Biochemistry

Research Topics:
 The Cell
 The Cell Theory
 Animal Cell and Plant Cell
 The Cell Membrane
 Prokaryotic Cell and Eukaryotic Cell
 Cellular Functions

Mikaela Rome C. Bigay

BS Biology 2-A
Prof. Noemi Madrid
 Biochemistry
Biochemistry is the chemistry of life. It is the application of chemistry to the study of biological
processes at the cellular and molecular level. Plants, animals, and single-celled organisms all use
the same basic chemical compounds to live their lives. It's about the smallest parts of those organisms
which are the molecules. It's also about the cycles that create those biological compounds. It is a
branch of science that explores the chemical processes within and related to living organisms. It is a
laboratory based science that brings together biology and chemistry. Biochemistry focuses on
processes happening at a molecular level. It focuses on what’s happening inside our cells, studying
components like proteins, lipids and organelles. It also looks at how cells communicate with each
other, for example during growth or fighting illness.
Biochemistry covers a range of scientific disciplines, including genetics, microbiology, forensics, plant
science and medicine. It has become the foundation for understanding all biological processes. It
has provided explanations for the causes of many diseases in humans, animals and
plants.Because biochemistry seeks to unravel the complex chemical reactions that occur in a wide
variety of life forms, it provides the basis for practical advances in medicine, veterinary medicine,
agriculture and biotechnology.
Biochemists need to understand how the structure of a molecule relates to its function, allowing them
to predict how molecules will interact.The knowledge and methods developed by biochemists are
applied in all fields of medicine, in agriculture and in many chemical and health related industries

The Cell
Cells are the basic membrane-bound unit that contains the fundamental molecules of life and of which
all living things are composed. The human body is composed of trillions of cells. Cells are the basic
structure of living organisms. It is diverse in structure and function. Some are truly self-sustaining, as
with single-celled bacteria or yeast, whereas others live communally, sometimes as part of complex
multicellular organisms. Cells group together to form tissues, which in turn, forms organs such as the
heart and brain.

Although cells are much larger than atoms, they are still very small. The smallest known cells are a
group of tiny bacteria called mycoplasmas; some of these single-celled organisms are spheres about
0.3 micrometre in diameter, with a total mass of 10−14 gram—equal to that of 8,000,000,000 hydrogen
atoms.

Cells have all the equipment and expertise necessary to carry out the functions of life. A cell can eat,
grow, and move. It can perform necessary maintenance, recycle parts, and dispose of wastes. It can
adapt to changes in its environment; and it can even replicate itself.

A cell is enclosed by a plasma membrane, which forms a selective barrier that allows nutrients to enter
and waste products to leave. The interior of the cell is organized into many specialized compartments,
ororganelles, each surrounded by a separate membrane. One major organelle, the nucleus, contains
the genetic information necessary for cell growth and reproduction. Each cell contains only one
nucleus, whereas other types of organelles are present in multiple copies in the cellular contents,
or cytoplasm. Organelles include mitochondria, lysosomes, the endoplasmic reticulum and the Golgi
apparatus, which play important roles inside the cell. In addition, plant cells contain chloroplasts, which
are responsible for photosynthesis, whereby the energy of sunlight is used to convert molecules of
carbon dioxide and water into carbohydrates. Between all these organelles is the space in the
cytoplasm called the cytosol. The cytosol contains more than 10,000 different kinds of molecules that
are involved in cellular biosynthesis, the process of making large biological molecules from small ones.

Cells contain a special collection of molecules that are enclosed by a membrane. These molecules
give cells the ability to grow and reproduce.

