Hi

stor
yanddat eoff
ormat
ionofI
ndi
anst
atessi
nce1947
Pr
e-i
ndependence
The  I
ndiansubcont inent hasbeenr ul
edbymanydi ff
erentet hni
cgr oups
throughouti tshi
stor y,eachi nstitutingtheirownpol ici
esofadmi nistr
ative
divisi
oni nt her egion.Dur i
ngt he Briti
shRaj ,theor i
ginaladmi nistr
ative
structur
ewasmost lykept ,andI ndi awasdi vi
dedi nt
opr ovinces(alsocalled
Presidencies)thatwer edirectlygov er
nedbyt heBr i
ti
shandpr incelystates
whi chwerenomi nallycont r
olledbyal ocalpri
nceorr aj
al oyaltotheBr it
ish
Empi re,whi ch held de f acto sov erei
gnty( suzerai
nty)ov erthe princely
states.
1947–1950
Between1947and1950t heterri
tor
iesoft heprincel
yst at eswerepol i
tically
i
ntegratedint
ot heIndi
anUni on.Mostwer emer gedintoexi stingpr ovinces;
other
swer eor gani
sedintonew pr ovi
nces,suchas  Raj putana,
 Hi machal
Pradesh, 
Madhy a Bharat,and Vindhy a Pradesh,made up ofmul tipl
e
pri
ncelystates;af ew,incl
uding My sore,
 Hyderabad, 
Bhopal ,and Bi l
aspur ,
becamesepar ateprovi
nces.Thenew  Consti
tuti
onofI ndia,whi chcame
i
ntoforceon26Januar y1950, madeI ndiaasov erei
gndemocr ati
cr epubl i
c.
The new r epublic was also declared to be a " Uni on ofSt at es".The
consti
tuti
onof1950di sti
nguishedbet weent hr
eemai nt y pesofst ates:

 PartAstat es,whichweretheformergov ernor

s'provincesofBr i
ti
sh
I
ndia,werer uledbyanelectedgov ernorandst at
el egisl
atur
e.Thenine
PartAstat eswer e 
Assam, 
Bihar, 
Bombay ,
 MadhyaPr adesh (f
ormerl
y
Central
Pr ov i
ncesandBerar),
 Madr as, 
Ori
ssa, 
Punjab (formerl
yEast
Punjab)
, 
Ut tarPradesh 
(f
ormer l
ytheUni tedProvinces) ,
and West
Bengal 
(former l
ypartofBengal Province).

 TheeightPar tBst ateswer eformerprincelystat

esorgr oupsofpr i
ncel
y
stat
es, gov er
nedbya  rajpr
amukh, whowasusual lyther ul
erofa
consti
tuentst ate, andanel ect
edlegisl
at ur
e.Ther ajpramukhwas
appointedbyt he PresidentofIndi
a.ThePar tBstates
were Hy derabad, JammuandKashmi r
, 
Madhy aBhar at,
 
My sore,
 Pat
ial
a
andEastPunj abSt at
esUni on 
(PEPSU) ,
 Raj
asthan, Saurashtra,
and Trav ancore-Cochin.

 ThetenPartCstatesincl
udedboththef or
merchi
efcommi ssi
oners'
prov
incesandsomepr incel
yst
ates,andeachwasgov er
nedbyachi ef
commi ssi
onerappoi
ntedbythePresidentofI
ndi
a.ThePartCstates
 wer
e Aj
mer, 
Bhopal
,
 Bil
aspur
, 
Coorg,
 
Delhi,
 
Himachal
Pr
adesh,
 Cut
ch,
 Manipur
, 
Tri
pura,
and Vi
ndhyaPradesh.

 Theonl yPartDstat
ewasthe AndamanandNi cobarIsl
ands,
whichwer
e
administer
edbyal i
eut
enantgover
norappoi
ntedbyt hecentr
al
government.
St
atesreorganizat
ion(
1951–1956)
TheUnionTer ri
tor
yof Puducherr
y wascreat
edi n1954compri
singthe
prev
ious 
French encl
avesof  
Pondichér
y, 
Kar
aikal,
 
Yanam and 
Mahé.
AndhraState 
wascr eatedon1Oct ober1953from the 
Tel
ugu-
speaking
nort
hern 
distr
icts 
of 
Madr asStat
e.
The St atesReor gani sat ionAct  
of1956r eorgani sedt hest at esbasedon
l
ingui sti
cl inesr esul ti
ngi nt hecr eati
onoft henewst ates.  
Asar esultofthi
s
act, 
Madr asSt ate retainedi tsnamewi th Kany akumar idistrict addedt o
form  Trav ancor e-Cochi n.  Andhr aPr adesh  wascr eatedwi tht hemer ger
of Andhr aSt at e wi t
ht heTel ugu- speakingdi str
ict sof Hyder abadSt ate i
n
1956.  Keral a wascr eatedwi tht hemer gerof  
Mal abardi strict and
the Kasar agodt al uk of Sout hCanar a distri
ct sof  
Madr as
State with  Tr avancor e-Cochi n. My sor eSt ate wasr e-
organi zedwi ththe
additionofdi st r
ictsof  
Bel lary and  South
Canar a (excl udi ng  Kasar agod  taluk)andt he  Kollegal 
talukof  Coimbat ore
distri
ct  
from t heMadr asSt at e,thedi strictsof  
Bel gaum,  Bij
apur ,
 North
Canar a and  Dhar wad  fr
om  BombaySt ate, t
heKannada- maj oritydistri
cts
of Bidar, 
Rai chur  and  Gul bar ga from  Hyder abadSt at
e andt hepr ovince
of Coor g.The  Laccadi veI slands  whi chwer edividedbet weenSout hCanar a
andMal abardi strictsofMadr asSt atewer euni tedandor gani sedintot he
uniont erritor yof  Lakshadweep.
BombaySt at
e wasenl ar
gedbyt headditi
onof 
Saur ashtraState and 
Kutch
State,
theMar athi-
speakingdi st
rict
sof NagpurDi v
ision of
 Madhy a
Pradesh and Marathwada regionof  
Hyderabad
State.
 Rajast
han and Punjab gai
nedt er
ri
tori
esf r
om  Ajmer and 
Pat i
alaand
EastPunj abStat
esUni on respectiv
elyandcertainterri
tori
esof Bihar
 was
tr
ansferredto WestBengal .
Post
-1956
Bombay St at
e was spl
it i nto the l
i
nguist
ic stat
es
of 
Gujarat 
and Mahar
asht
ra 
on1May1960byt heBombayReor ganisati
on
Act. Nagal and 
was for
med on 1 December 1963. The Punj ab
Reorganisat
ion Actof1966 resul
ted i
nt he cr
eat
ion of
 Haryana on 1
Novemberandt het
ransf
erofthenorther
ndist
ri
ctsofPunj
abto 
Himachal
Pradesh.Theactal
sodesignat
ed Chandi
gar
h asaunionter
ri
tor
yandthe
sharedcapi
tal
ofPunjabandHaryana.
Madr as state was renamed  Tami lNadu  i
n 1968.Nor th-east
ern st
ates
of 
Mani pur,
 Meghalaya and Tr
ipura weref ormed on 21 Januar y 1972.
My sore St at
e was r enamed as  Karnat aka i
n 1973. On 16 May
1975, Si
kkim becamet he22ndst ateoft heI ndi
anUnionandt hestate'
s
monar chy was aboli
shed.  I
n 1987,
 Ar
unachal
Pradesh and Mizor
am  becamest ateson20Febr uar
y,f
ollowedby  
Goa on
30May ,whi l
eGoa' snor ther
n exclaves 
of  
DamanandDi u and 
Dadraand
NagarHav eli 
becamesepar at
euni onterr
itories.
InNov ember2000, thr
eenewst ateswer ecreated;
namel y,
 Chhatt
isgarh 
fr
om eastern MadhyaPr adesh,Ut
tar
anchalf
rom
northwest Utt
arPradesh (
renamed  Utt
arakhand i
n2007)
and Jharkhand fr
om southerndistr
ict
sofBi har.Ori
ssawasrenamed
as Odisha i
n2011.  
Tel
angana wascr eatedon2June2014ast enfor
mer
dist
rictsofnorth-
western 
AndhraPr adesh.
InJuly2019,
theGov ernmentofI
ndiawasr eport
edl
yplanni
ngtomergethe
unionter
ri
tor
iesof 
DamanandDi u and DadraandNagarHavel
i
 int
oa
singl
eunionter
ri
tor
yt obeknownas  Dadra,
NagarHaveli
,DamanandDiu.
I
nAugust2019, thePar l
i
amentofI ndiapassedt he 
JammuandKashmir
Reorgani
sati
onAct ,2019,whichcontainsprovisi
onstor
eor
gani
sethest
ate
of 
JammuandKashmi r 
int
otwouni ont er
ri
tori
es; 
Jammuand
Kashmir 
and Ladakh ef
fect
ivefrom 31Oct ober2019.
Afterthebifurcationoft heJKi ntot wosepar ateUni onTer ri
tori
es;the
numberofst atesi nIndiachangedt o28st ateswhilet henumberofUni on
Territ
ori
esbecame9whi chwer e7ear li
erthebifurcat i
on.Int hi
sarticl
ewe
haveexpl ai
nedt heev olutionoft healltheIndianstat esony earbyyear
basis.
Beforeindependence, I
ndi awasdi videdinto565pr i
ncel ystates.These
i
ndigenouspr i
ncel ystatesbel ievedinindependentgov ernance,whichwas
thebiggestobst acl einbui ldi
ngast r
ongI ndia.
AtthistimeI ndiahadt hreet ypesofst ates(1)'Terri
toriesofBr it
ishIndia'
,
(2)'Pri
ncelystates' andt hecol onialterr
itor
iesofFr anceandPor t
ugal.
AftertheIndiani ndependence; 562pr i
ncelystateshadnoddedt ojointhe
I
ndi anConf ederationexceptHy derabad,Junagadh, Bhopal andKashmi r.

Si
ncet
hei
ndi
ani
ndependencet
heboundar
iesoft
heI
ndi
anst
ateskeepon
changingyearbyy ear.
From 565princelyst at
esand17pr ov
incesbeforepart
it
ion,
to14stat
es
and6Uni onTerritoriesfol
lowi
ngtheReorgani
sationofStat
esin1956to29
stat
esand7uni ont erri
tor
iesi
n2014,nowafterthebif
urcat
ionofJammu&
Kashmi rt
o28st at esand9Uni onTer
rit
ori
esafterit
.

1.JammuandKashmi r(1948) :
 Theki
ngofthi
sstatesi
gnedt he
"I
nstr
umentofAccessi on"toIndiaandbecamepartofIndianUnion.I
n
1956J&Kcompl et
edthepr ocessofmergingwi
ththeIndianUnion.
Nowt hi
sstateisbif
urcatedandLaddakhandJ&Kar et
hesepar ateuni
on
ter
ri
tori
essinceAugust2019.

2.Ut tarPr adesh( 1950) : 

Thi sst ateispopul arast hel andoft hepower ful
empi re.Bef orebecomi ngut tarPr adeshi n1950i twasknownast heUni t
ed
Prov inceswhi chwasuni tedbyaddi ngOudhandAgr ar egions.
3.Bi har( 1950) :
 Thisst atewasf or medbyt heengl i
shon22Mar ch1912but
i
tgotf ullstat ehoodon26Januar y1950.I twasf urtherbi furcatedi n2000
andanewst at enaml yJhar khandwascr eated.
ListofI ndianSt atesandUni onTer ri
torieswi tht heirCapi t
als
4. Assam ( 1950) : Assam becameaBr iti
shpr ot ectorat ein1826.Assam
wassepar at edf rom Bengal i
n1874.I n1912, itwasr ef ormedasAssam
prov i
nceunderBr i
tishr ule.Gr eat erAssam i ncl udedMeghal ay a,Nagal and,
andMi zoram.I tgetf ullst atehoodon26Januar y1950.
5.Odi sha( 1950) :Or i
ssawasmadeasepar at epr ov i
nceon1Apr il1936by
theBr iti
shandi n1950becameast ate.Itwasr enamedOdi shai n2011.
6.Tami lNadu( 1950) :
 Erstwhi let heMadr asPr esidency ,wasr eorgani zedas
ast atei n1950andr enamedTami lNadui n1969.
7.Andhr aPr adesh( 1953) :
 itwasgi venst atehoodon1Nov ember1956.
Befor ebecoi ngasepar atest atei twast hepar tofst ateofMadr as.The
north- west ernpar tofAndhr aPr adeshwassepar atedt oform Tel anganaon
2June2014.
8.Madhy aPr adesh( 1956) :
 Itcamei ntoex ist encei n1956.t hisst at ei
s
famousf ordi amondmi ningi npannadi strict.Itwasf urtherbi furcat edin
2000andChhat ti
sgar hbecameanewst ate.
9.Ker ala( 1956) : 
For merst at esofTr av ancor e, Cochi n, andMal abarwer e
mer gedt oget hert of ormt hest at eofKer alai n1956.I tgotful lstat ehood
onNov ember1, 1956.
10.Kar nat aka( 1956) :
 
Itwasf ormedasaMy sor eSt at eon1Nov ember
1956.My sor est atewascr eat edbybr ingingt oget heral lKannadaspeaki ng
regionsi n1956.Thest atewasr enamedKar nat akai n1973.
11.Mahar asht r a( 1960) : Mahar asht raandGuj ar atwast hePar toft hest ate
ofBombayPr ov i
nce.On1May1960, thest atesofMahar asht raand
Guj aratwer ef or medasi ndependentst at es.
12.Guj arat( 1960) : Thisst atei sf amousf orasi at icl ion.itwaspar tof
BombayPr esi dencyi nBr i
tishI ndi abuton1May1960Guj aratwas
separ at edandf or medasani ndependentst ate.
13.Nagal and( 1963) :
 Thisst atewasf or medon1December1963.I tis
separ at edf r om Assam.
14.Punj ab( 1966) : 
Thi sst atewascr eat edaf t
ert hemer gerofPat iala
princel yst at ewi thei ghtot hersi mi larst at es. I
n1966, Haryanawas
separ at edasani ndependentst at ef rom t hismer ger .Chandi garhi st he
j
oi ntcapi tal ofPunj abandHar yana.
15.Hi machal Pr adesh( 1971) :
 Hi machal Pr adeshwascr eatedwi tht he
mer gerof30pr incel ystat esi n1950, andi n1956, wasdecl aredaUni on
Ter rit
or y.Hi machal Pradeshgotf ul lstat ehoodon25Januar y1971.
16.Mani pur( 1972) :
 Mani purbecamei ndependenceal ongwi thIndi ai n
1947.I n1956, itbecameaUni onTer r
itor yandgotf ullstatehoodon21
Januar y1972.FamousboxerMar yKom hai l
sf rom t hisstat e.
ListofChi efMi ni stersandPr i
meMi nist er sofJammuandKashmi r
17.Meghal ay a( 1972) : 
Meghal ay awasf or medasanaut onomousst ate
withi nAssam i n1970.I tbecameasepar at est ateon21Januar y1972.
18.Tr ipur a( 1972) : SurroundedbyBangl adeshont hr eesi des, Tr i
pur a
remai nedaUni onTer ri
tor ytill1972, wheni tbecameani ndependentst ate.
19.Si kki m( 1975) :
 Sikkim; alandl ockedst ateist hesecondsmal lestst ate
ofI ndia.I tisPopul arlyknownast heOr gani cst ateofI ndia.Si kkim was
mer gedwi t
ht heI ndi anUni onon16May1975.
20.Goa( 1987) : Ev enaf tert hei ndi ani ndependencet hisst atewasunder
ther uleasPor t uguesecol onybutl iber at edbyt heI ndi anAr myi n1961
madeanUni onTer rit
or y,alongwi t
hDamanandDi u.Thest ateofGoawas
formedon30May1987.
21.Ar unachal Pr adesh( 1987) : In1972, itbecameaUni onTer ri
toryandi n
1987becameani ndependentst ateofI ndi awi thI tanagarasi tscapi tal.
22.Mi zor am ( 1987) : 
Itgott hest at ehoodon20Febr uar y1987.I nitiallyit
wasadi strictofAssam.I n1972i twasdecl aredaUni onTer ritorybutMi zo
Nat ional Frontopposedi tandl at eroni tgotf ull stat ehood.
23.Chhat t
isgar h( 2000) : Thisst aewassepar atedf rom apar tofMadhy a
Pradeshon1Nov ember2000.
24.Jhar khand( 2000) : 
Thi st r
ibal domi nat edst atewassepar atedf r
om
Biharandgotf ull statehoodon15Nov ember2000.
25.Ut tarakhand( 2000) :
 Thi sst at ewasf or medaf tert akingsomedi stri
cts
oftheUt t
arPr adeshbyt henameofUt tranchalbutin2007,t
hestatewas
renamedUt tarakhand.
26.Tel angana( 2014):
 Thiswast he29thstateofIndia.I
tismadebyt aki
ng
somedi str
ictsofAndhr aPr adesh.I
tgotfull
atatehoodon2June2014.
Sot hiswast hecompl et
elistofallt
heIndianstatesalongwit
htheir
rel
ev anthistory.Thi
sinformat i
onisver
yusef ul
forallthecompeti
ti
ve
examst obehel di nI
ndia.

