Introduction

Margarine and table spreads are water-in-oil emulsions. The aqueous phase consists of water, salt and preservatives.
The fatty phase, which contributes to the polymorphic behavior of margarine, is a blend of oils and fats. Lecithin,
distilled monoacyl glycerol and diacylglycerol are common emulsifiers added together with flavouring, colouring
agents and antioxidants. A good margarine should not suffer oil separation, discolouration, hardening, sandiness,
graininess and water separation. 1 The oils and fats, process conditions and handling methods used should be
selected so as not to produce a strong crystal network2, crystal migration and transformation of ’- to -crystals. The
major effort in margarine production should be for the product to be in the ’- crystal form as it would then be
smooth, creamy a homogenous. The -crystal form, on the other hand, will produce a margarine that is post-
hardened, brittle, grainy, sandy, oiled out and greasy.The solidification of oils and fats in margarine processing is
not a simple process. Therefore, the main activity in margarine production is crystallization of the oils and fats. The
processing parameters, such as emulsion temperature, agitation, flow rate of emulsion, cooling temperature
and working are critical, thus, their effects on the crystallization of oils and fats and the crystalline nature of the final
product are worth learning This article will review several aspects of margarine fats selection, which includes the
chemical and physical properties and crystal behaviour of the oils and fats, preparation of food grade oil, the
modification processes, production of the margarines, new developments in margarine formulations and product
properties.

Category of margarines
Since its development, margarine has been endlessly modified and improved, giving rise to the range of products
now available in the market. Margarines can be categorized by their hardness and melting point of their fats - hard
and medium plastic margarines for baking (bakery margarine), and medium plastic and soft margarines for the table
(table margarine).

Bakery margarine
Bakery margarine is used like shortening - as bakery fat, and in short pastry, cakes, cookies, breads and pastries. 9
Bakery margarine, like its counterpart, shortening, has a wide plastic range. Thus, within limits, the products are
inter-substitutable. Generally, however, bakery margarine is firmer and requires no refrigeration. It is formulated to
withstand dough working and, at the same time, provide lubrication for cake leavening.9 Premium bakery margarines
produce a high cake volume and stable cream. Palm kernel oil (both unhydrogenated and hydrogenated) is
commonly used in the products.

Table margarine
Table margarines are of two types - refrigerated and nonrefrigerated - both spreadable at room temperature.
Refrigerated margarine is either soft or block type. The soft type margarine is spreadable straight from the
refrigerator and should not suffer any oiling out, while the block type should be sufficiently firm to retain its shape
in packets.

Soft margarine is packed in plastic (polypropylene) tubs, as sticks or blocks wrapped in parchment, and the semi
solid type in cans. Soft stick margarine is firm and maintains its shape at room temperature for a reasonable time. 5
This margarine has very similar consistency to butter and is formulated to have a steep SFC curve. Can margarine
does not require refrigeration and is used as a spread on bread as well as for making bread, cookies and cream. Can
margarine is formulated to have a wide plastic range.