The Cell Theory

The invention of the microscope allowed the first view of cells. English physicist
and microscopist Robert Hooke first described cells in 1665. He examined under a compound
microscope, very thin slices of cork and saw a multitude of tiny pores that he remarked looked like the
walled compartments of a honeycomb. Because of this association, Hooke called them cells. Hooke's
description of these cells (which were actually non-living cell walls) was published in Micrographia.
The open spaces Hooke observed were empty, but he and others suggested these spaces might be
used for fluid transport in living plants. He did not propose, and gave no indication that he believed,
that these structures represented the basic unit of living organisms.
Marcello Malpighi and Hooke's colleague, Nehemiah Grew, made detailed studies of plant cells and
established the presence of cellular structures throughout the plant body.
All biologists were convinced that organisms were composed of some type of fundamental unit at that
time, and it was these "atomistic" preconceptions that drove them to look for such units. While
improvements in microscopy made their observations better, it was the underlying belief that there
was some fundamental substructure that made the microscope the instrument of choice in the study
of life.
Anton van Leeuwenhoek who was a Dutch microscopist in 1670, published his observations of single-
celled organisms, or "little animalcules" as he called them. It is likely that Leeuwenhoek was the first
person to observe a red blood cell and a sperm cell. He made numerous and detailed observations
on his microorganisms.
In 1824, Frenchman Henri Milne-Edwards suggested that the basic structure of all animal tissues was
an array of "globules". Henri Dutrochet made the connection between plant cells and animal cells
explicit, and he proposed that the cell was not just a structural but also a physiological unit.Dutrochet
proposed that new cells arise from within old ones, a view that was echoed by his contemporary
François Raspail. Raspail was the first to state one of the two major tenets of cell theory: Omnis
cellula e cellula, which means "Every cell is derived from another cell."
In 1838, Schleiden suggested that every structural part of a plant was made up of cells or the result of
cells. He also suggested that cells were made by a crystallization process either within other cells or
from the outside. However, this was not an original idea of Schleiden. He claimed this theory as his
own, though BarthelemyDumortier had stated it years before him. This crystallization process is no
longer accepted with modern cell theory. In 1839, Theodor Schwann stated that along with plants,
animals are composed of cells or the product of cells in their structures. This was a major
advancement in the field of biology since little was known about animal structure up to this point
compared to plants.
Cell theory refers to the idea that cells are the basic unit of structure in every living thing.
Development of this theory during the mid-17th century was made possible by advances in
microscopy. This theory is one of the foundations of biology. The theory says that new cells are
formed from other existing cells, and that the cell is a fundamental unit of structure, function and
organization in all living organisms.
The cell theory is a widely accepted explanation of the relationship between cells and living things.
The cell theory states:
 All living things or organisms are made of cells.
 New cells are created by old cells dividing into two.
 Cells are the smallest unit in a living thing.
 Plant Cell
Parts of the Plant Cell and their Functions
Parts Description
Cell (Plasma) The plasma membrane is
Membrane a selectively permeable
membrane. It is located
on the interior of the cell
wall. It is made up of a
lipid bilayer and proteins.
It is amphipathic which
Metabolic Function
It plays a vital role in protecting
the interior of the cell by allowing
only selected substances into
the cell and keeping other
substances out.It works as a
barrier between the inner and
outer surface of the cell. Since it
 means it contains both is made up of lipids and
hydrophilic heads and proteins, the lipids help to give
hydrophobic tails.Since it membranes their flexibility
is a lipid bilayer, it and proteins monitor and
contains two layers of maintain the cell's chemical
phospholipids, phosphate climate and assist in the transfer
head is polar, fatty acid of molecules across the
tails non-polar and the membrane. It also maintains the
proteins embedded in shape and structure of the cell.
membrane.

Cell Wall The cell wall is the outer It protects cell from mechanical
layer of the cell. It is made damage. It provides shape to
of cellulose, other many different cell types needed
polysaccharides and to form the tissues and organs
proteins. The most of a plant. They play important
characteristic component roles in intercellular
found in all plant cell walls communication. They also play
is cellulose. Cellulose is a an important role in plant-
structural carbohydrate microbe interactions, including
and is considered a defense responses against
complex sugar because it potential pathogens because of
is used in both protection their surface location.
and structure. Plant cell
walls also contain many
proteins and
glycoproteins, including
various enzymes and
structural proteins. The
plant cell wall consists of
three layers. Each layer
has its own unique
structure and function.

Chloroplast Plant chloroplasts are Chloroplasts function to

large organelles that are generate metabolic energy.
bounded by a double They are responsible for
membrane called photosynthesis. They also
the chloroplast envelope. perform several critical tasks in
They also have a third addition to the generation of
internal membrane ATP. Chloroplasts are also
 system called responsible for the
the thylakoid membrane. photosynthetic conversion of
Their three membranes CO2 to carbohydrates and in
divide chloroplasts into synthesizingamino acids, fatty
three distinct internal acids, and the lipid components
compartments which are of their own membranes.
the intermembrane space
between the two
membranes of the
chloroplast envelope,
the stroma, which lies
inside the envelope but
outside the thylakoid
membrane and the
thylakoid lumen.