CASTE
Thesy st em ofcast ehascomet ohauntbot hI ndianPol it
icsandI ndi an
Politi
cal anal y sis.St at ePol iti
csi nI ndi ahasbeenpar ticularlythehotbedof
Politi
cal cast ei sm.I nKer al
acast econsi der ationshav epl ayedani mpor t
ant
rol
ei nst at epol iti
cs. Cast einoursoci et
yr ef er st oasoci al groupwher e
member shipi sl argel ydeci dedont hebasi sofbi rth.Thi scast ecompr ises
alocal gr oupwhosemember sdonotent eri nt omar italrelationshi pwi th
outsider s.Or igi nallyt hi sgr oupwasassoci atedwi t
haspeci ficpr of essi on.
Thewor d‘ cast e’ i
sder ivedf rom t he
Portuguesewor d‘Cast a’meani ngf ami ly,r ace, orlineage.
Accor dingt oPr of.Blunt ,
acast ei s“ anendogamousgr oup, or
coll
ect ionofendogamousgr oups, bear i
ngacommonname, member shi p
ofwhi chi sher edi t
ar y ;imposi ngoni t
smember scer tainr estrictionsi n
mat tersofsoci al i
nt er course; eitherf ol
lowi ngacommont radit i
onal
occupat ionorcl aimi ngacommonor igin,andgener all
yr egar dedas
formi ngasi ngl ehomogeneouscommuni ty .”
MacI verobser vedt hatt he
feudal or dercamet oacl ose,
pavingt hewayf oracast esy stem.Whent hest atusi swhol lypr e-
determi ned, sot hatmenar ebor nt ot heirloti nl i
fewi thoutanyhopeof
changi ngi t,thecl asst akest heext r emef or m ofcast e.Cast eal way sr ests
ondi ffer encesdet er mi nedatbi r
th.Thesedi fferencescannotbechanged
byindi v i
dual achi ev ement sint hev ariousf ieldsl ikeeconomi c, pr ofessi onal
orpol itical.
Cast eal way sr estsondi ffer encesdet ermi nedatbi rt
h.These
dif
fer encescannotbechangedbyi ndi vi
dual achi evement sint hev arious
fi
eldsl ikeeconomi c, pr ofessional orpol itical .Schol arshav edi ff
er ent
opinionaboutcast e.Somehav ear guedt hatt hecast esy stem i st obe
definedi nt er msofi tsHi nduat tri
but esandr at ional andt her ef ore,isuni que
toIndi a.Ther ear eot her sopi net hatt hecast esy stem hast obedef i
nedi n
termsofst ruct ur alf eat ures, which
aref oundnotonl yinHi nduI ndiabuti nanumberofot hersoci et i
esaswel l
.
Thecast esy st em v er ydeepl yent renchedi nI ndi ansoci ety.
CASTEDEFI NED
A.L.Kroeberdef inescast eas“ anendogamousandher editary
subdivisionofanet hni cunitoccupy ingaposi ti
onofsuper i
orori nferiorrank
orsoci alest eem i ncompar i
sonwi t
hot hersuchsub- di
scussi ons”.
F.G.Bai l
eysay s“ Acast eisagr oupofst ructuralorpotentialkinsmen”
M.N.Sr i
niv asdef inescast e"asaher editaryendogamous, usual lylocali
sed
group, hav ingat radi
t i
onal associationwi thanoccupat i
onandpar ti
cular
positi
oni nt hehi erarchyofcast es.Relationsbet weencast esar egov erned,
amongot hert hings, byconcept sofpol lutionandpur it
yandgener al
ly
maxi mum commensal it
yoccur swi thinthecast e.
CASTEANDSOCI ETY
Thegr oupsconst it
utingthecast esy st
em ar edifferenti
ated,interactingand
i
nterdependentpar tsofal ar gersoci et
y.Theyar eeconomi cal l
y
i
nterdependentandoccupat ionallyspeci ali
zed.Inacast esy stem ev eryone
belongst oapar ticularcast eandnoonebel ongst oapar ti
cularcast eand
noonebel ongst omor ethanonecast e.Acast emaycompr i
seofpeopl e
whof ol l
owdi fferentpur suits.Thecast eisal waysapur elysoci aland
possiblyoccupat ional associationwhi chf ormspar tofasoci alcommuni t
y.
Themember soft hecast ev iewt hemsel v esandar ev i
ewedbyot hers,as
rel
ativelyhomogeneousel ement sinasy stem ofdiffer
entiall
yr anked
componentpar tsr atherthani ndependentandmut uall
yunr ankedand
self-
cont ainedsy stem.
ORGI NOFCASTESYSTEM I NI NDI A
I
ti sbel i
evedt hatthecast esy stem inI ndiaori
ginatedabout2,500hundr ed
year sago.I ti sprevalentnotonl yamongHi ndusbutal soamongSi khs,
Chr istians,andMusl ims.Whi leithasmanyaspect s,her ewear econcer ned
witht heaspectofhi erarchyofhi ghandl ow,oftouchabl eandunt ouchabl e,
whi chhaspr ovidedlegiti
mat i
onf ort heunequal accesst oresour ces,and
tot heexpl oitationandoppr essionofl owercast es,besidesthe
discr iminationagai nstlowercast ebyhi ghercastes.
Themostcr ucialpartoft hecast esy stem wast hatitdesignat
edcer tai n
groupsas
untouchabl esandoutcast es,andt henusedt histodenyt hem owner shi p
ofland, entryintotempl es, accesst ocommonr esourcessuchaswat er
fr
om t hev il
laget ankorwel l.Non- untouchablecast esdonothav eany
phy sical contactwi thunt ouchabl es.Theycoul dnotacceptwat erorf ood
fr
om t heirhands.
Thecl assical exampl eoft hecast esy stem i
sf oundint heancientsy st em
ofHi ndu
India.Schol ar shav eassi gnedv ar iousor iginst oi t.Somesayi tist he
productoft hecul tureconf lictbet weent heAr y ansoft henor thandt he
peopl eofsout h, whom t heyi nv adedt housandsy ear sago.Toot her s, itwas
duet ot hedi fferencesi ncol ourbet weent he‘ l
ight er’inv ader sandt he
‘
dar ker ’nat i
v epopul at i
on.OneHi ndusoci ologi sthasr eject edbot ht hese
argument sper tainingt ot heor iginoft hecast e.Hecl ai medt hatt hedi v i
sion
oflabourwast hebasi sofor igi noft heI ndiancast esy st em.
TheI ndi ancast esy st em pr esent sanext raor dinar i
lycompl exsoci al
phenomenon.
Manyoft hesoci alsci ent i
st shav ebeeni nter est edi nt hecast esy st em asa
typeofsoci al st ratificat i
on.I ti si nI ndi at hatcast ehasi tscompl ete
dev elopment .Indi ancast esy st em accor dingl yf ormst hemosti nt egr at ed
aswel l ast hemostsel f-consci oussy st em t hathasgr ownupany wher ein
thewor l
d.ByBudha’ st i
me, i
twasal readyf ai rlypr evalentandt heGr eeks
repor tedi tsexi st enceaf ewcent ur iesl at er.TheAr yansal ightski nned
peopl e, conquer edt hedar kski nnedDr av idiansandi mposedanunequal
form ofaccommodat ionont hem.Onl yt hei nv ader smonopol i
zedt o
becomepr iest s,war riorsandcr aftsmen, for cingt he
Drav i
di ansi nt ol abor i
ngj obs.I twast hisdeci si onal ongr aci alli
nest hat
mar kedt hebegi nni ngoft hecast esy stem.I nf act,theHi nduwor df orcast e,
‘
Var nameans‘ Col our ’
.Dar kski nnedpeopl eal way spushedbackt ot he
bottom ofsoci et y.Theyar et reat edv erybadl y .Rel i
gionseemst ohav e
deepl yi nfluencedHi nducast est ruct ur e.Member sofhi ghercast e
exploi ti
ngt hel owercast epeopl es, theyar eknownasunt ouchabl es.The
cast ef actordomi nat esI ndi ansoci al andpol i
t i
cal lif
esi nceear li
estt imes
cast ehasbeenoneoft hebasi cf eat ur esoft hest ruct ureofI ndiansoci ety.
Socast einf luencei sf airlyst r ongi nourcount ry.
M NSr i
niv ashasr i
ght l
ypoi nt edoutt hedev el opmentoft elecommuni cation,
spreadofeducat ion, intr oduct ionofdemocr at icinst i
tut ionsI ednott ot he
disintegr ationofcast esy stem, butt oi tsst rengt heni ng.
ROLEOFCASTEI NI NDI ANPOLI TICS
Ther el ationbet weencast eandpol iticsmaybeanal yzedatt wol ev el s: (i
)
howcast eaf f ect spol iti
cs, and( ii
)howpol i
ticsi nfluencescast e.Thef irst
aspectmaybef urtherexami nedatv ar iousl ev elsi nter msofi nter estof
cast einpol itics; pol i
tical knowl edgeandpol itical awar enessofcast es;
i
dent ificationofcast eswi t
hpol itical par ties; inf l
uenceofcast esonpol iti
cal
affairs; actual par ti
cipat ionofcast esi npol itics, par ti
cul ar l
ywi thr ef er ence
toef fectofcast esonv ot i
ngbehav ior ,emer genceofel iteoncast ebasi s;
andt y peofchangesi npol itical sy stem asar esul tofi nv olvementofcast e
organi zat i
on, thati s, howl eader shi pget sa
st ruct ural andi deol ogical basef ormobi lizationofmassesandhow
concessi onst ol ocal opi ni onar emade.Ont heot herhand, theef fectof
pol iticsoncast emay beper cei vedast ohowpol iticsi susedbyacast ein
risingsoci al scal eorachi ev i
ngi tsgoal .Thi shasbeendescr ibedast he
pr ocessesofpol it
icizat ionofcast e. Sev er al cast eshav eusedpol i
ticsin
thei rat temptt obet tert hei rcondi t
ionort oachi ev et heirgoal s. Useof
pol iticsorpol i
t i
cal means, accor dingt oEI eanorZeI I
iot,cov er ssecur i
ng
gov er nment al benef i
tsandr epr esent at iononl egi slativeandpol itical
bodi es.Someexampl eswhi chmaybegi v eni nt hisconnect i
onar e; Mahar s
ofMahar asht ra, Kshat riy asofGuj ar at, Nadar sofTami lNadu, andReddy s
andKammasofAndhr aPr adeshandEzhav asi nt heer st-whi leTr av ancore
pr i
ncel yst atei nI ndi a.
Cast ei sapecul i
ar l
yI ndi ani nst itutionwhi chhasnocount erpar tel sewher e.
Whet heri thadi t
sbegi nni ngwi thAr yani nv asionsorear li
er, cast ehas
exi stedi nI ndi af orcent ur ies.M. NSr i
ni vashasl ist edni nemai nf eat uresof
thecast esy stem; hi erar chy, endogamy ,andhy per gamy ,occupat ional
associ ations, rest ri
ct i
onsonf ood, dr inkandsmoki ng,dist i
nct ioni ncust om
dr essandspeech, pol l
ut ion, ritualandot herpr i
v i
legesanddi sabi lities,
cast eor gani zat ionsandcast emobi li
ty .
Int heHi ndusoci al syst em r ol esar eascr ibedandr esistancet ot hem was
somewhatf orbi dden.
Asar esul toft hist hest at ehadami ni mum r olet opl ayint hesoci al
spher e.Int hecour seoft imet het r
adi ti
onal r
oleexper i
encedachange.I n
thechangedscenar iot hecast ecamet opl ayadi ff erentr ole.Thi shadi ts
mani fest at i
onsi nt hei nf or mat i
onofpr essur egr oupsandpol i
tical parti
es
i
nI ndi a.Newf ormsofcast egr oupshav eanewdi mensi on.Theyhav e
becomehi ghl ycompet itive.Thi shasr esul tedi nast eadypol it
icizat i
onof
cast egr oups.Accor dingt oRaj ini
Kot har i”cast ehasbeenpol i
t i
cizedbuti nt hepr ocessi thaspr ov idedt o
Indi anpol iti
cal processandsy mbol sofpol iti
cal ar ticulation.Thenew
situat i
onar isingoutofcast econf lictwast heout comeofapowergamei n
whi chascendi ngsoci al gr oups, theshudr asorbackwar dcast egr oups
soughtt ocapt ur ethel ev erofpowert hr ought hepol i
ti
cal process.The
ear lierbel ieft hatpol iti
cal powerwast hepr eser v eoft heuppercast es
recei vedasev erejol t
.Thebr oadpol i
tical scenar i
or emai nsbasi cal ly
domi nat edbyt henumer ical lyweakeruppercast e
gr oupsbecauseoft heirsuper iorritual stat us.
Undert hei mpactofmoder npol iti
cs, associ ationsofcast ehav ebecome
thehal l-mar kofpol i
ti
cal mobi l
ization.Theyhav eemer gedwi tht heobj ect,
ofpur sui ngpol it
ical power ,soci al stat usandeconomi ci nter est .Member s
ofcer tai ncast egr oups, whower econsi der edl owort hel owesti nsoci o
economi chi erarchyaf ewdecadesago, nowf eder atet oget herint oa
commonor gani zat ionandt henpr essf ort hei rdemands.Theyhav egr ained
newconf idenceandst at us. Theynotonl yact ivel ypar ticipat eint hepol itical
processbutal soasser tt hei rident it
yandev enst rivef orposi ti
ons.Thus
pol i
ticsbecomei mpor tantf ort hecast eandcast e
forpol itics.
Mostoft hepeopl eofI ndi aar ei ll
iterates.Ast hesepeopl ecoul dnot
under st andpol it
icsi nt ermsofcl assi nterest s, theywer ewooedi nt he
nameofcast esent iment sbyv ar iouspol iti
cal par ties.Cast econsi der at i
ons
wer egi v enpr i
mei mpor tance.Ther elationshi pbet weencast eandpol itics
hasbeenofady nami ct y pe.Ithasbyandl ar ge, beendet ermi nedbyt he
factorofexpedi encyandpr agmat ism.I not herwor ds, i
tchangeswi tht he
ri
seandf al lofnewent r epr eneur sandi nnov at orsofpol iti
cs.
Tosum up, cast eoccupi esav eryi mpor tantpl acei nt hepol it
icsofour
count ryatl ocal andr egional lev els.Iti straceabl einv ariousi mpor tant
ev entsl ikesi t
uat ionofcandi dat esf orel ect iveof ficers, format i
onofgr oups
andf act ions.Canv asi ngcampai gns, exer ciseoff ranchi se, maki ngof
mi nist ers, secur inggov er nmentf av our sandt hel i
ke.I tmaynowbe
concl udedt hati nt hepr esentt imes, notonl ycast eaf fect spol i
ti
csbutby
achi ev ingt hepol iti
cal powerandcast esol idar ity,acast esucceedsi n
achi ev ingahi ghsoci al,economi candpol itical posi ti
oni nt hesoci ety .On
theonehand, thei nv olv ementofcast eor gani zat ionsbr ingschangesi nt he
pol i
tical sy stem andont heot herhand, t
hecast es-ev enl owi nst atus- ar e
enabl edi npur sui ngt hei rcol l
ect ivei nterest s.
ROLEOFCASTEI NELECTI ONS
Dur ingel ectionst her oleofcast ebecomesv er yimpor tant .
Thesel ect i
onofacandi dat ef rom apar ticul arconst i
tuencyi sdone
keepi ngi n
viewt hecast econsi der ations.
Thecandi dateshoul dbel ongt ot hedomi nantcast eorshoul dbeabl et o
get
suppor tf rom apar t i
cul arcast eorcast es.
Acandi dat ebel ongst oacast e, whi chhast hemaj orityint hear ea, hasa
fair
chanceofget tingel ect ed.
Peopl e, al sogener al i
ty, tendt osuppor tthecandi dat eoft heirrespect ive
cast e.
Asar esul t,t
hecast eassoci ationpl ay samaj orr oledur ingt heel ect ions.
Thepol i
tical par tiesar eassoci at e-ri
dden.
 Wi t
hinapoli
ti
calpar
ty,
all
i
ancesaref
or medont hebasisofcaste.
Therehasalsobeenacaseofoneparticul
arcasteal
igningwithonepar
ty
and
othertoot
herpart
y.
Forexample,i
nAndhraPradesh,
ther
ehav ebeenconstantstruggl
e
between
dominantcast
esofKammasandReddy s.Bothhavebeenr i
valtoeach
other.
PARTYSYSTEM ANDELECTORALPOLI TI CS
PARTYSYSTEM I NI NDI A
Political sci ent i
stst hr oughoutt hewor l
dar edi videdi nt hei ropi nionsont he
i
mpor tanceofpar tiesi nademocr acy ,butt hef actr emai nst hatt hepar ti
es
doex istandpl ayv ital r
ol esi nal lmoder ndemocr aticst at esandi ndeedi n
mostst ates, what ev ert hei ri deol ogi cal orient ation.I fI ndi aist osur vi
v easa
mov i
nggener allyi nt hedemocr ati
cdi rection, itmustev olveaheal thier
partysy st em ordev el opsomeef fect iveal ternat ivest opar ties.
Almostal l moder nsoci eties, democr aticort otal it
