RPT. “A Modern Approach to Piano Restora-
tion.” Piano Technicians Journal, October 2012, pp. 18–20.
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published, 1985. Newton Hunt, 3253 Lockmoor, Dallas, TX
75220, USA. Tel: (214) 352-6846. [Estimated times for piano
servicing and rebuilding]
Instruments pour demain: conservation & restauration des instru-
ments de musique: 9es journees d’etudes de la Section francaise
de l’institut international de conservation, Limoges 15–16 juin
2000. Champs-Sur-Marne: SFIIC, 2000.
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Music, the Musicians—from Mozart to Modern Jazz and Every-
thing in Between. New York: Alfred Knopf, 2011.
Isacoff, Stuart. Temperament: The Idea That Solved Music’s Great-
est Riddle. New York: Alfred Knopf, 2001.
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nicians Journal, January 1996, pp. 12, 14.
Johnson, Roland. “Choosing a Compressor.” Fine Woodworking,
July/August 2003, pp. 50–53.
Johnson, Roland. “Plumbing a Shop for Air.” Fine Woodworking,
Tools & Shops issue, 2002, pp. 51–53.
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Marquette, MI: The Northern Michigan University Press, 1977.
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Germany: Bochinsky, 1991.
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Kaye & Ward, 1979.
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[A compilation of several excellent papers with editor’s
comments]
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Kern, Evan J. Harpsichord: Design and Construction. New York:
Van Nostrand Reinhold Co., 1980.
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Journals
Early Keyboard Journal
http://www.ekjournal.org
[Topics related to keyboard instruments until about 1850]
Europiano Magazine
http://www.ppvmedien.de
The Galpin Society Journal
http://www.galpinsociety.org/journal.htm
[History of musical instruments]
International Piano Magazine
http://www.rhinegold.co.uk/magazines/international_piano/
Also available via amazon.com.
Journal of the American Musical Instrument Society
http://www.amis.org/publications/journal
Keyboard Perspectives
http://westfield.org/publications/kp4/
[A periodical by Westfield Center, dedicated to performance
practice and keyboard instrument building in historical styles]
Piano Technicians Journal
http://www.ptg.org/journal.php
Archives in digital format are available for purchase from the
Piano Technicians Guild
Popular Woodworking Magazine
http://www.popularwoodworking.com
WoodMagazine.com
http://www.woodmagazine.com
Woodworkers Journal
http://www.woodworkersjournal.com
Online Groups and Forums
Note: The following are several popular user groups and forums
dedicated to piano technology. Search the web to get an up-to-
date list.
CAUT at PTG. “College And University Technicians forum.
Accessible through http://my.ptg.org.
Piano rebuilders on LinkedIn®. http://www.linkedin.com/groups?
gid=2365009&trk=hb_side_g.
Pianotech at PTG. Accessible through http://my.ptg.org.
Pianotech on Google Groups. http://groups.google.com/group/
pianotech.
Piano Tuners & Technicians on LinkedIn. http://www.linkedin.
com/groups?gid=1592467&trk=hb_side_g.
Piano World. http://www.pianoworld.com.