Cytoplasm Cytoplasm is the semi- The cytoplasm is responsible for

fluid substance or the
jelly-like substance of a
cell that is present
within the cellular
membrane. It fills the
space between the cell
membrane and the
cellular organelles. The
cytoplasm is colloidal. It
has a high percentage of
water and particles of
various shapes and sizes
are suspended in it. The
peripheral zone of
cytoplasm is thick and
jelly-like substance,
known as the plasmogel.
The surrounding area of
the nuclear zone is thin
and liquefied in nature
and is known as the
plasmosol.
the expansion and growth of the
cell. It provides a medium for the
organelles to remain suspended.
The cytoskeleton of the
cytoplasm provides shape to the
cell and it also facilitates
movement. The cytoplasm acts
as a buffer and protects the
genetic material of the cell and
also the cellular organelles from
damage caused due to
movement and collision with
other cells. It also transports the
products of cellular respiration.
Cytoskeleton The cytoskeleton is a The cytoskeleton plays key roles
complex network of fibers. in determining plant cell shape.
It holds internal It also plays an important role in
structures, such as the governing the orientation of both
nucleus, in place and cell division and cell expansion.
controls various kinds of It contributes to the transport
cell movement. It extends system of the cell.
internally from the
membrane covering the
cell surface to the surface
of the membrane system
surrounding the
cell’s nucleus. All of the
microfilaments and
microtubules combine to
form the cytoskeleton of
the cell.

Rough ER Rough endoplasmic It processes and the

reticulum is a form of produces specific proteins
endoplasmic reticulum at ribosomal sites. The
that is studded with ribosomes in the rough ER
ribosomes. It forms a perform their tasks and
branched reticulum that is create proteins that will be
expanding as the cell sent to the rough
becomes more active in endoplasmic reticulum to
the synthesis of proteins. undergo advance
processing. Its function
involves the creation of two
protein types: one is the
type that toughens and is
embedded into the
reticulum membrane and
other type is the
membranes that are water-
soluble

It is a meshwork of fine The smooth ER is involved

Smooth ER tubular membrane
vesicles. The interior of
the smooth ER is called
the lumen, which is
enclosed by a new cellular membrane. It
phospholipid membrane.
The number of smooth ER
units in a cell depends on
the type of cell and what
its manufacturing needs
are. These units are
situated in the cytoplasm.
in the synthesis of lipids,
including cholesterol and
phospholipids, which are
used in the production of
also plays an important role
in the synthesis of steroid
hormones from cholesterol
in certain cell types.
Smooth ER detoxifies
drugs and alcohol in your
system, changing these
toxins into substances that
can be easily removed from
the body.

Golgi Complex/ Golgi Body It is a flattened, layered, The Golgi apparatus is

sac-like organelle responsible for
locatedin transporting, modifying and
the cytoplasm next to packaging proteins and lipi
theendoplasmic dsinto vesicles for delivery
reticulum and near the cell to targeted
nucleus.It is made up of a destinations.Two networks,
series of flattened, the cis Golgi network and
stacked pouches the trans Golgi network, are
called cisternae. The Golgi responsible for the
apparatus is made up of essential task of sorting
approximately four to eight proteins and lipids that are
cisternae, although in received (at the cis face) or
some single-celled released (at the trans face)
organisms it may consist by the organelle.
of as many as 60
cisternae.The cisternae
are held together by
matrix proteins, and the
whole of the Golgi
apparatus is supported by
cytoplasmic microtubules.
Mitochondria They are capsule shaped, They metabolize or
with an outer membrane and break down
an undulating inner carbohydrates and fatty
membrane, which resembles acids in order to
protruding fingers. generate energy. ATP
Mitochondria are unlike most generation occurs within
organelles (with an exception the mitochondrial matrix,
of plant chloroplasts) in that though the initial steps
they have their own set of of carbohydrate
DNA and genes that encode (glucose) metabolism.
proteins. Mitochondria also
synthesize proteins for
their own use.

Nucleus It is a spherical body The nucleus stores the

containing organelles. It is
made up of a nuclear
envelope which is made up of
two separate membranes: the
outer membrane and the inner
membrane, nucleolus which is
a large structure in the
nucleus that mainly makes
ribosomes and RNA,
nucleoplasm which is the
liquid that fills the inside of the
nucleus, chromatin which is
composed of proteins and
DNA, pores which are small
channels through the nuclear
envelope and ribosomes
which are made inside the
nucleolus and then sent
outside the nucleus to make
proteins
cell's genetic information
in the form of DNA. The
nucleus also holds
another type of nucleic
acid called RNA
(ribonucleic acid). RNA
plays an important role
in making proteins called
protein synthesis or
translation. The nucleus
can make exact copies
of its DNA. It also makes
RNA which can be used
to carry messages and
copies of DNA
instructions.

Peroxisome They are tiny, membrane- They are organelles that

enclosed organelles that carry out oxidation
contain enzymes involved in a reactions leading to the
variety of metabolic reactions. production of hydrogen
They are assembled, peroxide but because
 like mitochondria and hydrogen peroxide is
chloroplasts, harmful to the cell,
from proteins that are peroxisomes also
synthesized on free contain the
ribosomes and then imported enzyme catalase, which
into peroxisomes as decomposes hydrogen
completed polypeptide chains. peroxide either by
converting it to water or
by using it to oxidize
another organic
compound. Peroxisomes
are also involved in lipid
biosynthesis. In the liver,
peroxisomes are also
involved in the synthesis
of bile
acids. Peroxisomes in
seeds are responsible
for the conversion of
stored fatty acids to
carbohydrates.