ar ian, dev elopedor
moder nizing, largeorsmal l hav esomesor tofpar tysy st em.Thought he
wr i
ttenconst i
tutionofI ndi a, likemanyot herwr ittenconst itutionsoft he
wor ld, doesnotacknowl edget heexi stenceofpol iti
cal par ti
es, yett heyar e
cent ral t
oourpol iti
cal process.Theyar ebot hi nev it
abl eandnecessar y.
Theyar einev it
abl ebecauset heyar et heonl ymeanswher ebypowercanbe
obtai nedandexer cisedi nanor ganizedway .Theyar enecessar ybecause
theyf orm abr i
dgebet weent hegov er nmentandt hegov ernedwhi chgi ves
meani ngt or epr esent ativesy stem.
Political par tiesar ei ndi spensi blelinkbet weensoci et yandt hegov ernment .
Inall moder ndemocr at icsy st ems, pol i
tical par tiespl ayadeci siver ole.
Howev er, inthet hirdwor ldcount ries, exceptI ndi a, freecompet iti
onf or
popul arsuppor tbet weendi ffer entpar t
iesi sr are.
InIndi a, aftersi xdecadesofr epr esent ativegov ernmentandgener al
elections, ithasmai ntainedapar li
ament ar ysy st em basedoncompet it
ive
andf reeel ections. Inapol itical system, par ti
esactast hecar ri
erofi deas,
opinionsandappr oachest osoci al needsandnat ional goal s.Par ti
es
prov ideal inkbet weent heci tizensandt hegov ernment , betweent he
elector at eandt her epr esent at iveinst it
utions.I nf actasuccessf ul
democr acyr equi resaheal thypar t
y sy stem f ori tsexi stence.Pol it
ical
partiesar ei nst r
ument sthr oughwhi chci tizenschooset hosewho
const i
tut et hegov er nment .Theyexpl ainmer itsanddanger sofal t
er nate
policiesand
prov idepol itical educat iont ot heci tizens.Pol itical par ti
esar eext ra
const it
ut ional i
nst i
tut ionswhi char ecr uci al inr unni ngdemocr atic
gov er nmentofacount ry.Theyar eessent ial fort hepr operf unct ioni ngof
differentt ypesofdemocr ati
cgov er nment .Thesuccessf uldemocr atic
funct ioni ngofanygov ernmentdependsupont heheal thypol iti
cal par ty
sy stem.
Accor dingt oFi ner,pol iti
cal par ti
esar e“ or gani sedbodi eswi t hv olunt ary
member shi p, theirconcent ratedener gybei ngempl oy edi nt hepur sui tof
pol i
tical power ”.Inademocr aticpol i
tical sy stem t hemosti mpor tant
i
nst itutioni st hepol it
ical par ty.Bet weent hesoci al andpol itical syst emsa
sub- sy stem i sbei ngpr ovidedbypol itical par ties.Thest r
engt hofpol i
tical
par tycannotbedet er mi nedbyi t
sel ect oral per formanceal one.Thest at us
ofmember s, theassi mi l
at i
vecapaci tyofi tsi deol ogy , i
tsst rengt hi nt he
tradeuni onf ield, thecapaci tyf orpr opaganda, i
nf l
uenceov ert hekey
cent er soft heeconomy ,thecapaci tyf orneut ral i
zingt heel ect oral st r
engt h
oft heot herpar ti
es, et c.mayber eckonedast hepot ent i
althoughnot
mani festst rengt hofapol iti
cal par ty.
MEANI NGANDROI EOFPOI TICAIPARTI ES
Humanbei ngshav eal way sor ganisedt hemsel vesi ngr oupsandl ar ger
for mat ions.
Pol it
ical par tieshav eemer gedasoneoft hesehumanor gani sations.I n
moder naget hei deal for m ofgov er nmenti sr unt hroughoneort heot her
met hodofr epr esent ativei nstituti
ons.Al l repr esent at i
v egov ernment sand
repr esent ativei nst i
tut i
onsr equi r
et heexi st enceofpol it
ical par t
ies.A
pol i
tical par tyi sanor gani sedbodyofpeopl ewhoshar ecer taincommon
princi ples
andgoal sr egar dingt hepol i
ticalsy st em ofacount ry.Themai npur poseof
pol i
tical par tiesi st oacqui reandr et ainpol i
t i
cal power .Pol iti
cal par t
ies
whi chr unt hegov er nmentar ecal ledt her ul ingpar ty .Inacoal it
ion
gov er nment ,ther emaybemor ethanoner ulingpar t y.Thosewhosi tint he
opposi tionandcr iti
cizeandanal yset heper formanceoft her uli
ng
par ty/par tiesgener allyoronspeci fici ssuesar ecal ledopposi t
ionpar ties.A
pol i
tical par tyassuchshoul dhav et hef ollowi ngessent i
al feat ures:
i
)I tmustbeanor gani sedbodyofpeopl ewi thaf or mal member shi p;
i
i)I tmusthav ecl ear l
yspel toutpol iciesandpr ogr ammes;
i
ii)Itsmember sshoul dagr eewi thit sideol ogy ,pol iciesandpr ogrammes;
i
v )Itmustai m atget tingpowert hr ought hedemocr at i
cpr ocess;
v)I tmusthav eacl earandaccept abl el eader shi p; and
vi)Itmustf ocusonbr oadi ssuesandmaj orar easofgov ernmentpol i
ci es
EVOLUTI ONANDNATUREOFI NDI ANPARTYSYSTEM
Inev er yst at
e, par tysy stem i st hepr oductofi tshi stor ical ev ol uti
on, civ i
c
tradi tion, cultur al or i
ent ationandeconomy .InI ndi at henat ur eofpar ty
sy stem i sbasedont henat ur eofst at edi ver sitiesofr egi onal cultur es, wide
geogr aphi car eademandsofsoci al changeandeconomi cdev elopment .
InI ndi apar t
ysy st em or iginat edi nt hel ate19t hcent uryasar esponset o
theBr it
ishcol oni al r
ule.Dur ingt hisper i
odt hepar tysy st em r epresent edan
asser tionofnat ional solidar ityf ornat ional liber at ionandav isionf ornew
Indi a.Thebegi nni ngoft heI ndi anpar tysy stem canbet racedt ot he
for mat ionoft heI ndi anNat ional Congr essasapol iti
cal plat formi n1885.
Lat erv ariousot herpar tieswer ef ormed.Thepol i
cyofdi v i
deandr ul eand
thei ntroduct ionofsepar atecommunal elect orat el edt ot hef ormat ionof
thecommunal andcast ebasedpar tiesl i
keHi nduMahasabha, Musl im
League, Akali Dal ,etc.
Thepol it
icalpar tiesev ery wher eendeav ortor epl acet het radit i
onal power
struct ure.
InKer alaand, asamat teroff acti nthewhol eofI ndi a, thet radi t
ional power
struct urewast hr eatenedwi thdemol itionbyf ivef act ors-t henat ional i
st
mov ement ,adul tf ranchi se, landr efor ms, tradeuni oni sm andpol i
tical
par ties.Thenat ional i
stmov ementsoughtt ouni fysoci et yandpr omi sed
thei ntroduct ionofadul tf ranchi seatt hedownofi ndependence.Land
refor msandt radeuni oni sm r adi callyal teredt her el ationsbet ween
i
ndi v idual s,gr oupsandmor et hanany t hingbet weent heowneroft he
meansofpr oduct ionandt hewor ker.Thepol itical par ti
es
byt hemai ntenanceofdi sci plineandt hepossessi onoft hecapaci tyf orthe
dist ribut i
onoff av ourmadeonsl aught sont het radi tional powerst ruct ure.
Thesuccessf ul democr at i
cf unct i
oni ngofanygov er nmentdependsupon
theheal thypol itical par tysy st em.Br y cehasr emar kedt hat“ pol i
tical parti
es
arei nev itabl
e”f ort hesuccessf ul wor ki ngofdemocr acy .
MAI NFEATURESOFI NDI ANPARTYSYSTEM
Indi anpar t
ysy st em i sdi ffer entf rom t hepar tysy st em i nt hewest ern
democr acies.Somecr it
icssayt hatI ndi ahaspar ties, butnopar tysy st em.
Theyar guedt hatt her ear emanypol itical par ties, bi gandsmal lint he
count ry.Att hesamet i
met her ei snot hi ngl i
keemot i
onal orpsy chol ogical
attachmentoft hepeopl et oapar ticularpar tyorpar ti
es.Mai n
feat ur esoft heI ndi anpar tysy stem ar et hef ollowi ng:
1.OneDomi nantPar tySy stem :
Indi ai nt hewor dsofMor risJones, isnota‘ onepar tyst at e’ buti tisa‘ one
domi nantpar tysy stem’ ,si ncei ndependenceal argenumberofpar ties
camei ntobei ng, butt heCongr esshasmanagedt or et ainadomi nant
posi t i
on.TheI ndi anNat i
onal Congr essenj oy edwi depopul arsuppor tall
overt hecount ryt i
ll1967el ect ion.I twast her ulingpar tyatt heCent re
between1947and1977, 1980- 1989, and1991- 1996.Towar dst hel ast
decadeofbot hcent ur i
es, Indianpar tysy stem t ookanewt ur nwi t
hamul t
i
–par tysy st em domi nat edbyt her egi onal par ties.
Evenaf t
ert hespl i
tof1969, theCongr essundert hel eader shi pofMr s.
Indi
r aGandhi ,managedt omai ntai ni tsdomi nantposi tionatt heCent reas
well asi nmostoft hest at es.I nt he1971el ect iont ot heLokSabhaMr s.
Gandhi sweptt hepol l
sandt heCongr essr et urnedt opowerwi that hree
–four thmaj ori
ty.Anext raconst itut ional cent r
eofpowerwascr eat edunder
theleader shi pofhery oungerson.Sanj ayGandhi .Thi schar act eroft he
Congr esspar tyledt ot hedecl arat ionofi nter nal emer gencyi n1975.
Anot herel ect ionwashol di nMar ch1977, whi chl edt ot hedef eatoft he
Congr ess.Wi tht hedi sintegr ationoft heJanat aPar tyi n1979, Mr s.Indi ra
Gandhi agai ncamet opoweri nt he1980LokSabhael ections.I n1984Raj iv
Gandhi camet opowerasar esul toft heassassi nationofMr s.Gandhi .In
the1989el ection,theNat ional Fr ontundert hepr imemi nistershi pof
Sri.
V. P.Si nghcamet opowerbydef eat ingt heCongr essunderRaj ivGandhi .
TheCongr essundert hel eader shi pofPr imeMi ni sterP. VNar asi nhaRao
camet opowerasar esul tof1991el ect ions.I n1996el ect i
onUni tedFr ont
undert hel eader shipofDev aGowdaandl at erI. KGuj ralcamei ntopower
attheCent re.Theel ev ent hLokSabhacamet oanendi nDecember1997.I n
the1998and1999LokSabhael ect ionsnosi nglepar tygotmaj ority.A
UnitedFr ontundert hel eader shi pofAt alBihar i Vaj pay eef ormedt he
gover nmentwi ththesuppor tofnumberofpar ties.Si nce1998I ndi anpar ty
system becameamul t
i-par t
ysy st em wi thcoal itiongov ernment
2.Mushr oom gr owt hofpol i
tical par ties.
Ther ehasbeenamushr oom gr owt hofnat ional ,regi onal ,communal and
personal istpol i
ticalpar tiesi nI ndi a.Noot herdemocr aticcount ryhassuch
amul tiplicityofpar ties.Mostoft hem camei nt oexi stenceaf tert he
disi
nt egr at ionoft heJanat aPar tyi n1979.Todayt heCongr ess[ I
],The
Communi stPar t
yofI ndia, Communi stPar tyofI ndi a[ Mar xist],The
Bhar atiyaJanat aPar t
yandt heJanat aDal ,Bahuj anSamaj Par tyand
National Congr essPar tyar et heonl ypar ti
esofnat ional signi ficance. In
Indi
a, t hel awdoesnotr egul at et hef or mat ionandf unct i
oni ngofpol itical
partiesmostoft hepol itical par ti
eshav enomassbase.
3.Regi onal pol i
ticalpar ties
Anot herf eat ureoft heI ndi anpar tysy stem i st hateachst at ehasi tsown
poli
tical par ties.Mostoft heser egi onal par ti
eshav enoi deol ogi cal
commi tment s.Theyr epr esentt hei nt erestofpar ticularl ingui st i
c, reli
gi ous,
regional , andet hnic, cast eorcul tural groups.Someoft hem ar ecommunal
i
nchar act er ,other sar eopenl ysepar atist .
Mosti mpor tantr egi onal par tiesar eNat i
onal Conf er encei nJammu&
Kashmi r,DMKandAI ADMKi nTami lNadu, Akal i Dal i
nPunj ab, Telugu
Desam i nAndhr aPr adesh, Ker alaCongr essandMusl i
m Leaguei nKer ala
etc.
4.Rol eofcast eandcommunal par ties.
Cast eandcommuni typl ayani mpor tantr ol eint hewor kingoft heI ndian
par tysy st em.Somepar tiesar eopenl ycommunal inchar act er.Theot her
par ti
eswhi chcl aimt obesecul arar enotf reef rom cast eandcommunal
consi der at ions.Ev erypar tychoosesi tscandi datesaccor di ngt othecast e
andcommunal composi ti
onoft heconst ituency .Ev er yappeal tothev oters
aswel lassel ect ionofmi nist ersi soncast eoncommunal basi s.
5.Lackofi deol ogi cal commi tment .
Ideol ogyi sconsi der edt obet hecor eofapol iti
cal par ty.Itisnecessar yfor
mobi li
zingi tsor gani zat i
onandt omot iv at eitsmember s.Despi te
funct ioni ngont hebasi sofi deol ogical commi tment , almostal lpolitical
par ti
esi nI ndiahav est oodt ocapt urepowert ogetpower ; thepar tiesar e
readyev ent osacr if
icet hei rideol ogy .Ev erypar tyswear sbyGandhi sm,
democr acy ,soci ali
sm andsecul ari
sm.Ev er ysocal ledsecul arpar tyj oin
handswi thcommunal orcast epar ti
esi nt hef or mat ionofgov ernment s.In
1977, JanaSanghwasaconst i
tuentoft heJanat apar tysuppor tedby
communi stpar ties, Musl im Leagueandsoon.
6.Rol eofi ndi v
idual s.
Cer taini ndi vidual sofper sonal itiesdomi nat edIndi anpar ti
es.Thel eaderof
thepar tyi sof t
enel ect edbyi tsmember sbutonceel ectedt hepar t y
funct ionsaccor dingt othewi shesandf anci esoft hel eader .Someoft he
par ti
esbeart henameoft heirl eader .Forexampl e, Congr ess[ I],Congr ess
[S],LokDal [A] ,
LokDal [
B], Ker alaCongr ess[ M] [
J]andsoon.
7.Def ect ion.
Def ect i
oni saper vasi vef eat ureofI ndi anPar tySy stem.WhenI ndia
becamei ndependentt herewer et womaj orpar tiesonl y, I
ndi anNat i
onal
Congr essandt heCommuni stPar tyofI ndi a.Theywer eor gani zational ly
wel lbui ltandcommandedl oy altyoft hei rmember s.Todayt hereisnosuch
thingaspar t
yloy alt
y .Pol i
tical def ect ionhasr uinedt heCongr essandal l
otherpar tyt hatcamei ntoexi st enceaf teri ndependence.Thi sepi demi cled
tot hepassi ngoft heant i–def ect ionAct1985.
8.Or gani sat i
onal drawbacks.
Exceptt hecommuni stpar tiesandt heBJPnopar tyi nIndi acancl aim
somesor tofpar tyor gani zat ion.Ot herpar tiesar emer ecr owdswi thout
def i
ni t
emember ship, organi z at i
onordi sci pl i
ne.Mostpar t i
esmai nt ainno
member shi pr egi ster s, keepnoaccount sandhol dnoor gani zat ional
elections.Theof fi
cebear er soft hesepar tiesar eei thersel f
-appoi nt edor
nomi nat edbyt opl eader s.
9.Fr agment edopposi tion.
Theopposi tioni nI ndi ai sunabl et oconst itut eanal ternat ivetot her uling
par ty.Theyhav enei therbeenabl et oast rongopposi tionnorhav ethey
succeededi ncr eat ingaUni tedFr onti n1977, fort hef ir
stt imet heJanat a
const itut edbyamemberofpar ti
escamet opowerbutwi thint woy ear si t
fail
edanddi sintegr ated.Ev ent odayt heopposi tioni snoti naposi t
iont o
form aUni t
edFr ontbecauseoft hesel fishst yleandi nter estofsome
l
eader s.
NATI ONALPOLI TICALPARTI ES
InIndi apol iti
cal par tiesar ebr oadl ydi videdi ntoAl lIndi apar t
iesand
Regi onal par ties.Al l I
ndi apar tiesar enat ional par ties.Nat ional par ties
receiv et hei rsuppor tfrom v ar ioussegment sofsoci ety.Theyputupt heir
candi dat esf ort heLokSabhael ectionacr ossst atel ines.Af tert he1999