Margarine Processing
Plants and Equipment
Klaus A. Alexandersen
When designing margarine processing plants and choosing the equipment to be
installed, a wide range of considerations have to be made with regard to issues
like actual processing, hygiene, sanitation, and efficiency.
In margarine production, oils and fats usually are considered to be the most
important raw materials used, as oils and fats are significant in relation to
the characteristics of the finished margarine. The type of oils or fats used
has considerable influence on the crystallization characteristics during margarine
processing, which has to be considered when choosing the equipment
involved in the margarine processing line. The criteria involved in choosing
this equipment are to a certain extent based on knowledge about product
characteristics, polymorphism, and crystal structure of margarine and related
products.
In this chapter, crystallization of oil and fat products, margarine processing
equipment and packaging methods, processing methods, and specific process flows
are discussed. Various oil types exhibiting interesting crystallization habits are
reviewed along with certain specialized margarine or fat products. Storage of
finished products as well as production quality control and hygiene will also be
covered.
Bailey’s Industrial Oil and Fat Products, Sixth Edition, Six Volume Set.
Edited by Fereidoon Shahidi. Copyright # 2005 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
459
1. CRYSTALLIZATION OF OIL AND FAT PRODUCTS
1.1. Product Characteristics
The rheological characteristics of finished margarines are expressed in terms such
as consistency, texture, plasticity, hardness, structure, and spreadability (1).
These characteristics are related to a number of variable factors. These are
temperature, concentration of the disperse phase or solid fat content, crystal size,
crystal size distribution, crystal shape, interparticle forces of van der Waals’ type
and mechanical treatment (2).
The two dominating factors are the amount of solid triglycerides (or solid fat
index) and the processing conditions during production (3). Formulation or choice
of oil blend allows control of the solid content, which, for identical processing
conditions, is directly related to the consistency and type of crystalline structure
formed (3–5). Processing conditions (rate and degree of cooling, mechanical
working, final product temperature, etc.) regulate the type of crystals formed and
the morphology and extent of intertwining of the solid structure that holds the
liquid oil (6).
The term morphology is used to denote the general relation of the physical
behavior and performance of fats and oils to their crystal structure and the molecular
configuration of their triglyceride components (7).
The curve describing the relationship between the solid fat content of a fat and
its hardness is not a straight line. Hardness decreases sharply when solid fat content
goes below a certain value at which the material loses some of the characteristic
plastic properties (2). Haighton (3, 8) has reported the hardness of margarine in
terms of yield value to have a strong correlation to the solid content under constant
processing conditions, as shown in Figure 1.
1.2. Polymorphism and Crystal Structure
It has been reported extensively that fats solidify in more than one crystalline type
(2–23). Triglycerides exhibit three main crystal types—a; b0, and b—with increasing
degrees of stability and melting point. The molecular conformations and
packings in the crystal of each polymorph have been reported. In the a form, the
fatty acid chain axes of the triglyceride are randomly oriented and the a form
reveals a freedom of molecular motion with the most loosely packed hexagonal
subcell structure.
The b0 form and the b form are of an extended chain conformation with orthorhombic
and triclinic subcell structures, respectively. In the b0 form alternating fatty
acid chain axes are oppositely oriented, whereas in the b form all fatty acid chain
axes are oriented in one way (9, 10).
Crystals of the a form are fragile, transparent platelets approximately 5 mm in
size. They are extremely transitory and require quite low temperatures to exist.
b0 crystals are tiny needles seldom more than 1 mm in length. b crystals are large
460 MARGARINE PROCESSING PLANTS AND EQUIPMENT
and coarse, approximately 25–50 mm in length and can grow to over 100 mm during
extended periods of product storage. The b form is responsible for product quality
failure in ‘‘sandy’’ and ‘‘grainy’’ margarines (7). In severe cases this can lead to
separation of the oil usually described by the term oiling out. Storage temperature
that is too high, inadequate oil blend formulation, or process conditions promote
this product failure.
In the manufacture of margarine, the emulsion is processed in a scraped-surface
heat exchanger that must supercool the melted fat quickly in order to form as many
crystal nuclei as possible (11).
The fat is believed to first crystallize in the a form, which is transformed more or
less rapidly to the b0 form depending on the crystal habit of the fat, rate of cooling,
and the amount of mechanical work applied (5, 7, 12, 13).
b0 is the crystal form desired in margarines as it promotes plasticity (4, 5, 13).
The b0 crystal form tends to structure as a fine three-dimensional network capable
Figure 1. Hardness of margarine vs. percentage solid in fat (3). Courtesy of J. Amer. Oil Chem.
Soc.
CRYSTALLIZATION OF OIL AND FAT PRODUCTS 461
of immobilizing a large amount of liquid oil (6). Large b crystals do not tend to
give a three-dimensional structure.
Both Wiedermann (4) and Thomas (5) have grouped various oils and fats according
to their crystal habits. As an example, soybean, sunflower seed, corn, coconut,
and peanut oils show a b tendency. Cottonseed oil, palm oil, tallow, and butter oil
have a b0 tendency. Oil blend formulation has a significant influence on the crystal
form attained by a margarine or shortening. The suitability of a fat or oil for
margarine formulation is very much dependent on the crystal size present, amount,
and habit of these crystals (13). Incorporation of a higher melting b0 tending oil to a
basestock can induce the crystallization of the entire fat into a stable b