Plasmodesmata Plasmodesmata are narrow Allows molecules and

channels or pores between communication signals
plant cells. They are located to pass between
individual plant cells. It
in narrow areas of cell walls
transports gibberellic
called primary pit fields, and acid in algae. It tends to
they are so dense in these close when there is a
areas (up to one million per significant pressure
square millimeter) that they differential between
make up one percent of the adjacent cells.
entire area of the cell wall.
Ribosomes Small organelles composed of
RNA-rich cytoplasmic
granules.Ribosomes can be
found floating within the
cytoplasm or attached to the
endoplasmic reticulum.
Vacuole Large, membrane bounded
space within a plant cell.They
are lytic compartments,
function as reservoirs for ions
and metabolites, including
pigments, and are crucial to
processes of detoxification
and general cell
homeostasis.The central
vacuole occupies much of the
volume and is essential for
much of the physiology of the
organism. It is a prominent
organelle in plant cells.
Ribosomes are the
protein builders or the
protein synthesizers of
the cell.
The functions of the
vacuole include
storage, breakdown of
waste products and
hydrolysis of
macromolecules. The
enlargement of vacuole
is a major mechanism of
plant growth. The
vacuole of plant cells are
multifunctional
organelles that are
central to cellular
strategies of plant
development. Provides
support and participates
in a variety of cellular
functions. Among the
many functions of this
organelle are turgor
maintenance,
protoplasmic
homeostasis, storage of
metabolic products,
sequestration of
xenobiotics, and
digestion of cytoplasmic
constituents.
 Animal Cell

Parts Description Metabolic Function

Cell (Plasma) Membrane It is a thin, semi-permeable Allows some substances

membrane that surrounds to pass into cell or block
the cytoplasm of a cell. The them. It works as a barrier
cell membrane is primarily between the inner and
composed of a mix outer surface of the cell. It
of proteins and lipids. protects the interior of the
Depending on the cell by allowing only
membrane’s location and selected substances into
role in the body, lipids can the cell.
make up anywhere from 20
to 80 percent of the
membrane, with the
remainder being proteins.
Centrioles A centriole is composed of
short lengths of
microtubules arranged in
the form of an open-ended
cylinder about 500nm long
and 200nm in diameter. In
cilia and flagella where
centrioles are at the base of
the structure, and are called
basal bodies, the wall and
cavity architecture is slightly
different. Centrioles usually
reside in pairs with the
cylindrical centrioles at right
angles to each other.
Cilia and Flagella Cilia and flagella are motile
cellular appendages found
in most microorganisms and
animals, but not in higher
plants.The respiratory tract
in humans is lined with cilia.
Flagella are found primarily
on gametes. It is composed
of a cluster of microtubules
within an extension of the
plasma membrane.
Centrioles function as a
pair in most cells in
animals but as a single
centriole or basal body in
cilia and flagella. It can
also act as a single
centriole where in this
structure and associated
pericentriolarmaterial,
construct microtubules in a
linear direction.
Cilia and flagella are
essential for the
locomotion of individual
organisms. Cilia function
to move a cell or group of
cells or to help transport
fluid or materials past
them. It keeps inhaled
dust, smog, and potentially
harmful microorganisms
from entering the lungs.
Cilia also generate water
currents to carry food and
oxygen past the gills of
clams and transport food
through the digestive
systems of snails.
Flagellum is the motility
structure. It creates the
water currents necessary
for respiration and
circulation in sponges and
coelenterates as well.
Cytoplasm The cytoplasm of a cell
contains both the jelly-like
substance inside a cell,
called cytosol, and the sub-
structures of the cell itself,
called organelles.
Cytoplasm is just one of
many components
contained inside animal
cells. Cytoplasm is made
up of three parts: cytosol,
organelles, and inclusions
Cytoskeleton Cytoskeleton is the
framework of the cell. It is
highly organized and also
flexible. The cytoskeleton
has three main
components: microtubules,
intermediate filaments, and
microfilaments.
Because of its cytosol, the
cytoplasm gives the cell
volume. Without cytosol, a
cell would be a flat and
empty membrane.
Cytoplasmic streaming is
a process where the
cytoplasm churns and
creates a flow through its
cytosol for materials, such
as nutrients, genetic
information, and
metabolites, to pass
through it from organelle
to organelle.Within the
cytoplasm are protein and
oxygen cells, among other
necessary building blocks,
suspended in the cytosol
until they can be put to
use. The cytoplasm also
stores metabolic waste
like carbon cells, until the
disposal process can be
carried out.
It provides structural
support so the cell can
keep its shape, move
around, and be protected
from outside forces. It
supports the cell
membrane, helps evenly
split up chromosomes
during cell division, and
aids in recovery from any
outside injury. It's also
involved in organelle
trafficking, which is the
movement of cell
components like
 mitochondria from one
part of the cell to another.