Gener al elect i
ons, ther ewer esev enNat ional Par tiesand48St at ePar ties,
recogni sedbyt heEl ect ionCommi ssi on.TheCongr ess( 1),theJanat aDal
(Uni t
ed) , theCommuni stPar tyofI ndi a( CPI ),TheCommuni stPar tyofI ndia
(Mar xist )andt heBhar at i
y aJanat aPar ty, Bahuj anSamaj PartyandNat ional
Congr essPar tywer emaj orr ecogni sednat ional par ties.
INDI ANNATI ONALCONGRESS
INC, alsocommonl ycal ledt heCongr essi soneoft het womaj or
cont empor ar ypol i
tical par tiesi nIndi a, theot herbei ngt heBhar atiyaJanat a
Par ty.Itisoneoft hel ar gestandol destdemocr at i
cal ly-oper atingpol iti
cal
par ti
esi nt hewor ld.TheOr gani sationwasf oundeddur ingt heBr iti
sh
Col onial timesi n1885.
Thef ounder si ncludedapr omi nentmemberoft heTheosophi cal Soci et y,
AllanOct av i
anHume, Dadabhai Naor ojiandDi nshawWacha.I nt he
followi ngdecades, theI ndi anNat ional Congr essbecameapi v ot al
par ti
cipanti nt heI ndi anI ndependenceMov ement ,wi thov er15mi l
lion
member sandov er70mi llionpar ti
cipant si ni tsst r
uggl eagai nstBr itish
coloni al rulei nI ndi a.Af teri ndependencei n1947, i
tbecamet henat ion' s
domi nantpol i
t i
cal par ty; int he15gener al elect ionssi ncei ndependence,
theCongr esshaswonanout rightmaj or i
tyonsi xoccasi ons, andhasl ed
ther ulingcoal itionaf ur therf ourt imes, headi ngt hecent ralgov er nmentf or
at otal of49y ear s.Ther ehav ebeensev enCongr essPr imeMi nist ers, the
fi
rstbei ngJawahar lalNehr u, ser vingf r
om 1947–64andt hemostr ecent
beingManmohanSi ngh, ser v ingf rom 2004- 14.Thepar t
y '
ssoci al li
ber al
platfor mi slar gel yconsi der edt obeont hecent re-leftoft heI ndi anpol it
ical
spect rum.
TheI ndi anNat i
onal Congr esswasest abl i
shedon27t hDecember1885i n
Bombay .Thepar t
yhassucceededi ncr eat ingabr oadandpower f
ul ant i
-
i
mper ialistmov ementconsi stingofdi fferentcl assesofpeopl e.TheI ndi an
Nat ional Congr ess, whi chl edt hef reedom st ruggl e,wasmor ei nt henat ure
ofamassmov ementt hanapol i
tical par ty.TheCongr essr epr esent sal l
classesandcommuni t i
esi noursoci et y.Ital sor epr esent sdi ffer ent
i
deol ogi cal v i
ewpoi nts.
IndianNat i
onal Congr esswasel itisti nchar act er.TheCongr essundert he
l
eader shipofGandhi j
i wasconv ertedi nt oamassmov ementf rom anel ite
party .UnderGandhi j
i theCongr essacqui r edanor gani zat ional struct ur e,
whi chr ef l
ect st hev ill
agesoci etyofI ndi a.TheCongr essacqui red
exper i
encei nr unni ngpr ov incial gov er nment sundert heschemeof
prov inci al autonomydur ing1937- 1939.Thi sexper i
enceenabl edt hepar ty
tohandl epol i
tical power ,asar ulingpar ty ,int heI ndependentI ndi a.Af ter
Independence, theI ndi anNat ional
Congr essast her ulingpar ty,fur therconsol idat edandexpandedi tssuppor t
base.I tincr easedi t ssuppor tf rom t her ur al peopl eandamongpeasant s.
Af tert hedeat hofPandi tNehr uin1964unt ilthespl itin1969, t he
Congr esswasi nacr isisi nbot hi deol ogi cal andor gani sat i
onal terms.Thi s
wasduet ot hef ail
ureoft heCongr essi nt he1967Gener al Elect ions.I nt he
1967el ect iont heCongr essr etur nedt opoweratt hecent reatt hesame
timei tlostcont rolov ersi xst at es.
Thespl itof1969r esul tedi nthef or mat ionoft wopar ti
es, theCongr ess( 1)
andCongr ess
(0).Int he1971Gener al El ectiont heCongr ess( I),undert hel eader shi pof
Mr s.I ndi raGandhi sweptt heLoksabhael ect ions.I n1972Assembl y
Elect ion, theCongr ess( I)capt ur edmostoft hest at es.Thi sr ev ealedt hat
theCongr ess( I)ledbyMr s.Gandhi wast hesuccessoroft heI ndi an
Nat ional Congr ess.Theel ectionr esul tsof1971and72madeMr s.Gandhi
archl eaderoft heCongr ess( I)andgr adual lyt hepar tywasconv er tedi nt o
apol i
t i
cal organi sat i
onoft heSupr emeLeader .Thi swasf oll
owedbyt he
growt hofsomeext r
a- const i
tut i
onal cent r eof
powercr eat edbySanj ayGandhi .Cent ralisat ionofpowerandsel f-st yl
e
l
eader shipoft heCongr essl edt odecl arat ionofI nternal Emer gencyi n1975.
Dur i
ngt heper iodofemer gencyt heCongr essbecamehi ghl yunpopul ar .
Inthe1977el ect iont ot heLoksabhat heCongr essf ort hef ir
stt i
mei n
histor y ,wasdef eat edandJanat aPar tycamet opower .In1977LokSabha
elect i
onsev enI ndiraGandhi l
ostherseati nherhomeconst ituency .Thi s
resul tedi naspl itwi thint hepar ty, leadi ngt ot heemer genceoft he
Congr ess( 1).Manyoft heol dandexper iencedl eader sl ef tthepar ty,
blami ngherf ori tshumi liatingdef eati nt heel ect ions.Asar esul tt henew
par ty -Congr ess( I
ndi ra)became
compl etel yident ifiedwi thherper sonal ity.Manyoft hepar ty'
st opdeci sion-
maki ngagenci es, suchast heCongr essWor ki ngCommi tteeandt heAl l-
Indi aCongr essCommi tteel ostt hei rpower s.Si mi larly, st atepar ty
or gani sat ionswer eal sobr oughtunderherdi rectcont rol .Shebui lta
py rami dl ikeor gani zat i
ont hat wasr unbyherorherhenchmen.Under
Indi ra'sl eader shi pt heCongr essPar tysi mpl ybecameani nst r
umentof
per sonal power .Sheal sosoughtt ouset heor gani sat i
onf ordy nast ic
successi on.Fi rstshegr oomedSanj ay , hery ounger
son, tot akeov ert hel eader shi poft hepar t
y,butaf terhi sacci dent al death
i
nJune1980, shebr oughti nherel derson, Raj iv.
IDEOLOGYANDPOLI CYPOSI TIONS
Sincet he1950s, theI NChasf av our edl iberal posi tions( thet erm" l
iberal"in
thissensedescr ibesmoder nl iber alism, notcl assi cal l
iber ali
sm)wi th
suppor tf orsoci al j
ust iceandami xed.
INCst r ongl ysuppor tsLi ber al nat ional ism, aki ndofnat ional ism compat i
ble
wi thv al uesoff reedom, tol er ance, equal i
ty,andi ndi vidual r
ight s.
Hi stor ical ly,thepar tyhasf av our edf armer s,labour er s,labouruni ons, and
religi ousandet hni cmi nor ities; ithasopposedunr egul atedbusi nessand
finance.I nr ecentdecades, thepar tyhasadopt edacent risteconomi cand
soci al lypr ogr essi veagendaandhasbegunt oadv ocat ef ormor esoci al
j
ust ice, aff i
rmat iv eact ion, abal ancedbudget ,andamar ket .Theeconomi c
pol icyadopt edbyt hemoder nINCi sf ree
mar ketpol i
cies, thoughatt hesamet imei tisi nf av ouroft aki ngacaut ious
appr oachwheni tcomest ol i
ber al i
singt heeconomycl ai mi ngi tist ohel p
ensur et hatt heweakersect orsar enotaf fectedt oohar dbyt hechanges
thatcomewi thl iber alisat ion.I nt he1990s, howev er, i
tendor sedmar ket
ref orms, i
ncl udi ngpr i
v at i
sat ionandt heder egul at ionoft heeconomy .It
alsohassuppor tedsecul arpol iciest hatencour ageequal ri
ght sf oral l
citizens, includi ngt hosei nl ower
cast es.Thepar tysuppor tst hesomewhatcont rov er sial conceptoff ami l
y
planni ngwi thbi rt hcont rol.Thr oughoutmuchoft heCol dWarper i
od, the
Congr essPar tychampi onedaf or eignpol i
cyofnonal ignment ,whi chcal l
ed
forI ndi at of or mt i
eswi t hbot htheWestandcommuni stcount riesbutt o
av oidf or mal allianceswi t
hei ther .Nonet heless, Amer i
cansuppor tfor
Paki st anl edt hepar tyt oendor seaf riendshi pt reat ywi tht heSov ietUni on
i
n1971.I nr ecentdecades, the
par tybeganadv ocat ingwel far espendi ngpr ogr amst ar get edatt hepoor .
In2004, whent heCongr ess- ledUni tedPr ogr essi veAl liance( UPA)camet o
power , it
schai rper sonSoni aGandhi unexpect edl yr el i
nqui shedt he
premi ershi pt oManmohanSi ngh.Thi sSi ngh- led" UPAI "gov er nment
execut edsev er alkeyl egi sl at i
onsandpr oject s,incl udi ngt heRur al Heal th
Mi ssion, Uni queI dent i
ficat ionAut hor ity,theRur al Empl oy mentGuar ant ee
schemeandTheRi ghtt oI nf ormat ionAct .
THECOMMUNI STPARTYOFI NDI A( CPI )
TheCommuni stPar tyofI ndi a( CPI )wasf ormedi nDecember26, 1926.I t
remai nedani llegal or gani sat i
onunt il1942whent heBr it
ishaccept edi t
s
suppor tf ort heAl liedWaref fort.Af ter1947t her ewer eanumberof
changesi nt hepar tyt act i
csandt heper i
odwasmar kedbyt hespl its.The
fir
stspl itin1964coi nci dedwi tht heschi sm i nint er nat ional communi sm
andt henewpar t
y
camei nt obei ngnamel yCommuni stPar t
yofI ndia( Mar xist).ThePar ty
agai nsubj ectedt oaspl itandMaoi stCommuni stPar tywasf ormedon
Apr il22, 1969, whi chwasLeni n's100t hbi rthday .
Itst yl
edi tselfast heCommuni stPar tyofI ndi a( Mar xist -
Leni ni st)and
claimedMaoasi tsgui de.
In1949t hePar tytur nedt ot errorism, sabot ageandst rikes.I n1948, P. C.
Joshi wasr epl acedasgener al secr et arybyB. T.Ranadi ve, witht he
adv ancementofmor emi litant' l
ef t'line.Ranadi v eemphasi sedt hewor king
classast hei nst rumentofr ev olut i
onanddi scount edt hepeasantupr ising
i
nt heTel enganar egi onofHy der abad.Dur ingt hisper iodNehr uwas
denounced
asa' runni ngdogofi mper ial ism' andt heCongr ess, inbot hi tsf or ei gnand
i
t sdomest icpol i
cy , ast her eact ionar ycapt iveofcapi t
al i
standl andl ord
element s.Butwi tht henewpol iti
cal leader shi pint heSov ietUni onandt he
ongoi ngpr ocessofde- St al inizat i
onunderKhr ushchev ,theSov i
et sdeci ded
tobef riendt heNehr ugov er nment .
Thi schangei nSov ietf or eignpol icyf or cedt heCPIt oal t
eri tscour seof
act i
on.TheCPIwasof fi
ci al l
yadv isedt oabandoni tsadv ent uristt act i
cs.
Thepol icyshi ftwaswel comedbyt hosewi thi nt hepar tynot abl yPC.Joshi ,
S.A.DangeandAj oy Ghosh, whof av our edpar ti
cipat ioni nt hef or thcomi ng
elect i
ons.I n1951, ther ev isioni stl inewonout ,wi t
ht hesel ect ionof
Ajoy Ghosh
asGener al Secr etar yoft hePar ty .Ghosh, from acent ri
stposi tion, l
edt he
par tyt owar d'const i
t uti
onal communi sm' .TheCPIsuppor tedI ndi anf oreign
pol i
cyandext endedi tsf ul lsuppor tt oal lpr ogr essi v epol iciesand
measur esoft hegov ernment .In1958, theCPIadopt edt heAmr i
t sar
Resol ut ionandpl edgedt oseekpowerandsoci al changet hr ough
par l
iament ar ymeans.
Thedomi nantf act i
onwi thint hepar tysuppor tedNehr u's' progr essive'
policies, especi allyhisf or eignpol i
cy .Dur i
ngt he1969spl itint heCongr ess
Par ty,andl at erdur ingt henat ional emer gency , theCPIconsi st ent l
y
suppor tedI ndi raGandhi andhergov er nment .
TheCPImember shipi sconcent ratedi nf ourSt ates: Bihar ,Andhr aPr adesh,
Ker alaandWestBengal .Thr eeot herSt at eshav esi gnificantenr olment s:
UttarPr adesh, Tami lNaduandPunj ab.I nt heCPI , thewor ker sandwage-
ear ner sconst it
ut ed17percentoft hePar tymember ship.The1982r epor t
oft hePar tysay st hatagr icultur al wor kersconst itut easi zeabl esect ionof
thePar tymember shipandi nsomeSt atesaccountf ormor ethan50per
centoft hemember ship.ThePar tyisal soent rust edwi tht het askof
buildingmassor ganisat ions, par t
icul arlyt radeuni ons, KisanSabhasand
agr i
cul tural wor ker '
sassoci ations.
Elect oral Per for mance
Inthef irstgener al election, nextt ot heCongr esst heCPIsecur edt he
l
ar gestnumberofAssembl yseat swi nni ng198seat soft he587i t
cont est ed.ThePar tyhadnot abl esuccessi nTr av ancor e-Cochi n,Madr as,
Hy der abad, Tr ipur aandWestBengal .ThePar tywasi tsel fmor et han
satisf i
ed.Ther esul tsoft hesecondgener alelect ionwer eev enmor e
encour agingt ot hePar ty .Intheseel ect i
onsi temer gedast hesecond
l
ar gestpar t yi nt hecount ry,notmer elyi nt ermsofseat swonbutal soi n
termsofv otespol l
ed.Thepar tycapt uredmaj or it
yi nKer al ain1957and
formedt hef i
r st-democr aticallyel ect edCommuni stgov er nmentunder
E.M. S.Namboodi r
ipad.
ThePar tybecamet hemai nopposi tiongr oupi nbot hhousesofPar li
ament
with27seat si nt heLokSabha.I nthewor dsofPr of essorRasheeduddi n
Khan, "Thecommuni stswer et hemai nopposi tioni nt heLokSabha
throughoutt heNehr uer a.Int hef irstLokSabhawi th16member s,int he
secondandt het hirdLokSabhawi th27and29member sr espect i
vely.A
turningpoi nti nt hehi storyoft heCPIcamewheni n1957t heywonan
absol ut emaj orityi ntheKer alaAssembl yand
formedt hef i
r stcommuni stgov ernmenti nI ndia. "Thepar tyr et ai
nedt he
posi ti
onast hel argestopposi tiongr oupi nt heLokSabhaaf terf our t
h
gener alelect ionsi n1967. In1971i tsecur ed23seat s.In1977i tsecur ed
only7seat s.I n1980, theCPIcoul dmanaget oi ncr easei tswi nningt al l
yt o
11seat s.In1984, t
heCPIhaswononl y6seat soft heLokSabha.I nthe
1989LokSabhael ectionst hepar tywon12seat s, whi l
ei nt ent hLokSabha
elections( 1991)t hePar tywon14seat s.I n1996el ectionsf or11t h
LokSabhat hePar tyhasashar eof12seat s,i
nt he1998LokSabha
elect ions, theCPIobt ained9seat sand4seat si nt he1999LokSabha
elect ions.
Ideol ogyandPr ogr amme
Tr oughnowcr i
t i
cal oft heCongr esspol i
ci es, theCPIhasl osti t
s
raci alcredi bi l
i
tyaf teri tssl av i
shsuppor toft heemer gency .I tiscommi tted
tomoder atepr ogr ammeofpar liament ar ysoci alism andt or esponsi v eco-
oper ationwi t
ht heCongr ess.I tsl eader shi pai msatbui ldinga‘ national
democr aticst at e’ i
nwhi cht hepol iti
cal poweri swi eldedbyacoal itionof
progr essi vedemocr at ic
for cesi ncl udi ngCommuni st s.Thepar tyst andst oendi ngi ndi fferencet o
thewel far eoft hewor kingcl ass, agr icul tur al labour ,Schedul edCast esand
Schedul edt ri
bes.I tai msatgener atingmor ej obs, i
mpl ement ingr adi cal
l
andr efor ms, reduci ngf or eigndebtbyr est rictingi mpor ts,rev ersingt he
trendofhandl ingov erpubl icsect oruni tst opr i
v ateindust ri
al istsandabov e
all,
arrest i
ngt hest eepr isei npr i
ces.
