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Types of Errors:
Formulas for Velocity: [units: v: m/s; a: m/s2; x: m; t:
Personal errors due to bias or mistakes. s]
Systematic errors due to miscalibration of instruments,
personal bias, or reaction time. v = v 0 + at (for constant a)
Random errors are unknown or unpredictable, such as v 0 +v
voltage or temperature fluctuations, vibration, etc. v = (for constant a) average velocity
2
Accuracy - how close measurement comes to accepted value 1
x = v 0t +
2
at (for constant a)
Precision - how consistent or repeatable measurements are 2
=v0 + 2ax
2 2
v (for constant a)
Calculation of Errors:
Multiplication: operation: A = L × W Rocket Science: The relationship between velocity and the
burning of fuel.
error: ∆A = ± ( L × ∆W + W × ∆L ) Mi u = speed of the exhaust
M v f − v i = u ln relative the to rocket [m/s]
Division: operation: D = Mf
V
∆M M × ∆V
error: ∆D = ± +
V V2 Addition of Multiple Vectors:
r r r r
2 2 Rr = Ar+ B +r C r Resultant = Sum of the vectors
g = 9.8 m/s = 32 f/s Quadratic Equation:
gmoon = 1.62 m/s2 Rx = Ax + Bx + Cx x-component A x = A cos θ
− b ± b 2 − 4ac r r r r
x= Ry = Ay + By + C y y-component A y = A sin θ
2a
R = Rx 2 + Ry 2 Magnitude (length) of R
Ry Ry
Law of Cosines: y θ R = tan −1 or tanθ R = Angle of the resultant
Rx Rx
R
R= A + B − 2 AB cos γ γ
2 2
B
θ Unit Vectors:
x Positive direction:
R A Cross Product or Vector Product:
sin θ = i
B sin γ
i× j=k j × i = −k
i ×i = 0
Newton's Laws: j k
Dot Product or Scalar Product:
First Law: Law of Inertia. An object at rest will remain at
rest unless acted on by an external force. An object in
j
motion will remain in motion unless . . .
i⋅ j = 0 i⋅i =1
Second Law: ΣF = ma , Στ = Iα The sum of external
i
forces on a object is equal to its mass (or inertia for
rotational forces) times the acceleration. Velocity is the derivative of position with respect
k to time:
Third Law: Every action has an equal and opposite reaction. d dx dy dz
Law of Gravity: F = force of attraction exerted on each body v= ( xi + yj + zk) = i + j+ k
m1m2 G = gravitational constant 6.67 × 10-11 dt dt dt dt
F=G 2 [N · m 2/kg] or [m3/kg · s2] Acceleration is the derivative of velocity with respect to
r
r = distance between centers [m] time:
d dv dv y dv
a= ( v x i + v y j + v zk ) = x i + j+ z k
dt dt dt dt
FORMULAS- PHYSICS CHAPTERS
v PA = v PB + v BA J impulse
Relative Motion: F= force =
∆t time interval
The relative velocity of object P with respect to A is equal to
the velocity of P with respect to B plus the velocity of B with conservative force - work done is independent of the path taken
respect to A. non-conservative force - depends on the path taken
For velocities approaching the speed of light, the formula m 1m 2
F =G force of gravitational attraction, where G
v PB + v BA r2 is the constant of universal gravitation
changes to: v PA = 6. 673 × 10−11 N ⋅m 2
1 + v PB v BA / c 2 kg 2
Atwood's Machine:
Inclined Plane: [F and W are in Newtons; m is kilograms]
Fk Acceleration in m/s2:
F = mg sinθ m2 − m1
W = mg a= g
m1 + m2
Fn = mg cosθ F m1
W Fn Tension in Newtons:
(the normal θ
force) 2m1 m2
T = g
m1 + m2 m2
PE s = 1 2
2
kx (elastic potential energy)
Work: [joules or Newton-meters]
Simple Harmonic Motion:
F 1
T= (T is period in seconds; f is frequency in Hz)
θ
f
F cos θ
m T = period (s)
T = 2π m = mass (kg)
k
s k = spring constant (N/m)
W = ( F cos θ )s (work done on the object by F) k
a=− x (acceleration) x is the location in meters
m
W = F•d work = force × displacement
( A − x2)
k 2
W g = mgy i − mgy f = PE i − PE f (work done by gravity, y is v=± (A is amplitude in m; x is position)
vertical distance in meters) m
W = KE f − KEi x = A cos( 2π f t ) (x is position in m; f is frequency Hz)
W = − kx 1
2
2
(work done by a spring)
FORMULAS- PHYSICS CHAPTERS
Torque:
Center of Mass: The center of mass of a body or a system
of bodies is the point that moves as though all of the mass τ =r×F τ = torque (vector) (positive is in the
were concentrated there and all external forces were counterclockwise direction) [N · m]
applied there.
xcm = distance from origin [m] τ = rFt = r⊥ F τ = magnitude of the torque
1 n
x cm = ∑
M i =1
mi x i M = total mass [m] = rF sin φ
r = radius [m]
F = force [N]
m = mass of object [m]
This can be applied to r⊥ = perpendicular distance
x = distance of object from origin
y and z axis as well. between axis and an extended
[m]
line running through F.
φ = the angle between r and F [° or
rad]
Rotation and Torque: [θ is in radians]
∆θ ∑ τ = Iα ∑τ = the net torque acting on a
body [N · m]
ω= average angular speed [rad/s] I = Inertia [kg · m2]
∆t
α = angular acceleration [rad/s ]
2
Is = Id =
2 2 1 2
sphere: disk or cyl.:
∆ω 5
mr 2
mr
α = average angular acceleration [rad/s2] thin rod (on side): I = 1 2
rod (axis end): I = 13 ml 2
∆t 12
ml
Mg
FORMULAS- PHYSICS CHAPTERS
Pressure in a liquid: (due to gravity) [Pa or N/m2] x' = velocity of the oscillating object [m/s]
x'' = acceleration of the oscillating object m/s2]
1 atm = 1.01 × 105 Pa = 760 torr = 14.7 in2 d d
(cos u) = − u'sin u (sin u ) = u' cos u
P = P0 + ρ gh P0 = atmospheric pressure if applicable dx dx
[Pa or N/m2]
ρ = density [kg/m3]
g = gravity [m/s2] Equations of a Line:
h = height [m]
f y = mx + b slope-intercept
F
f F f = force [N] Ax + By + C = 0 (m = − A / B ) first degree
=
y − y1 = m ( x − x1 )
a = area [m2]
a A F = force [N]
a A point-slope
A = area [m2] Ax + By = Ax 1 + By 1 point-slope, alt.
y 2 − y1
y − y1 = ( x − x1 ) 2-point
Rate of Flow: x 2 − x1
R = rate of flow [m3/s] intercept
R = A1v1 = A2 v 2 A = crossectional area [m2]
x
+
y
=1 (m = − b / a ) a = x-intercept
a b b = y-intercept
v = velocity [m/s]
Bernoulli's Equation:
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P1 + 12 ρ v12 + ρ gy1 = P2 + 12 ρ v 2 2 + ρ gy 2
P1 = pressure [Pa or N/m2] ρ = density [kg/m3]
v = velocity [m/s] g = gravity [m/s2]
y = height [m]
For a horizontal pipe: P1 + 12 ρ v12 = P2 + 12 ρ v 2 2