Rough ER It is an extensive organelle It transports materials

composed of greatly through the cell and
convoluted but flattish produces proteins in sacks
sealed sacs, which are called cisternae.The rough
contiguous with the nuclear ER working with
membrane. It is called membrane bound
‘rough’ endoplasmic ribosomes takes
reticulum because it is polypeptides and amino
studded on its outer surface acids from the cytosol and
(the surface in contact with continues protein
the cytosol) with ribosomes. assembly including, at an
Rough ER is found early stage, recognising a
throughout the cell but the ‘destination label’ attached
density is higher near the to each of them.
nucleus and the Golgi
apparatus

Smooth ER Smooth ER is more tubular It transports materials

than rough ER and forms an through the cell. Smooth
interconnecting network ER is devoted almost
sub-compartment of ER. It exclusively to the
is found fairly evenly manufacture of lipids and
distributed throughout the in some cases to the
cytoplasm. metabolism of them and
It is not studded with associated products.
ribosomes hence ‘smooth’ Smooth ER also plays a
ER. large part in detoxifying a
number of organic
chemicals converting them
to safer water-soluble
products.

Golgi Complex/ Golgi Body It is made up of numerous It is the organelle active in

layers that form a sac-like synthesis, modification,
structure. It contains sorting and secretion of
cell products. The most
different regions with
important function of the
different enzymes. Golgi apparatus is to carry
out the processing of
 proteins generated in the
endoplasmic reticulum. It
also transports them to
different destinations in
the cell. Golgi body
transports lipids around
the cell and creates
lysosomes. It also has the
ability to help prevent the
destruction of the cell.

Lysosomes Lysosome is a digestive It is responsible for the

organelle where digestion of
macromolecules are macromolecules,
hydrolyzed. It is a
old cell parts, and
subcellular organelle that is
found in nearly all types of microorganisms.
eukaryotic cells. Each Lysosomes contain a wide
lysosome is surrounded by variety of hydrolytic
a membrane that maintains enzymes (acid hydrolases)
an acidic environment within that break down
the interior via macromolecules such
a proton pump. Lysosomes as nucleic acids, proteins,
contain a wide variety of
and polysaccharides.
hydrolytic enzymes.
These enzymes are active
only in the lysosome’s
acidic interior; their acid-
dependent activity protects
the cell from self-
degradation in case of
lysosomal leakage or
rupture, since the pH of
the cell is neutral to
slightly alkaline.

Mitochondria It is the organelle where The main function of

cellular respiration occurs mitochondria is the
and most ATP is generated. production of energy
Mitochondria are often
during the production
referred to as the
powerhouse of the cell. of adenosine
They are small structures triphosphate (ATP) via
within a cell that are made the TCA Cycle (which is
up of two membranes and a also as the Krebs
 matrix. The membrane is
where the chemical
reactions occur and the
matrix is where the fluid is
held. Mitochondria are a
part of eukaryotic cells.
Cycle and the Citric Acid
Cycle). That process is an
important metabolic
pathway. It also stores
Ca2+ ions. It has a role in
the process of apoptosis.

Nucleus It is a spherical body The nucleus is a highly

containing organelles. The
nuclear envelope surrounds
the nucleus and all of its
contents. There are pores
and spaces for RNA and
proteins to pass through
while the nuclear envelope
keeps all of the chromatin
and nucleolus inside. It also
has nucleolus, nucleoplasm
and pores which have
unique functions.
 Nuclear envelope It is a double membrane enclosing the nucleus;
perforated by pores; continuous with ER.
specialized organelle that
serves as the information
and administrative center
of the cell. It contains the
cell’s hereditary
information.Nucleus is the
house for most of the cells
genetic material- the DNA
and RNA. RNA moves
in/out of the nucleus
through the pores. It is the
location of the ribosome
formation. It coordinates
the cell's activities, which
include intermediary
metabolism, growth,
protein synthesis, and
reproduction (cell division).

 Nucleolus Nonmembranous structure involved in production of

ribosomes; a nucleus has one or more nucleoli.

 Chromatin It is the material consisting of DNA and proteins; visible

in a dividing cell as individual condensed chromosomes.