TheCPIf av oursco- oper at ionwi thal l democr at icandpr ogr essi vef or ces
i
ncl uding' thecent re' and' t hel ef t'oft heCongr essPar ty.Theyhopet o
enl arget hepar t y'
spar li
ament aryst rengt ht hr oughel ect oral Pact swi ththe
l
ike- mi ndedpar tiesl ikeBSP, SP, RJDandCongr ess.
THECOMMUNI STPARTYOFI NDI A( MARXI ST)
Aspl itint heCommuni stPar tyofI ndi ai n1964, ledt ot hef ormat i
onof
Indi a'ssecondCommuni stPar tycal ledt heCommuni stPar tyofI ndi a
(Mar xist ).Inear l
y1962, int hewakeoft heChi nesei nv asi onofI ndi an
terr i
tory ,ascr it
ici sm oft heCPImount ed, theNat ional Counci lresol v edt o
condemnt heChi neseact ionas' agressi on' andt ocal l upont heI ndi an
peopl et o' unitei ndef enceoft hemot her land' .I npr ot estt hel eftists
resi gnedf rom t hepar tysecr etar iatandev en
Namboodi ripadsubmi ttedhi sr esi gnat ionasgener al secr et ar yoft hepar ty.
Att heNat ional Counci lmeet ingi n1964t hel eftat tempt ed, wi thout
success, tooustpar tychai rmanDange.Theycamear medwi thal et ter
wr ittenbyDangei n1964, i
nwhi chhehadof fer edt oco- oper at ewi tht he
Br i
t i
shi nexchangef orhi sr eleasef rom j ail.Denounci ngt hel etterasa
for ger yt heCounci l r
ef usedt oconsi dert hechar ges.Thel ef tandcent re,led
byNamboodi r
ipadandJy ot iBasu, staged
awal k-outandappeal edt ot hepar tyt or epudi at eDangeandt he' refor mi st
l
ine' .Thespl i
tbecamef inal whenal l signat or iest ot heappeal swer e
suspendedf r
om t hepar ty .Thel eft,or gani sedast heCommuni stPar tyof
Indi a( Mar xist),cl aimedt obet hel egi timat ecommuni stpar tyofI ndi a.
TheCPI( M)wasbor ni nt oahost ilepol iti
cal climat e.Att het imeoft he
holdi ngofi tsCal cuttaCongr ess, lar gesect ionsofi tsl eader sandcadr es
wer ej ailedwi t
houtt rial.Agai non29–30December ,ov erat housandCPI
(M)cadr eswer ear rest edanddet ained, andhel di nj ail withoutt rial.In1965
newwav esofar restsofCPI (M)cadr est ookpl acei nWestBengal ,ast he
par tylaunchedagi t
ationsagai nstt her isei nf ar esi nt heCal cut taTr amway s
andagai nstt het hen
prev ailingf oodcr isis.St ate-wi degener al str i
kesandhar talswer eobser ved
on5August1965, 10–11Mar ch1966and6Apr il1966.TheMar ch1966
gener al str i
ker esul tsi nsev eraldeat hsi nconf ront at ionswi t
hpol icef orces.
Alsoi nKer ala,massar rest sofCPI (
M)cadr eswer ecar ri
edoutdur i
ng1965.
InBi har , thepar tycal ledf oraBandh( gener al st rike)i nPat naon9August
1965i npr otestagai nstt heCongr essst ategov er nment .Dur ingt hest r
ike,
policer esor tedt ov i
olentact ionsagai nstt heor gani ser soft hest rike.The
strikewasf oll
owedbyagi tationsi not herpar tsoft hest ate.
Ideol ogyandPr ogr amme
TheCPM i si nspir edbyani deol ogywhi chhav ingshi ftedf rom a
revol utionar yt oar efor mi stor i
ent ation, iscommi ttedt odev el opmentwi t h
redist ri
but ion.I tischar act er i
zedasa‘ dev el opment al anddemocr atic
soci alisti deol ogy ’.Itemphasi si sont hepr eser v ationofdemocr at ic
i
nst itutionsont heonehandandt he‘ useofst at epowerf orf aci li
tat ing
dev elopmentwi t
hr edi st ri
but ion’ ont heot her .
TheCPM f av oredat act icofuni tedf rontf rom bel ow, ofal l
iancewi th
peasant sandwor kerst odef eatt heCongr ess, whi chi tr egar dedasapar ty
oft hebour geoi sieandl andl or dcl asses.
Elect i
onswer et obeusedasameanst omobi liset hemasses; t
he
Const itut i
onwast obeusedas' ani nst r umentofst ruggl e'.TheMar xists
soughtt o' br eakt heconst i
t utionf rom wi thi n'
.Todayt heCPM i s
char act er isedasar adi cal-democr aticpar ty .Itsemphasi sisont he
preser vat ionofdemocr atici nstitutions.I tl aysemphasi sont heuni tyand
i
nt egr it
yofI ndiaandf av our st he
rest r
uct uringofCent re-St at er el
at ions.
TheBhar at iyaJanat aPar t
y( BJP)
TheBhar atiyaJanat aPar ty( BJP)wasf or medi n1980.Si ncet heni thas
extendedi tsI nfluencei nt heHi ndibel t,Guj ar atandMahar asht ra.Si nce
1989,i thasbeent ryingt oext endi tsbasei nSout hI ndiaal so. Si ncei ts
format ioni n1980,t heBJPhasbeeni ncr easi ngi tsnumberofseat si nt he
LokSabhagr adual ly.In1984, gener alel ect i
onsi tsecur edonl yt woseat s.In
1989t henumber ofseat si ncr easedt o88.I n1991gener alel ect ionsBJP’ s
strengt hi nt heLokSabhai ncr easedt o122whi chr oset o161i nt he1996
elect i
ons.I n1998i twon180seat sandi n1999
i
t snumberi nLokSabhai ncreasedt o182.I nt he1999gener al elect ions, BJP
cont est edasanal li
ancepar tneri nt heNat ionalDemocr aticAl li
ance( NDA) .
Int he2004gener alel ect i
onsBJPasanal l
ianceofNDAcoul dnotgett he
requi redmaj or ity.Iti spl ay i
ngt her oleoft heopposi ti
onpar ty.TheBJPhas
emer gedasasi gnificantnat i
onalpar tybuti tssuppor tbaseasy eti sl imi ted
to cer t
ai n areas,r athert han spr ead al lov erI ndi a.Todayi toccupya
domi nantposi ti
oni nev ery
wer ei nI ndia.
Ideol ogyandPr ogr amme
TheBJPbel i
ev esi nGandhi ansoci ali
sm.Thepar tysay st hati tssoci al i
sm
i
si nspi rednotonl ybyGandhi andJPbutal sobyDeenday alUpadhy ay a.It
st andsf orposi t
ivesecul arism andcl eangov ernment .Whi lelay ing
emphasi sont he' Hi ndui diom' i
ni tspol lmani f
est o,thepar t
yst andsf or
j
ust icef oral landappeasementofnone.I thasaccept edt hepr i
nci pleof
reser vationoncast ebasi s,ofcour sel eav i
ngapar tt hecr eamysect ions.
Par typr omi ses33percentr eser v ationofseat sinPar li
amentandSt ate
Legi slatur esforwomen.Thepar tycont inueswi thideal ofnat ional i
sm
basedon" Hindut va" .Thepar tyl ay semphasi son" Swadeshi "t oencour age
Indi ani ndust r
yandpr oduct ionasagai nstmul ti-
nat i
onal s
orf oreigncompani es.Thepar tyal sof avour ssmal lerandst rongerst at es,
desi rest oabol ishAr ticle370, fav our suni form ci vilcodeandwoul dl i
ket o
est abl ishHumanRi ght sCommi ssi on.
JANATADAL
TheJanat aDal asanewpol itical par tyemer gedi nOct ober1988wi t ht he
mer geroft heJanat aPar ty
, LokDal (
B) ,JanaMor chaandt heCongr ess( S) .
Liket heCongr esspar ty,theJanat aDal isanumbr ellaor gani sat ion; it
cont ainedmanyant i-Congr essgr oups.I thast riedt opr ojecti tselfast he
nat ional alternat iveandt ookt hei ni ti
ativei nf ormi ngabr oadal l
-India
coal i
tionofopposi t
ionpar ti
esundert heumbr ellaoft heNat ional Front .The
st rategyofJanat aDal haspai dr ichdi vi
dendsont heev eoft heni nth
LokSabhael ect i
onsandt heNat ional Frontcamet opoweratt hecent re
wi tht heJanat aDal asi tspr i
nci pal component .Thei mpl icationoft his
st rategyi squi tesi mpl e.Si ncet heJanat aDal i
spar tyoft heNat i
onal Front
alliance, itfollowst hatt heJDwi ll nott ryt oconf rontorbui l
dupi ts
i
ndependentpol i
tical basei nt hoseSt ateswher eNFpar tner sar einpower .
TheJanat aDal isessent iall
ybui ldi ngupt omeett hedemandsoft he
peopl elivinginr ural ar eas.I tt her ef oreinher itsthesamesoci al baseoft he
LokDal thati sofagr icul tural class.Thei ncl usionofJanat aPar tyhas
consi der ablyenl argedi tsr egi onal andcommuni tybase.I tnowhadt he
suppor tofmi ddl ecast esaswel l.TheJanat aDal i
scl earabouti tscast e
baseandi tsl eader shav e
cat agor ical l
yuphel dt heAJGAR( Ahi r,Jat Guj ar -Rajput )combi nat i
onast he
backboneoft heDal 'spol iti
cal success. Int hiscont extJDr epr esent sr i
ch
peasent sandbi glandowner sandi ncast et er msof ;Rajput sandJat s,
par ticul arlynor thIndi a.Ital sosoughtt omobi li
seOt herBackwar dCast es
(OBC' s)byi dent if
y i
ngt heCongr essr ulewi tht hegov ernmentt hatser ved
excl usi vel yt hei nterest sofi ndust rialcapi t
alist sandi ncast et er ms, of
Br ahmi ns.Thepr omi seof
i
mpl ement ingt heMandaICommi ssion' sr ecommendat i
ons, whi chcame
forar eser vat ionofaf urther27percentofgov er nmentj obsf orOBCS, is
aimedatpr eci selyt hissegmentoft heel ect or at e.Thi sispr obabl yt hemost
i
mpor t antpol icypl ankoft heJanat aDal , fori tsi mpl ement ationcoul d
creat eanewandal togetherunpr edictabl esoci o- politi
cal polar isation.V. P.
Singh' sl eader shipi salmostcer taint ogal vani set heRaj put sint obacki ng
theJD.Takent oget her ,
aRaj putOBCel ect oral all
ianceposesaf or mi dabl ebaset ot het raditional
Congr essphal anxofBr ahmi ns, Har i
jansandMusl ims.
Ideol ogyandPr ogr amme
Thepol i
ci esoft heJDar eopposi ti
ont olar gescal eindust riali
sat i
onand
rev i
tal isat ionoft hecount r
y sidef oll
owi ngGandhi anpr inciples.I tadv ocat es
ofdecent r alisationofbot ht heeconomyandpol it
ical power ,soast omeet
thedemandsoft hepeopl el ivi
ngi nrur al areas.TheJanat aDal standsf or
secul ar i
sm andsoci al justice.
TheJDhaspr omi sedt oi ncor porat et her ightt owor kasaf undament al
righti nt he
const itut i
on.Ther ewi l
lber ur al biasi npl anni ng, decent r
alizationof
deci sionmaki ngandt ocur bcor ruptioni nal l for ms.TheJDmani fest oal so
pr omi sest oputdowncommunal ri
otsf irml y, wor kf orcommunal har mony
andi mpr ov et hel otoft hemi nor i
ties.Speci al cour tswoul dbesetupt otry
casesofat roci t
iesagai nstt heSchedul edCast esandSchedul edt ri
bes.
Regi onal ism
Regi onal ism hasbeenani mpor tantf eat ureofI ndianpol i
ticssi ncet he
dawnofi ndependence.I thasposedaser i
oust hreatt ot heuni tyofI ndia.
Regi onal ism meansl oveofapar ticularr egi on.Regi onalism r efer st osub-
nat ional ism demandi ngt hepr efer encef orar egi onasagai nstt hecount ry
asawhol e.
Meani ngofRegi onal ism:
Regi onal ism i st heext remel oy altyandl ov eshownt oapar t
icul arr egion.I t
expr essesi tsel finsuchadi st ortednot ionsl ikedev elopmentofone’ sown
regi onev enatt hecostofi nt erest sofot herr egionsandpeopl e, and
unwi llingnesst oal lowpeopl ef r om ot herr egi onst owor kandset t
lein
region.Regi onal ism mi litatesagai nstnat i
onal i
sm andi mpedest hepr ocess
nat i
onal int egr ation.Thi smaybechar act erizedbyt hecommonnessof
cultur al,lingui st i
corhi st orical and
soci al backgr ound.
Accor dingt oMar achel lE.Di mock, ”r egional i
sm i sacl ust eringof
env ironment ,economi c, soci al andgov er nment alfact or stosuchanext ent
thatani dent i
tywi thint hewhol e, aneedf oraut onomouspl anni ng, a
mani fest at i
onofcul tural pecul iar i
tiesandadesi r
ef oradmi nist rative
freedom, aret heor etical l
yr ecogni zedandact ual l
yputi ntoef fect .
Regi onal i
sm i nI ndi amaybev iewedf rom t wodi mensi ons–posi tiveand
negat i
v e.I nposi t i
vet er msr egi onal ism embodi esaquestf orsel f-
ident i
ty
andsel f-
ful fil
lmentont hepar toft odomi cilesofar egion.I nnegat ive
terms, regi onal i
sm r eflect sapsy cheofr elat i
v edepr ivat i
onont hepar tof
Peopl eofanar eanotal way sv iabl ei nt ermsofnat ional economi canal ysis.
Itimpl iesexcessi veat tachmentt oone’ sr egioni spr ef erencet ot hecount ry
ort hest at e.Int heposi tiv e
sensei tisapol itical attribut eassoci atedwi t
hpeopl e’sl ovef ort heirregi on,
cultur e, l
anguage, etc.wi t
hav iewt omai nt aint heiri ndependenti dent i
ty .
Whi leposi ti
v er egi onal i
sm i sawel comet hi ngi nsof armai ntaini ngasi t
encour agest hepeopl et odev elopasenseofbr other hoodand
commonnessont hebasi sofcommonl anguage, religionorhi st or i
cal
backgr ound.Thenegat iv esenser egi onal ism i sagr eatt hreatt ot heuni ty
andi ntegr ityoft hecount ry.I nt heI ndiancont ext
gener allyt het ermr egional ism hasbeenusedi nt henegat i
v esense.
Thef eel i
ngofr egi onalism mayar iseei therduet ot hecont inuousnegl ect
ofapar ticul arar eaorr egi onbyt her uli
ngaut hor i
tiesori tmayspr ingupas
ar esul tofi ncr easi ngpol i
tical awar enessofbackwar dpeopl et hathav e
beendi scr imi nat edagai nst .Qui teof t
ensomepol it
ical l
eader sencour age
thef eel ingofr egi onal i
sm t omai ntai nthei rhol dov erapar ti
cul arar eaor
groupofpeopl e.
CausesofRegi onal ism:
Ther ear esev eral causesofr egi onal i
sm i nI ndi a.Thesecausesar e
discussedbel ow.
1.Geogr aphi cal Cause:
Lingui st i
cdi str i
but ional onggeogr aphi cal boundar iesandi sol at ed
settlementpat ter ninducei npeopl et heconceptofr egi onalism.Somet i
mes
peopl el i
ve, insuchar eawhi chappear sasasepar ater egioncutof ffrom
ther estoft hecount ryandt her ebymaygi ver iset of eelingsofsepar atism
amongt hei nhabi tantsoft her egi on
2.Hi st or i
cal Causes:
Duet ohi st or ical reasonspeopl ebel i
ev et hatt heyar esepar atef rom t he
rest.Af eel ingofr egional ism maydev elopamongt hepeopl eofapar ti
cular
regioni ft heybel i
ev et hatt heyhav ebeenpol i
tical l
ydomi nat edbyt he
peopl eofot herr egi ons.
3.Economi cf act or s:
Unev endev elopmenti ndi fferentpar tsoft hecount r ymaybeconsi der edas
thepr imer easonf orr egi onal ism andsepar at i
sm.Ther ear ecer t
ai nr egi ons
whichar eeconomi cal lymor edev eloped.Butt her ear ecer tainr egi ons
whichar eeconomi cal lymor edev eloped.Butt her ear ecer tainr egi ons
whichar eeconomi cal lybackwar dev enaf teri ndependence.Noef f or thas
beenmadef or
regional bal ancei nmat tersofi ndust ri
al, agr icul t
ur al andabov eal l,
economi cdev elopment .Thi sdi spar i
tyhascausedt hef eel ingofr elat iv e
depr i
v at ionandt her ebyt hedemandf orsepar at est at es, forexampl e,
Bodol and.TeI anganar ecent l
ySt atewasf or medi nt hispr inci ple.
4.Pol i
tical andAdmi ni strativeFact or s:
Political par ti
es, par ticular lyr egi onal par ti
esandl ocal l
eader sexpl oi tt he
regional sent iment st ocapt urepower .Theygi v eemphasi sonr egi onal
probl emsi nt hei rel ect i
onmani f estoandpr omi sef orr egional dev el opment .
Thishasr esul tedi nt hef eel ingofr egi onal ism.Ther egi onal par t
iesl ike
DMK, AI ADMKi nTami lNaduandTel uguDesam i nAndhr aPr adeshwer e
formedi nt hi s
basisofpr inci ple.Regi onal ism maybeapr oductofcul tural andsoci al
diff
er ences.
Regi onal ism i nI ndi ahasassumedv ariousf or msl i
ke:
(a)Demandf orSt at eAut onomy :Regi onal ism hasof tenl edt ot hedemand
byst at esf orgr eat eraut onomyf r om t hecent re.I ncr easi ngi nt erfer enceby
theCent rei nt heaf fair soft hest ateshasl edt or egional feel ings.Demand
foraut onomyhasal sobeenr ai sedbyr egi onswi t hinsomest atesoft he
Indianf eder ation.
(b)Secessi onf rom t heUni on: Thi si sadanger ousf or m ofr egi onal ism.I t
emer geswhenst atesdemandsepar at i
onf rom t hecent erandt r
yt o
establ ishani ndependenti dent ityoft heirown.Di sput esbet weenst at es
overt heshar ingofr iv erwat er ,pr imacygi v enbyt hest atest ot hel anguage
ofmaj orityandt opeopl eoft hei rownst atesi nj oboppor tuni ti
eshav eal so
givenr iset of eel i
ngsofr egi onal ism.Mi gr ationofpeopl ef rom backwar d
statet oadev elopedst at ef orempl oy mentoppor tuni tieshav eof ten
result edi nahost il
eat titudeagai nstt hemi gr ant sf orexampl e, probl ems
goingoni nKar nat akaandA. P.
Regi onal ism i snotanewphenomenoni nt heI ndi anpol itical sy stem.I nt he
pre-independenceday si twaspr omot edbyt heBr itishi mper ialistsandt hey
deliber atelyencour agedt hepeopl eofv ar iousr egi onst ot hinki nt er msof
theirr egionr at hert hant henat ionasawhol e, withav iewt omai ntai nt hei r
holdov erI ndiadur i
ngt henat i
onal mov ement .Af terI ndependencet he
l
eader st riedt of ost eraf eel ingamongt hepeopl et hatt heybel ongedt oone
singl enat ion.Thef ramer soft heconst i
t utionsoughtt oachi ev et hisby
i
nt roduci ngsi ngl eci ti
zenshi pf oral l.Wi tht hesameobj ect iveauni fied
j
udi ciary ,allIndi anser vices, andast rongCent ral gov er nmentwaspr ov ided
Causesf orGr owt hofRegi onal i
sm
InIndi aanumberoff act or shav econt ri
but edt ot hegr owt hofr egi onal ism.
1.Regi onal i
sm madei tsappear anceasar eact i
onagai nstt heef for tsoft he
nat i
onal gov er nmentt oi mposeapar ticul ari deol ogy ,languageorcul tur al
pat ternonal l peopl eandgr oups.Thust heSt atesofSout hhav er esi sted
i
mposi ti
onofHi ndi asof ficial l
anguagebecauset heyf ear edt hiswoul d
l
ead
todomi nanceoft heNor th.Si mi larly, i
nAssam ant i-for eignermov ement
wasl aunchedbyt heAssameset opr eser vet hei rowncul ture.
2.Cont inuousnegl ectofanar eaorr egi onbyt her ulingpar tiesand
concent rat i
onofadmi nist rativeandpol itical powerhasgi v enr iset o
demandf ordecent ralizat i
onofaut hor it
yandbi fur cat eofuni lingual stat es.
Onoccasi onssonsofsoi ltheor yhasbeenputf or tht opr omot et he
i
nt erest sofnegl ect edgr oupsorar easoft hest at e.
3.Thedesi r
eoft hev ariousuni t
soft heI ndi anf eder al sy stem t omai ntai n
theirsubcul tur al r
egi onsandgr eat erdegr eeofsel f-gov er nmenthas
promot edr egional i
sm andgi v
enr iset odemandf orgr eat eraut onomy .
4.Thedesi r
eofr egional elitest ocapt urepowerhasal sol edt or iseof
regional ism.I tiswel l knownt hatpol i
t i
cal par ti
esl ikeDMK, AI ADMK, Akal i
Dal ,TeluguDesam, Assam GanaPar ishadet c.,hav eencour aged
regional ism t ocapt ureandr etainpower .
5.Thei nt eract ionbet weent hef orcesofmoder nisat ionandmass
par ti
cipat ionhasal sol argel ycont ribut edt ot hegr owt hofr egi onal i
sm i n
India.Ast hecount ryi sst il
l awayf rom r ealisingt hegoal ofanat ionst at e,
thev ari
ousgr oupshav ef ailedt oi dent ifyt hei rgr oupi nter est swi thnat ional
i
nt erest s;hencet hef eelingofr egi onal ism hasper sist ed.
6.Thegr owi ngawar enessamongt hepeopl eofbackwar dar east hatt hey
arebei ngdi scr imi nat edagai nsthasal sopr omot edf eel ingofr egi onal ism.
Thel ocal political leader shav ef ul l
yexpl oitedt hi sf act orandt riedt of eed
thepeopl ewi tht hei deat hatt heCent ral Gov ernmentwasdel iber at ely
tryi
ngt omai nt ainr egi onal imbal ancesbynegl ect ingsoci al andeconomi c
dev el opmentofcer tainar eas.
REGI ONALPOLI TICALPARTI ES: ANOVERVI EW
Oneoft henot abl ef eat uresoft heI ndi anPar tySy st em i st hepr esenceofa
l
ar genumberofr egi onal par ties.Byr egi onal par tywemeanapar tywhi ch
gener allyoper at eswi thinal i
mi tedgeogr aphi cal ar eaandi tsact i
vitiesar e
conf i
nedonl yt oasi ngl eorhandf ul ofst ates.Fur therascompar edt ot he
broadr angi ngdi versei nter est sofnat i
onal par ties, ther egi onal par ti
es
repr esentt hei nt erestofapar ti
cul arar ea.I nsi mpl ewor ds, regi onal par ti
es
differf r
om Al lIndi apar tiesbot hi nt er msoft hei rout l
ookaswel l
ast he
i
nt er est stheypur sue.Thei ract iv i
tiesar ef ocusedon
speci ficissuesconcer ningt her egi onandt heyoper at ewi thint hel imi ted
area.Theymer el yseekt ocapt ur epoweratt hest ateorr egi onal lev el and
donotaspi ret ocont rol thenat ional gov ernment .I tisnot ewor t
hyt hati n
India, thenumberofr egional par tiesi smuchl argert hant henat i
onal
par tiesandsomeoft heSt at esar ebei ngr uledbyt her egi onal parties, viz.
,
Andhr aPr adesh, Tami lNadu, Kar nat aka, Assam, Jammu&Kashmi ret c.
Iti
ssuggest edt hatar egi onal pol itical par tymustsat i
sf yt hreespeci fic
criter i
a.Thef irstcr iterionmust , nat urallybet het erritor i
al di fferent i
al.Byi ts
verynat ure, regional par tiesr est ri
cti tsar eaofact iont oasi ngler egi onora
stat e.Thesecondcr it
er i
onofar egi onal pol iti
cal par tyi st hat , t
opi cally ,
it
articul atesandseekst odef endar egi onal lybasedet hni corr eligious-
cultur al ident it
y .ThusDMKandAI DMKactast hev oiceandchampi onsof
Tami lcultural nat ional ism
agai nstt hei nroadsofwhati sper cei vedast heAr yani mper ialism oft he
nor th.I nt het hi r
dpl ace, iti si nt hev erynat ureofar egi onal par tyt obe
“primar il
yconcer nedwi thexpl oit i
ngl ocal sour cesofdi scont entorpr essing
av ar ietyofpr i
mor dial demandsbasedonl anguage, cast e, communi tyor
reli
gi on” .Thi si ssobecauset heel ect or al dest inyoft hesepar tiesi s
i
ncapabl y
l
inkedwi tht heirr espect iver egions.
Theemer genceofr egional par tiesi nI ndi ahasageo- political rational e.
Indiai sacont inent al politywi t hawi der angeofsoci o-cul t
ur al andet hni c
diver sities.Undercondi tionofdemocr at iccul tur e, thesedi ver siti
esar e
boundt oandi ndeeddi daspi ref orpol iti
cal aut onomy .Onewayof
expr essi onofpol iti
cal aut onomyi naf eder ationi st hef or mat i
onofr egional
par tiesandgr oups, inor dert obar gai nwi tht hecent erf orabet terr egi onal
dev el opment .
ROLEOFREGI ONALANDSTATEPARTI ES.
InIndi a,eachst at ehasi tsownpol i
t i
cal par t
ies.Mostoft heser egi onal
par tieshav enoi deol ogi cal commi tment s.Theyr epr esentt hei nter estof
par ti
cul arl i
nguist i
c, rel i
gious, regional ,andet hni c, cast eorcul tural groups.
Gener allyt heyst andf orgr eat eraut onomyf ort hest at es.
Someoft hem ar ecommunal inchar act er ,other sar eopenl ysepar ati
st .
Themosti mpor tantoft hest atepar tiesar et heDr av idaMunnet raKazhagam
[DMK] ,Al lIndiaAnnaDr av i
daMunnet raKazhagam [ AI ADMK] ,Tel ugu
Desham, Assam GanaPar i
shad, Akal iDal , Samaj wadi Par ty,Rasht riya
Janat aDal [
RJD] ,Tr inmul Congr ess, Tami lMani laCongr ess[ TMC]and
Nat ional Conf erence.Someoft hesear eofgr eatsi gni fi
cancei nt hei r
l
ocal i
ties, andcangi vet heCongr essst iffcompet i
tioni nt hesear eas.They
usual lyar ebui l
tar oundaf ewl eadingper sonal itiesandemphasi ze
communal ,casteorsect i
onal interest sandl oy alties.
Inthei rownl ocal i
ti
esanumberofl ocal par t
iesorgr oupi ngshav escor ed
i
mpr essi v ev i
ctor i
es.Not abl eamongt hesewer et heGant antraPar ished
andUt kal Congr essi nOr issa, theJhar kandpar tyi nBi har,
Samy ukt aMahar ashr aSami tiandt heMahaGuj aratJanat aPar i
shadi n
Mahar asht raandGuj aratsect ionsofMumbai stat e, ShivSenai n
Mahar asht ra,Akal iDal inPunj ab, DMKandANNA- DMKi nTami l Nadu,
Nat ional Conf erencei nJammuandKashmi r,theMusl im League
i
nKer al aandSPi nUt tarPr adesh.
TheAkal i Dal i
nPunj ab, theNat i
onal Conf er encei nJammuKashmi r,and
theAI DMKandDMKi nTami l Naduhav ebecomeapower fulpol itical force
i
nt hei rr espect i
v est at es.Bar ely,sixmont hsaf tercomi ngi ntoexi st ence,
TeluguDesam successf ullyst or medt heCongr essst ronghol di nAndhr a
Pradesh.TheAssam GanaPar ishadwasf or medi nt hef allof1985, andwas
sweptt opowerbyt hey earend.Forsomey ear s, Congr esshashadan
i
nf ormal alli
ancewi tht he
AIDMKi nTami lNaduandi tj oinedFar ooqAbdul lah’scoal iti
ongov ernment
i
nJammuandKashmi r
.TheAl lPar tyHi llLeader sConf erence[ APHLC] ,
whi chwasmai nlyr esponsi bl ef orthecr eat ioni n1970ofanaut onomous
tri
bal st ateofMeghal ay awi t
hi nthest ateofAssam andt heNagal and
national istor gani zat ion, whi chhadbeencont inuousl yi npowersi ncet he
stat eofNagal andwasf ormedi n1963, arepar t i
esofr egi onal out look.I n
WestBengal ,t
heBangl aCongr ess, For war dBl ockandSoci al
istUni ty
Cent re, theBangl aCongr essandt heTr inomul
Congr essi nwestBengal ,theKer alaCongr essi nKer alaandTami l Mani la
Congr ess[ TMC]i nTami lNaduwer eout st andi ngexampl esofpol itical
groupst hatwer ef or medal mostexcl usiv elybydi ssi dentCongr essman.An
out standi ngexampl ewast heBhar atiyaKr ant iDal [BKD]whi chwon98
seat si nt heU. PAssembl yi nt hemi d-term el ect i
onsi n1969.
Regi onal par t
iesi nst atepol i
ticsar eagr eat erf or ceandt heyhav ecapt ur ed
the
gov er nment al powerf rom t hehandsofAl l
-I ndi aPar ti
esi nst atesl ike
Punj ab, Tami lNadu, Andhr aPr adesh, Assam, Mi zoram, Sikkim, Nagal and,
Goa, Or i
ssa, Meghal ay a, Mani purandJammuandKashmi r.InI ndian
politicst heyar egr adual lyemer gingasapower f
ul force.Forexampl e, in
the1977and1980LokSabhael ect ions, regional par t
ieswon52and35
seat sr espect i
v el y.Aft ert heCongr essspl i
tof1969, Mr s.Gandhi s
gov er nmentatt hecent rehaddependedont hesuppor tofr egional par ti
es
l
ikeDMK.I nt he8t hLokSabha, TeluguDesam, ar egional partyhadt he
l
ar gestnumberofMPsf r
om t heopposi ti
onbench.Af tert hev erdictoft he
ninthLokSabhael ect ions, r
egional par ti
esl ikeDMKandTDP, asapar tner
ofNat i
onal Fr ontsweptt opoweratt heCent re.
Theout comeoft he12t hand13t hLokSabhael ections[ 1998and1999]
bringshomet het rutht hatt hepat ht opoweri nt hi
ssoci etyl i
esi nt he
creat ionofpol itical,regi onal andsoci al all
iances.TheBJPwi thi t
sal lies
hasemer gedast hel ar gestv oteget t
eri nthecount ry
.TheBJPl edcoal i
ti
on
embr acest heent iregamutofI ndi anpol iti
cs-f rom Akal i Dal toAI ADMKor
DMKandf rom Samat at oTr i
namul .C. PBhambhr ihasv eryl i
ght lyobser ved
“TheLokSabhael ectionsof1989, 1998and1999pr ov i
dedanoppor tunity
tomaj orr egi onal par tiest opl ayani mpor tantr oleinmai nst ream pol itics”
TheMaj orRegi onal Pol iti
cal Par t
ies
Theyar enumberofr egi onal par t
iesexi sther e,most l
yshor tliv edandof t
en
adhocpur poseasabar gainingcent ur y
.Wewi llnowdi scussi nsomewhat
mor edet ailst hoser egi onal par ti
eswhi char eshowi ngsomest able
char act erist i
cs. Abr iefsket choft hei deol ogi esofsomesuchpar tiesi s
givenbel ow.
1)Akal i
Dal
Itist heol destandt hemostpower fulpar tyi nPunj ab.Formor et han80
year si tis
spear headi ngt hecauseofSi khs.Thepar tymember shipi sconf inedt o
Sikhs.Thoughofl ate
somenon- sikhmember sar egi vent hepar tysy mbolt ocont estel ect ionsit
i
sv eryr ar e.Ther ei sa
soci alcomponenti nv olved int hest ructur eoft hepar t
y .Thi spar t
yi s
suppor t
edbyr ichJatSi kh
peasant ry .TheSchedul edCast esamongt heSi khsdonotf i
ndanypl acei n
thepar t
y'shi ghr anks.
Themaj ori nt er estoft hepar tyliesi ni ncreasi ngt hepr osper i
tyoft heSi kh
peasant ry .
Hist oricallyt heAkal imov ementst ar tedar ound1920' s.Tobegi nwi thi twas
asoci o-religious
refor m mov ementbutsoongotconv ertedi ntoapol it
icalone.Ar ound1940,
i
tdemandedan
i
ndependentst at ef orSi khs.Butaf terpar titiont hedemandwasabandoned
andi nsteadt hepar ty
i
nsi stedf orf or mi ngasepar atest atef orPunj abispeaki ngpeopl e.Fort he
fi
rstt imei n1950' st he
Akal iDalst ar tedanagi t
ationf orcar vi
ngoutasepar at est at e.I twasi n
1966, thatdemandgot
fulfi
lled.I ti sbot har eli
giousandpol i
ticalpar ty.Rel igiously ,i twant st he
prot ectionofSi kh
Pant h.Anyi nt er ferencewi tht heaf fai
r sofGur udwar asi st r eat edasan
attackont hei rPant h.The
bitt
er nessaf ter“ operat i
onbl uest ar”i st heexampl eofSi khsent i
ment s.
Thesent imentmi ghtbe
shar edbyal lt hesi khpeopl ecut tingacr osst hepol i
ticall i
nesbuti tist he
Akal iDalandsuchot herSi khpol it
icalor gani zationswhoar ticulatet he
sent iment si namor epol iticall
ypr ofoundmanner .Apar tfrom pr otecting
thesanct ityofSi khpant ht heAkal iDalal sohascer taindef ini tev iewson
const i
tutionalpr ov isi
onsr egardi ng Feder alSt ructur e.I tst andsf ort he
state' saut onomy .
Inar esolut iont hepar tydemanded“ cent re'sspher eshoul dbel imitedt o
foreignaf fai rs, def enceandcommuni cation" .InOct ober1973, theAkal iDal
passed a r esol ut i