Peroxisomes Peroxisomes, sometimes Peroxisomes break down

called microbodies are organic molecules by the
generally small (about 0.1 – process of oxidation to
 1.0 µm in diameter) produce hydrogen
organelles found in animal peroxide. The enzymes in
and plant cells. They can peroxisomes break down
vary in size within the same long chain fatty acids by
organism. Peroxisomes are the process of oxidation.
created by taking in proteins The main chemical
and lipids from produced by oxidation in
the cytoplasm of the cell. peroxisomes is the very
The influx of proteins and cytotoxic (cell toxic)
lipids makes the hydrogen peroxide.
peroxisome grow in size. Fortunately peroxisomes
Once the peroxisome is produce copious amounts
large enough, it divides of the enzyme catalase
through fission to create two and this helps break down
peroxisomes. Peroxisomes hydrogen peroxide to
are created in this manner water and oxygen.
because they don't have Peroxisomes are major
their own DNA to give users of oxygen and the
instructions on making the oxygen produced from
proteins that they need to hydrogen peroxide is used
function. within the organelle.

Ribosomes Ribosomes are made from They assemble amino

complexes of RNAs and acids to form specific
proteins. The number of proteins, proteins are
ribosomes in a cell depends essential to carry out
on the activity of the cell. cellular activities. The
Ribosomes are freely proteins that are
suspended in the cytoplasm synthesized by the
or attached to the ribosomes present in the
endoplasmic reticulum cytoplasm are used in the
forming the rough cytoplasm itself. In the
endoplasmic cytoplasm, the two
reticulum. Typically subunits of ribosomes are
ribosomes are composed of bound around the
two subunits: a polymers of mRNA;
large subunit and a small proteins are then
subunit. synthesized with the help
of transfer RNA. The
proteins produced by the
bound ribosomes are
 transported outside
the cell.

Cell Membrane

The cell membrane separate cells from their external environment and divide the interior of the cell
into compartments. It is a thin semi-permeable membrane that surrounds the cytoplasm of a cell. It is
a biological membrane that separates the interior of all cells from the outside environment. The cell
membrane is not a solid structure. It is made of millions of smaller molecules that create a flexible and
porous container. Proteins and phospholipids make up most of the membrane structure. Plasma
membrane is amphipathic, which means that it contains both hydrophilic heads and hydrophobic tails.

A bilayer of lipid forms the central structure of the membrane. The bilayer is composed primarily of
phospholipids and is held together by physical forces, not covalent bonds. Proteins are interspersed
throughout the bilayer. Some of the proteins are attached to the surface, whereas others are
embedded within the lipids or penetrate completely through the bilayer and are exposed on both
surfaces. Many of the membrane protein are enzymes. Others are recognition factors, ion channels,
transporters or receptors.
The chemical composition of cell membranes varies widely. As a general estimate, a representative
membrane is made up of about 50% protein, 45% lipid and 5% carbohydrate. Approximately 10% of
the membrane proteins are glycoproteins.

Its function is to protect the interior of the cell by allowing certain substances into the cell, while
keeping other substances out. It also serves as a base of attachment for the cytoskeleton in some
organisms and the cell wall in others. Thus, the cell membrane also serves to help support the cell
and help maintain its shape. It consists of the phospholipid bilayer with embedded proteins. Cell
membranes are involved in a variety of cellular processes such as cell adhesion, ion
conductivity and cell signaling and serve as the attachment surface for several extracellular
structures, including the cell wall, glycocalyx, and intracellular cytoskeleton. Cell membranes can
be artificially reassembled.

The prokaryotic plasma membranes are composed of phospholipids bilayer with embedded proteins.
In the middle of the bilayer, the fatty acids of the phospholipids are found, which is called as
hydrophobic region. Prokaryotic cells can have multiple plasma membranes. In prokaryotic
organisms, plasma membranes are responsible for controlling the entry and exit of the cell.

The eukaryotic plasma membrane is a phospholipids bilayer containing proteins and carbohydrates
attached to the proteins and sterols. It is a fluid phospholipids bilayer embedded with proteins and
glycoprotein. The phospholipids bilayer is arranged in such a manner that they form the center of the
membrane. They also contain sterols, which makes the membrane less permeable and helps to
stabilize the membrane and add the rigidity to membranes.

The outer cellular membrane or plasma membrane is anchored to the cytoskeleton, which is a
network of microfilaments and microtubules that interact extensively with each other and with the
components of the plasma membrane.
 Parts and function of the Cell Membrane

1. Phospholipids

The basic structure of a cell membrane is a bilayer composed of phospholipids. In this arrangement,
the hydrocarbon chains of the phospholipid fatty acyl groups project into the center of the bilayer. The
hydrophilic glyceryl-phosphoryl base components of the phospholipids are called head groups and
are located on the outside of the bilayer, where they interact with water or other polar and charged
molecules. The most important function of a phospholipid is to form the phospholipid bilayer.The
phospholipids in the plasma membrane are arranged in two layers, called a phospholipid bilayer.
Each phospholipid molecule has a head and two tails. The head “loves” water (hydrophilic) and the
tails “hate” water (hydrophobic). The water-hating tails are on the interior of the membrane, whereas
the water-loving heads point outwards, toward either the cytoplasm or the fluid that surrounds the cell.
The structure of the phospholipid bilayer explains its function as a barrier. Molecules that are
hydrophobic can easily pass through the plasma membrane, if they are small enough, because they
are water-hating like the interior of the membrane. Molecules that are hydrophilic, on the other hand,
cannot pass through the plasma membrane—at least not without help—because they are water-
loving like the exterior of the membrane, and are therefore excluded from the interior of the
membrane.Another important property of the phospholipid bilayer is its fluidity. The lipid bilayer
contains lipid molecules, and it also contains proteins. The bilayer's fluidity allows these structures
 mobility within the lipid bilayer. This fluidity is biologically important, influencing membrane transport.
Fluidity is dependent on both the specific structure of the fatty acid chains and temperature (fluidity
increases at lower temperatures).

2. Cholesterol

Cholesterol is found in every cell of the body. It is especially abundant in the membranes of these
cells, where it helps maintain the integrity of these membranes. Cholesterol is inserted into the lipid
bilayer between phospholipid molecules, in both leaflets of the lipid bilayer. Its hydroxyl group is
oriented toward the aqueous environment and interacts with the polar head groups of the
phospholipids. The nonpolar rings and hydrocarbon tail of cholesterol are positioned so that they
interact with the hydrocarbon chains of the phospholipid fatty acyl groups. The planar ring structure of
the steroid nucleus penetrates to a depth of about the first 10 carbons of the phospholipid fatty acyl
chains. The hydrocarbon chain of cholesterol occupies the region between carbon 11 and the methyl-
terminus of the fatty acid.

Cholesterol functions in intracellular transport, cell signaling and nerve conduction. It stiffens the
membrane by connecting phospholipids. Cholesterol & phospholipids, both electrical insulators, in
multiple layers, can facilitate speed of transmission of electrical impulses along nerve tissue. It also
has an important role in keeping the cell membrane fluid. Cholesterol helps generate some extra
space between the lipids, which keeps them from gelling together into their "crystalline" state. This
allows lipids to move freely throughout the membrane as needed.

The amount of cholesterol contained in various cell membranes differs considerably.

3. Glycolipids

Glycolipids are lipids with a carbohydrate attached by a glycosidic bond. A glycolipid's carbohydrate
structure depends on the glycolsyltransferases that bring in the lipids and glycosylhydrolases which
change the glycan after they appear. Their role is to serve as markers for cellular recognition and also
to provide energy. The carbohydrates are found on the outer surface of all eukaryotic cell
membranes. They extend from the phospholipid bilayer into the aqueous environment outside the cell
where it acts as a recognition site for specific chemicals as well as helping to maintain the stability of
the membrane and attaching cells to one another to form tissues.Another effect of glycolipids is the
determination of an individual's blood group. The glycolipids serve as receptors on the red blood cell's
surface, which is important because this principle comes in handy when a swift classification is
necessary in such situations as emergency transfusions.

4. Glycoproteins
 Glycoproteins are proteins that have sugar molecules attached to them. These sugar molecules are
actually gathered into short chains, or oligosaccharides. The cell uses glycoproteins embedded in the
plasma membrane to get the oligosaccharides on the outside of the cell. Embedded proteins typically
have a portion of the protein outside the cell, which is typically decorated with different
oligosaccharides, depending on what message is being sent.Glycoproteins help cells recognize each
other. The unique patterns of oligosaccharides on the cell surface can be 'read' by corresponding
glycoproteins on another cell.

5. Proteins

Membrane proteins perform a variety of functions vital to the survival of organisms. Membrane
receptor proteins relay signals between the cell's internal and external environments. Transport
proteins move molecules and ions across the membrane. They can be categorized according to
the Transporter Classification database. Membrane enzymes may have many activities, such as
oxidoreductase, transferase or hydrolase. Cell adhesion molecules allow cells to identify each other
and interact.