on whi ch comes t o be known as “ AnandapurSahi b
Resol uti
on” .Thi sr esolut i
ongav eacl earpi ct ureoft hegoal sf orwhi cht he
partyst ands.Someoft hepoi ntsi nt her esol ut i
onar econt rov er sialasf or
i
nst ancet r eat ingSi khsasasepar at eqaum- nat i
on.
Themai npoi nt sar easunder :1)TheAkal iDali st hev eryembodi mentof
thehopesandaspi rat
ionsoft hesi khnat ion( qaum) .Itisf ull
yent itl
edt oit s
represent at i
on.2)Theconceptofadi stinctandi ndependenti dent it
yof
Pant hshoul dber ecogni zed.3)Thepol itical goal isthepr eemi nence
oft heKhal sa.4)Rest rictthecent re' saut hor itytodef ence, f
orei gnr elati
ons,
currencyandcommuni cationonl y .I tr ecent lywel comedF. D. I.'
si nr etail
tradeal t
houghi tspar t
nerB. J.P.isopposedt ot hatmov e,
i
i)TheDr av i
daMunnet raKazhagam ( D.M. K. )
IntheTami lspeaki ngar easofsout hI ndia, amov ementt ostresst he
separ atei dent i
tyofDr av idiansst artedar ound20' s.Itwasbasi cal lyar evolt
agai nstBr ahmi nical domi nat ion.E. V. R.whowaswi thCongr essl eftthe
partyoni deol ogi cal gr
ound–t hatt hepar tyi sdomi nat edbyNor thI ndians.
Thepar t
ynamedDr avidaKazhagam ( D.K. )wasf ormedi n1945.I t
dev elopeda
thesi st hatt heSout hI ndi ans–Dr av idi
ansar eor i
gi nal inhabi t
ant s.The
Ar yanscamef rom out sideI ndi a, Theydr ovet heDr avidiansdownt osout h
andest abl i
shedt hei rimper ialism.TheNor th-Sout hdi visioni scl earand
candi d.Sot het r
adi tional Hindur el i
gionwhi chi sbasedonVedas, Sanskr it
l
iter at urei sdenouncedascul tur al i
mper ialism ofAr yans.TheBr ahmi ns
wer eaccusedofhel pingt ospr eadAr y
ancul turedownt hesout h.The
ani mosi t
yagai nstBr ahmi nsmadeE. V.R.t odenyt heexi stenceofGod.The
copi esofRamay anat hehol ybookofHi nduswer ebur ntt opr otestt he
Ar yanexpansi on.ForD. K.Rav anai saDr av i
dianher o.Sucht ypeof
fanat ical ideol ogiesper meat edar ound40' sand50' s.Ther ewasat ime
whenDr av i
di anpar tieswant edt of orm asepar atei ndependentst at eoutof
Indi a.Howev er ,wi tht hef or mat ionofI ndi anconst i
tut i
ont heear lierdemand
forsecessi onwasgi venup.Nowt hedemandi smor ef orst ateaut onomy .
TheD. K.wasspl i
tandanewpar tyt heD. M. K.wasf ormed.I tfacedmany
pol itical
upheav als.I tpar tl
ymoder at edi tsdemands.Butt het womai npl anksof
i
deol ogyr emai ni nt act .Itist otal l
yopposedt oHi ndi ast henat i
onal
l
anguage.I tsopposi tiont oHi ndi i
sr atherbasedoni l
logi calfoundat i
on.
BecauseHi ndi issupposedt obecl osert oSanskr itandsi nceSanskr i
t
repr esent sBr ahni nical cultur e, theaccept anceoft hatl anguagewoul d
amountt oensl av ementt oAr yancul ture.I t
sf anat ical appr oacht olanguage
i
ssuer emai nsi ntact .Ini tsnewdemandf or
gr eat erst ateaut onomyt hepar tywant st heconst itutiont obeamendedt o
secur e“ Ut mostaut onomyt ot hest ates”.Aconst i
tut i
onal amendmentt o
pr ov ideEngl isht obecont inuedasanof ficiallanguageandt odel etet he
pr ov isionempower ingHi ndi asnat i
onal languagei sdemanded.I nsoci al
fieldt hepar t yst andsf orr eser v ationi nJobsandsuchpr o-activemeasur es.
Itisbei ngr ecogni zedaschampi onofBackwar dCast esbecauset o
opposi tiont oBr ahmi ns.Though
cr i
ticssayt hepar tyi sdomi nat edofcer t
ai nspeci fi
ccast esl i
keNadar s,
Mudl iarsandSchedul edCast eshav enopl acei ni mpor tantposi tionsi nt he
par ty .D. M. K.want st hear ticle356t ober emov ed.I topposest hepowerof
cent ret oi mposet hePr esi dent '
sr uleinst ates.Whi leagr eeingonal mostal l
i
ssuesonf or ei gnpol icyofI ndi angov t
.,i
tst rongl yf eel sf ortheTami lsinSr i
Lanka.I ti sopposedt oSr i
-Lankagov t
'spol icyt owar dst heTami lsandhad
l
entsuppor ttoTami l'sr i
ghti nSr i Lanka.Recent lyi tfor cedt hecent ral govt.
toabandoni tspr ocl aimedpol i
cyofnon- inter f
er encei not hercount ri
es
af fairsbyi nter nat ional organi zat ionandmadet hegov t.tov otei nf avourof
aU. N.r esol ut ioncondemni ngSr iLankaar myexcessesonTami lcivil
ians
andcal l
ingf ori nt er nat ional obser vat ions.Thi si scl ear lyapr essur et acti
cks
andD. M. K.usesi tv erycal cul atedly .Fort hepar tyTami lsi nter ests
predomi nant st heot her .Whet heri ti si nt er -
stat ewat erdi sput el i
keCauv ery
orthehei ghtof MuI Iaper i
yardam i nKer al aD. M. K.nev erl ooksbey ondt he
narrowTami linter net s.Thepar tyspl itin1972andanewpar tybyt hename
AIADMK( Al lINDI AAnnaDr av idaMunnet raKaj agam)wasf or medbyM. G.
Ramachandr anwhof ell fr
om D. M.K.chi efKar unani dhi .Thepar t
yf aced
manyupsanddownsaf tert hedemi seoft hef ounderM. G. R.butundert he
char i
smat i
cl eader shi pofJay alalit
at hepar tyhasbecomev er yst rongand
current l
yr uli
ngTami lNadu.Thepar t yaccept ed“ Annai sm”ast hebasi sof
i
t si
deol ogy .Iti sacombi nat i
onofsel fr espectofTami ls, Par l
iament ary
Democr acy ,rat ional ism andDemocr acy .I neconomi csi tstandsf or
social ism andpubl icsect or .Cr eati
onofcast elesssoci et yisanot heri deal
ofthepar ty.Basi cal lyt her ei snodi ff erencei ni deol ogybet weenD. M. K.and
AIADMK.Butt heat titudeofAI ADMKt owar dsi ssuesl ikecul ture, l
anguage,
Indianr eligioussent iment si smor et ol er abl eandf lexibl e.I tdi dnot
subscr ibet ot hev iewofnor thv ssout h.Nori tisopposedt o
Hindur eligionandcust oms.I nfactJay alalitaischi efmi nisteradv isedt he
cent ral gov t.toal lowHi ndust oconst ructRam t empl eatAay odhy a.The
concept sofant i
-Hi ndi ,ant i-nor thdonotf indmuchspacei npar t
y '
si deology.
Oneconomi ci ssues, thepar tyisopposedt oFDIi nr etai ltradeand
crit
icizedt hef r eshl i
ber ali
zat ionmeasur esunder takenbygov t
.Whent he
cent ral gov t.want edt of orm abodyt of ightt error istact i
v i
tiesJay al ali
ta
tookt hel eadi nopposi ngt hatmov e,
asshear guedi twoul dencr oachupont hepower sofst ate.I nt hi
s
endeav ourshej oi nedhandswi thNar endr aModi ,theC. M.ofGuj rat .So
basical l
yaf eder alistpar tyAI DMKl eaderwant st hest at est ohav egr eater
sayonpubl icpol icymeasur es.
i
ii)Shi v sena: -Thepar tywasf ormedbyBal Thacker ayar ound1967.I t
standsf orJust icef orMar athi peopl e.I tsar gumenti sl ocal Mahar ashr i
an
Yout har edeni edJoboppor tuni t
iesbecauseofi nf l
uxofout sider s.I tstands
for'sonsofsoi l' theor ywhi chpr oclaims80%j obsber eser vedf orl ocal
yout h.Or iginal lyt hepar tyst ar t
edast heant i-
communi stpar ty,butl ater
madeal li
anceswi thmanypar ties.Thepar tyt akesi nspi rat i
onsf rom
histor i
cal figur esl ikeShi vaj iwhoi scr edi tedt obet hepr i
deofMar at hi
cultur e.I twant sMar athi shoul dbeusedi nal lof ficial
correspondence.I thadst rongv i
ewsoni nt er-
st at eboundar ydi sput es.The
borderdi sput ewi thKar nat akai sv er yemot ional si gni ficancet ot hepar ty.I
t
hadr esor tedt ov i
ol entdemonst rati
onsseeki ngt hemer gerofMar at hi
speaki ngar easl i
keBel gam i ntoMahar asht ra.I tst andsf ort heuni tyof
Mahar asht raandi sopposedt of or mat i
onofVi dhar bhaasasepar atest ate.
Thepar tyal soexhi bitedf er ventnat ionalism andhasopenl yspokenagai nst
Musl im communal i
sm.I twasonce
anti-sout hbutofl at ei thasbecomeant i-Musl im.Thepar typr i
desi t
selfin
“Hindut va”phi l
osophyandhasal l
iancewi tht heBJP.Thoughmanyt imei t
takesadi ffer entst andf rom t heBJPoni ssuesconcer ningMar athiinterest.
Thepar tybasi callyr ev ivali
sti nnat ur eisal sot ryi
ngt oexpandt hebaseby
forgingal l
iancewi thoneoft hespl intergr oupoft heRepubl icanPar t
yof
India.( Aat hwal ef act ion)Thepar tyf acedspl itwhenanewf act ioni nthe
nameofMahar asht ra
Nav Ni rmanSami ti wasf ormed.
i
v )Tel guDesam : -
Thisi sacompar ativ elynewpol i
tical phenomenoni nAndhr apol it
icswhi ch
hadast rongCongr essf oothol d, star t
edi n1982byt hef i
lm st arN.R.
RamaRao.Asment ionedear li
er ,thepar tyor i
ginat edasar eact iont oIndira
Gandhi 'spol icyoff requent lychangi ngunpopul archi efmi nister sand
i
mposi ngt hem ont heAndhr aPr adesh.Thepar tyemphasi zest heTel ugu
peopl e'ssel f-respectandpr i
de.Del hi '
sint erventionmeantt heTel ugu
peopl ear eincapabl eofsel fgov er nment .
Thishadcaughtupwi thregi onal pride.Basi cal l
yt hepar tyf ollowspopul i
st
policies.N. T.R.st ar ted2Rs.Ri cescheme, f
orpoorpeopl eandwasv ery
popul ardespi teheav ylossest opubl i
cexchequer , simi l
arlyt her eservat i
on
oflowercast es, ol dagepensi oner s, wereannounced.Tel uguDesam l ikeall
regional par tiesst andsf orgr eat erst ateaut onomy .Butt her ei sno
animosi tyagai nstot herst ates, nordi dthepar tyev erspeakofsecessi on.
Thepar tytookal eadi nf ormi ngNat ional Frontandi nstalledanon-
congr essgov t.atCent re.Thepar tyf acedi nternal
revoltandwi tht hedeat hofN. T.RamaRao, hisson- in-lawwhomanaged
ther ev olttookt her einsoft hepar ty.Thenewi deol ogyofTel uguDesam i s
ratherv ague.Tobegi nwi thi tpl eadedf ort echnol ogi cal r
ev ol utionand
comput erknowl edgef oral lsoci alev il
s,didnotgi v ei mpor t
ancet o
agricul tureandf ai thf ull
yi mpl ement edt heWor ldBankpr ogr amme.Af ter
l
osi ngpowert he
partyi st ryingt owi nbackpopul arsuppor tbyannouncementofpopul i
st
schemesl i
kef reepowersuppl yt ofar mer s,wr iti
ngof floanst of armer sand
i
ncr easei nr eser v at iont ot heO. B.C.Recent lythepar tywant sl egislative
seat st ober eser vedt otheO. B. C.s.Topr ov ei t
ssecul ari magei tgotitself
distancedf rom i tsonet imeal lyB. J.P.andannounci ngr eser vat i
onf or
Musl ims.Opposi ngl iberalizat i
on, ref ormat ionmeasur est hepar tyis
befriendi ngwi thlef tistf orcesatst at eand
nat i
onal l
ev el.
v)Nat i
onal Conf er ence: -Thepar t
yi sconf inedt oJammuandKashmi r.It
want st hesepar atest at usofJ&Kt or emai ni ntact.Itpr epar edar epor t
calledNat i
onal Conf er ences' Aut onomyRepor t(1999) .Fol lowi ngar et he
mai npoi nt
soft her epor t.1)Gr antper manentst atust oAr ticle370, the
exist ingpr ov i
sioni sdeemedt obeat empor ar ymeasur e.2)PutJ&Koutof
theambi toft heSupr emeCour tandt heEl ect i
oncommi ssion.3)Reser ve
allsubj ectsexceptDef ense, Ext ernal af fairsandCommuni cat i
onf ort he
stat e.4)Changet henomencl atur eofJ&kGov ernort oSadare-Ri y asat
andchi efmi nistert oPr i
meMi nister.5)Rev iewCent re–st at efinanci al
relations.Compt rollerandAudi torGener al '
s, Scr utinyshoul dnotappl yt oJ
&Kofcour se, thisaut onomypl anwasr ej ect edbyv ariouspol i
ti
cal par ties.
Butt hespi ri
tbehi ndt her esol utionshowst heN. C.i snotst illprepar edt o
acceptt het rutht hatJ&Ki sapar tofI ndi anUni on.
Thoughnotopenl yadv ocat ingsecessi oni tisai mi ngt oweakent hecent r
e
powerasmuchaspossi bleandwant st ocar veoutasepar at epol itical
ent i
tyf oritself.Ther ewasal sodemandf orwi t
hdr awi ngt hear myf rom
distur bedar easandr emov ingt heAr mySpeci al PowerAct .Al lt
hese
dev elopment sar eachal lenget oUni ongov t.Howi tcanwi nt heconf idence
ofl ocal peopl eandkeept heuni tyofcount ryi ntacti st hecr ucial i
ssue.
COMMUNALI SM: DI FFERENTCANNOTATI ONS
Communal ism
Indiai sal andofdi ver ser el i
gionsandcul tur es.Someoft hepr omi nent
reli
gi onswhi chi ncl udeHi ndui sm, Islam, Si khi sm, Chr ist i
ani ty,Buddhi sm,
etc.Whi letheHi ndusconst i
tutet hemaj or i
ty ;themember sofal lot her
reli
gi onsconst i
tutet hemi nor it
ywi tht heMusl i
msbei ngt hel argestmi nor i
ty.
Unf or tunat elyapr operadj ust menthasnott akenpl acebet weent heHi ndus
andt heMusl i
mswhi chhasof t
enr esul tedi nv i
olentout bur st sand
communal riots.I thasasser tedby
someschol ar’st hatcommunal ism isnotanewphenomenonandhasbeen
i
nexi st encesi ncet het imesoft heMusl imr uledur ingt hemedi eval per iod.
Theani mosi tybet weent heHi ndusandt heMusl imswasl argel ythe
creat ionoft heBr i
tishr uler s.Itcr eatedaf eel i
ngofhost ili
tyamong
member soft heset wocommuni ti
es.Theyi ntroducedsepar ateel ect or ates
fort heMusl i
msandpat roni zedMusl iml eader s.Al argenumberof
Musl imsmi grat edt oPaki stanwhi leasi zeabl enumberoft hem wer e
per suadedt ost ayoni nI ndi awi thanassur anceofsecur i
tyofl i
fe, the
reli
gi onandpr oper t
y .Ont heot herhand, mi IIi
onsofHi nduswer ef or cedt o
l
eav et het er ri
tor i
esconst itutingPaki st anandmi gr atedt oI ndi a.Al lt hese
creat edaser i
ouspr obl em ofcommunal har mony .Communal i
sm i sav ery
seri
ouspr oblem loomi ngl argeov erIndiat oday .Event houghi thasbeenan
i
ntegr al partofsoci o-politicall
ifei nI
ndi aforav erylongt i
me, thecolonial
periodi swi dely
consi deredt ober esponsi bl efort helarge-scal ecommunal i
sat i
onofIndia.
Howev er ,
itsreplacementbyani ndependentsecul arstatewhi chwas
precededbyt hepar titi
onoft hecount ryoncommunal l
ines,wasexpect ed
tolayt hef oundat ionf orast eadydecl ineoft hecommunal i
sationofIndian
societ y.Butt hisexpect ati
onseemst obepr ogr essivel
ybel i
edi nrecent
ti
mes.Ther eappear st obenowanunpar al
leledgr owthofcommunal ism
and, consequent ly,communal tensionsi nIndia.Itisaf actthat
communal i
sm hascr eptintoal ll
ev el
s
ofIndi anpol ityandt hatther eist odayacompl imentaryr el
ationship
betweenpol i
ticsandcommunal i
sm.Hencei tmaybeaskedi ft hepresent
problem i sacont i
nuat ionoft hesamei nitscol onialmodeori sitan
alt
oget herdiscont inuousdev el
opment .Itisthi sgrowthandspr eadof
communal i
sm, inther ecentper iods,thati spr oposedt obeanal y
sedint hi
s
study .