 Channel Proteins - form small openings for molecules to diffuse through. It is a protein that allows
the transport of specific substances across a cell membrane.
 Carrier Proteins - binding site of protein surface. Grabs certain molecules and pulls them into the
cell.They facilitate the diffusion of different molecules, to which they have specificity, one molecule at
the time is allowed to bind to carrier protein and is released on the other side of the membrane.
 Receptor Proteins - molecular triggers that set off cell responses (such as release of hormones or
opening of channel proteins)
 Enzymatic Proteins - carry out metabolic reactions

PROKARYOTIC CELL and EUKARYOTIC CELL

Differences between Prokaryotic Cell and Eukaryotic Cell
 Characteristics Prokaryotic Cell Eukaryotic Cell

Capsule Jelly-like outer coating of Absent

many prokaryotes
Size of cell Smaller than eukaryotic cell Larger than prokaryotic cell

No nuclear membrane or True nucleus, consisting of

Nucleus nucleoli (nucleoid) nuclear membrane &
nucleoli
Present. Examples are
Membrane-enclosed Absent
lysosomes, Golgi complex,
organelles endoplasmic reticulum,
mitochondria and
chloroplasts.

Consist of two protein Microscopic in size;

Flagella building blocks. membrane bound; usually
Submicroscopic in size, arranged as nine doublets
composed of only one fiber surrounding two singlets
Present as a capsule or Present in some cells that
Glycocalyx slime layer lack a cell wall
Usually present; chemically Only in plant cells and fungi
Cell wall complex. Contains (chemically simpler). It
mucopeptide and contains cellulose but the
peptidoglycan. peptidoglycan is absent.
No carbohydrates and Sterols and carbohydrates
Plasma membrane generally lacks sterols that serve as receptors
present
No cytoskeleton or Cytoskeleton; cytoplasmic
Cytoplasm cytoplasmic streaming streaming
It is smaller and have a Larger in size
Ribosomes slightly different shape and
composition than those
found in eukaryotic cells.
Single circular Multiple linear
Chromosome (DNA) chromosome; lacks chromosomes with
arrangement histones histones
Binary fission Mitosis
Cell division
 No meiosis; transfer of DNA Involves meiosis
Sexual reproduction fragments only
(conjugation)
Number of chromosomes One--but not true More than one
chromosome: Plasmids
DNA wrapping on Eukaryotes wrap their DNA Multiple proteins act
proteins around proteins called together to fold and
histones. condense prokaryotic DNA.
Folded DNA is then
organized into a variety of
conformations that are
supercoiled and wound
around tetramers of the HU
protein.

Fimbriae Attachment structures on Absent

the surface of some
prokaryotes; Present

Cellular Functions

 Nutrition – the sum of the processes by which an animal or plant takes in and utilizes food
substances.
 Ingestion – intake of nutrients. It includes endocytosis which is transporting large substances into the
cell, pinocytosis which is the process of ingesting small vesicles and phagocytosis which is ingesting
large particles.
 Digestion – It is the enzymatic breakdown and hydrolysis of food so it is small enough to be
assimilated by the body. All cells have to have some way to get energy from outside them. The part of
the cell that began this process was the lysosome.
 Respiration – metabolic processes that produce energy for all the life processes. It is the process by
which cells in plants and animals break down sugar and turn it into energy, which is then used to
perform work at the cellular level.
 Transport – It is movement of materials across cell membranes. Cell transport includes passive
and active transport. Passive transport does not require energy whereas active transport requires
energy to proceed. Passive transport proceeds through diffusion, facilitated diffusion and
osmosis.
 Regulation – Cell regulation encompasses all the functions cells carry out to maintain homeostasis,
in particular their responses to extracellular signals (hormones, neurotransmitters, etc.) and how they
produce an intracellular response.
 Protein Synthesis- It is one of the most fundamental biological processes by which individual cells
build their specific proteins. Within the process are involved both DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) and
different in their function ribonucleic acids (RNA).
 Excretion – It is the process where the cell gets rid of its metabolic waste and toxins that might cause
damage through the cell membrane. The cell also uses the vacuole to dispose its garbage. The
lysosomes also play an important role in cell excretion.
 Egestion –excretion of unusable or undigested material from a cell, as in the case of single-celled
organisms, or from the digestive tract of multicellular animals.
 Reproduction – ability to generate offspring. Transmission of genetic material from one generation to
the next occurs via cell division. There are two types of cell division. They are mitosis and meiosis.
 Irritability – It describes the ability of any cell to recognize and react to stimuli in its immediate
surroundings.Only some cells in the body actually exhibit irritability under normal conditions. These
cells include muscle cells, neurons and endocrine cells.
 Locomotion – it is the ability to move. It is the movement of some components of the cell or to the
movement of the whole cell e.g. within a fluid. Prokaryotic cells move by rotating a rigid flagellum.
Eukaryotic cells e.g. plant cells and animal cells move via the actions of flexible cilia or flagella.
 Metabolism – All cells perform chemical reactions such as metabolic processes. In general, the
functions of these reactions can include synthesizing biochemical macromolecules, degrading
unwanted molecules, converting food/energy sources into sugars and trapping or releasing energy.

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Campbell Biology Ninth Edition

Biochemistry (A Case-Oriented Approach) Fifth Edition