Ironi cally,mostoft heanal ysesoft hi

spr obl em attempt sonl yt ot raceout
thehi stor i
cal rootsoft hissi t
uat ion, t
hatt oo, thecol oni al r
oot s.Resul tsof
suchananal ysisar eboundt obeambi guous.I nfact,tobeconcl udi ngt hat
thecommunal t
ensi onsi nI ndia, eveni nt hemostr ecentofi t
spol iti
cal
hist or y,areofcol oni al const ruct i
on, woul damountt ocast ingser i
ousdoubt
ont henat ureandt her oleofouri ndependentsecul arst atedur ingt hel ast
fi
f tyy ear s.Inthisst udy ,
itis
arguedt hatt her oot soft hispr oblem ofi ncr easingcommunal ism i nt he
pr esentdayI ndiaar et obesear chedi nt henat ur
eoft hemodem st atei t
sel
f
andi ni tsv ari
ouspol iciesandpr ogrammesofsecul ar isat i
on.I not her
wor ds, thepost -
col oni al secul arst ateisl argelyresponsi bl
ef ort his
dev el opment ;mor especi f
ically, i
twast henat ureoft her elationshi p
bet weent hesecul arandcommunal poli
t i
cst hatact ual l
ybr oughtaboutt hi
s
ri
seofcommunal ism.Thef oundat ionoft hear gumenti sthatt heemer ging
pr obl em ofcommunal ism hasi t
sr ealbasei nsomeoft hei nher ent
weaknessesofI ndianpol i
tyaf teri ndependence.Thi sanal y sisi ntendst o
l
ookatt hepol iti
cal struct ure,mor especi fi
callythev ar i
edmet hodsof
giv i
ngef f
ectt ot hepr incipleofsecul ari
sm, asguar ant eedbyt he
const itution.Thev ar iousschemesandpol i
ciesiniti
atedbyt hesecul ar
stat ei s
exami nedandanal ysed.
Communal ism, asweunder standi tinourcount ryisbl indl oy altyt oone’ s
ownr eligiousgr oup.I tisdescr ibedasat ool tomobi li
zepeopl ef oror
agai nstbyr aisinganappeal oncommunal lines.Communal ism i s
associ at edwi t
hr el igiousf undament alism anddogmat ism.
Abdul Ahmedsay s, “Communal i
sm i sasoci al phenomenonchar act er ized
byt her el i
gi onoft wocommuni ties, of tenl eadi ngt oacr imony ,tensi onand
ev enr iot ingbet weent hem” .Pr abhaDi xitwr ites, “Communal i
sm i sa
pol i
tical doct r
inewhi chmakesuseofr eligiousandcul tural differ encest o
achi ev epol itical ends.
Accor di ngt oAsqharAl iEngi neer ,Moi nShaki randAbdul Ahmed, “i
ti san
i
nst rumenti nthehandsoft oupperCl asst oconcent ratepowerbydi v iding
peopl e” .Theel itesst r
ivet omai ntai nast atusquoagai nstt ransf ormat ion
bydi vidingpeopl eoncommunal andr el i
giousl ines.
Communal ism maybeper cei vedasat otal commi tmentt oasetofbel iefs
andi tisf arf r
om r at i
onal it
y .
Communal ism emphasi sest hesepar at ei dent ityofar eligi
ousgr oupi n
relat i
ont oot hergr oups.I ti sbasedont hebel i
eft hatrel i
giousdi stinct ionis
mosti mpor tantandf undament al distinct ion, andt hisov erridesal lother
dist i
nct ions.Communal ism bel iev est hatt hei nterestsofacommuni tycan
bebestpr omot edbymai nt ainingi tssepar atei dent i
tyandor gani si ngi t
separ at elyf ort he
promot ionoft hesei nterest s.I ni tsext r emef orm communal i
sm cl aims
nat ionhoodf ort hecommuni tyconcer nedandseekt or aisei tt ot hest at us
ofasov er eignst at e.
Communal ism i nI ndi ahasor i
gi nat eddur ingt hecol onial per i
od.Communal
pol i
ticscl aimst oder ivei t
si deol ogy ,
baseandsuppor tf r
om r eligionand
tradi ti
on.I tint er pr etshi stor yi naway ,whi chsui tsitspur poseofpol itical
mobi lisat ion.Acl osest udyoft hei deol ogi esofcommunal organi sat ion
rev ealst hatal loft hem shar esi mi larv iewoni mpor t
antsoci o- economi c
andpol itical issues.
Communal ism hasbeenexpl ai nedmai nlyint woway s: (1)asani deol ogy
orabel iefsy st em and( 2)asasoci al phenomenon.Communal i
sm ar ises
outofabel iefsy stem.Thati s,peopl ewhof ol l
owapar ticularr el i
gi on, hav e,
asar esul tofcommonsoci al, pol iti
cal andeconomi cint erest s.
TheHi ndus, Musl i
ms, Christ ians, Si khsar edi fferentanddi st i
nct
communi ties, whi char eexcl usi v elyandsepar atelyst r
uct uredor
consol idat edi nt er msoft hei rsoci al ident i
tyandeconomi cint erest s.The
asser tionofcommunal ident ifyf or medbyaf eel i
ngofuni t
yamongi t
s
follower st ransf or m communal ism f rom ani deol ogyi ntoasoci al process.
Today ,thei ssueofcommunal i
sm hast akensuchanacut ef ormt hatt his
hadov er takenot heri ssuesl i
kepov er t
yandunempl oy ment .Thef requency
ofcommunal vi
olencehasi ncr eased.Thest rategiesadopt edbycommunal
forcest omobi li
set hemasseshav ebeenl ar gelyint ermsofappeal to
religioussent iment s.Thi sst r
at egyseemst ohav ewor kedwel lint heBabr i
Masj id-Ram JanmaBhoomi issue, whi chhasengul fedt hewhol ecount r
y .
Thepr obl em ofcommunal i
sm, thus, hasbegant oappeari naf or m ofa
cleari deol ogyandor gani sat i
on.Thei deol ogyandpol i
ticsofcommunal i
sm
i
nI ndiaar enol ongeri nt hef ri
ngesoft hest atepr ocess.Sev eral pol i
tical
par ti
esmadei tapar ti nt heirel ect or al strat egydur ingt her ecent1989
elect i
ons.I tisal sobecameamaj ort hr eatt onat ional uni tyandhar monyof
soci et y.
Gr owt hofCommunal i
sm i nIndi a( Pr e-independentper iod)
Dur ingt hef reedom st ruggl et woki ndsofi deol ogi esemer ged: (
1)Thatt ried
touni teI ndi anpeopl easanat ioni r respect iveoft hei rr egi onal ,reli
gi ous,
cast e, andcl assdi fferencesand( 2)Thatt r i
edt odi v ideI ndi anpeopl eal ong
thet radi tional li
nesofcl eav agesanddi versi t
ies.Theemer genceof
organi sat ionl i
keMusl iml eague, Jamat e-Islami ,Hi nduMahaSabha, RSS, is
par toft hist rend,Mor eov er ,t
hecol oni alpower ,t
hr ought hei rpol i
cyof
divideandr ule,cont ri
but ed
furthert hegr owt hofcommunal i
sm i nI ndi a,whi chul timat el yledt ot he
par ti
tionoft hecount ry.
Thecol oni al rulesexpl oi
t edt her ival soci al,economi candpol i
ti
cal claims
ofHi ndus, Musl ims, Sikhs, tri
bal andunt ouchabl es.Thecommunal awar d
andsepar ateel ect orat eset c.ar eexampl eoft hepol icyi nt hisdi rect ion.
Thegr owt hofI ndiannat ional i
sm gr adual lyacqui redahi stor ical dimensi on
from a
refor mul at edv iewoft heHi ndut radi tion.Leader sl i
keBal Gangadhar aTi l
ak
andLal alaj patRai ident i
fy i
ngt hemsel veswi thher oesl ikeMahar anaPr atab
andShi v aji.Theywer eal soopponent soft heMughal ruler s.Thusher os
becameHi ndusandoppr essor sbecamet heMusl ims.TheGanapat hi
fest i
v al andShi vaji Fest i
v al organi sedbyTi l
akmobi lisedt hemasses
agai nstt hecol oni al rule, butunf ortunat elyt hiscr eat ed, att hesamet ime,
suspi ci onamongstt heMusl i
ms.
Thi ssuspi cionul t
imat elyl edt ot heconceptoft wonat iont heor yandt he
est abl i
shmentoft heMusl iml eague.
Inor dert ocombatcommunal ism, thel eader soft henat ional mov ement
adopt edapol i
cyofuni tyf rom abov e'.Whenev ercommunal cri
sesemer ged,
onl yt het opl eader soft hedi ffer entcommuni ti
eswer econsul t
edi nor der
tobr ingaboutcommunal harmony .Themasseswer enev ert akeni nto
conf idence.Suchast r
at egyhel pedt hecommuni tyi nfluent ialst obecome
l
eader s.Thesel eader s, throught hei rv ar iousr olesofconf li
ctsand
resol ution, helpedt oaconv eni entmi xingofr eligionandpol iti
cs.
Causesf orthegr owt hofCommunal ism i nt heposti ndependentper i
od
Communal i
sm i sbasi callyapol itical pr oblem.Pol i
tical oppor tunitiesof
maj orpol iti
cal par tieshel pt hegr owt hofcommunal i
sm i nIndi a.Despi te
thewel l
-knowncommi t
mentt osecul ar i
sm, theCongr ess( I
)l eader shi phas
oftenmadeal li
anceswi thcommunal par ti
esl i
keMusl iml eagueandt he
Akal iDai , t
husgi vingpol i
tical respect abi li
tytocommunal ism.TheMusl i
ms
hav esuccessf ullyopposedt hemov et oenactauni for m ci vi
l codewhi ch
ever ymoder nst at epossesses.I nst eadofcombat ingcommunal i
sm and
persuadet hepeopl et oacceptanegal i
tar i
an, j
ustandenl ight enedwayof
l
ife,thecongr essl eader shi phasof tensetwr ongt radi tionandpr act i
ces.
Thel atestexampl eoft hiski ndwasi n1984, whent hePar l
iamentpassed
speci al legislationt oov ercomet hej udgementi nt heShahbhanocase.
Thewayi nwhi cht hepol iti
cal l
eader shi phasbeenf rat ernizingJagat guru,
Shahi Imam andSi khPr iestshaspr ov edunf ortunat e.Whathast hecount r
y
gainedbyt heCongr essmov et obr ingSantBhi ndr anWal ei npol iti
cs.For
year sPunj abhasbeenat ragedywi thoutmi tigat ion.Theoper ationBl ue
Star, Mr s.Gandhi '
sassassi nat ion, Del hi kil
li
ngs, Kanpurr iots, andt he
ongoi ngwav eoft ensi on, all castsadr eflectionont hesel f-
seeki ng
l
eader shi p.AsRaj ani Kot har i sai d, "ther uli
ngpar tyandt hest ateitsel fis
playingadi rectr olei ncommunal isingt hepol i
tical
process.Thedev el opmenti sBi har ,Bi wandi , Punj ab, Meer ut,Del hi and
elsewher e,followi ngt heassassi nat ionofMr s.Gandhi hav ehi ghlightedt he
roleoft hegov ernmentandt her ulingpar tyinspr eadi ngt ensi oni nci t
ing
andev enengi neer ingcommunal ism.
Sincecommunal ism hassoci al appeal ,thenon- congr esspar ti
esi ncluding
evencommuni st sadoptst r
at egi es, whi chhav eacommunal cont ent .The
CPI( M)mader elat ionswi tht heMusl im Leaguei nKer alaf r
om 1967- 69,
withAl lIndi aMusl im Leaguef rom 1974- 86, andwi thJanaSanghatt he
cent rebet ween1977- 79, theoppor t
uni st iccompr omi seswi thcommunal
partiesandgr oupsf orel ect oral pur posesdoneagr eatdi s-ser vi
cet ot he
causeofsecul ar i
sm.
Absenceofr adical pr ogr amesi sal soacausef ort hegr owt hof
communal ism.
Communal i
sat ionofhi stor yf av ourcommunal ism.I ni ndependentI ndia,a
communal histor ical appr oachi st hemai nideol ogyofcommunal ism.And
ahi stor y, t
hroughwhi cht hepastgl or yofacommuni tyissoughtt obe
refl
ect ed, i
skeenl ysoughtf orbyt hecommunal ists.OneofI ndia'smost
distingui shedhi stor ian, IrfanHabi bsay s" wewantt hatev eryt eacherof
Aligar hMusl im Uni versityshoul dbel oy al tot heI sl ami cf ait
hand
communi ty"Si mi larr eact i
oni sal somadeby
theSi khi ntel lectual s.
Ther oleoft hepr iest l
ycl ass, religiouspl acesandf est ivalshasal sohel p
thegr owt hofcommunal ism i nI ndi a.I nsomest at essl oganofsepar ati
sm
arehear datl ar gecongr egat i
onandmeet ingsandpl acesofwor shi p
remai ncent resofar medmi lit
ant s.Ther eligi ousf est i
v alsofBi sakhi,Diwal i
andHol iar eof tenusedt opr omot ecommunal sol idar ity.Theunusual
i
ncr easei nr eligiouscer emoni esandpr ocessi onssuchas
Bhagawat hiJagar an, Dur gaPuj a, RathYat hr aet c.
hasi ncr easedoppor tuni t
iesf orpol it
ical leader st oi mpar tcommunal colour
tor eli
gi ouscer emoni es.
Todaycommunal ism, i
nit sv ar i
ousshapes, hasacqui r edav erydanger ous
form andal ar mi ngpr opor tionsi nI ndi a.Itdi sr upt st hepat t
ernofco-
existencei nourmul tireli
gi ousf rat ernity.Iti sat hr eatt oI ndia'snationali
st
i
dent ity ,andat ragi csetbackt oourev olv i
ngsecul arcul ture.I
tis
subv er siveofourdemocr at i
cpol itical stabi li
ty .Byki ll
ingeachot heri n
mi ndlesscommunal strif
e, wear ei nef fectki lli
ngour sel ves,kil
li
ngt he
Indiannat i
on, killingourgl or i
ousher itageof
humani sm andcomposi t
ecul tur e.Ther efor ecommunal i
sm shoul dbe
recogni sedasenemynumberoneofoursecul ardemocr at i
cpolit
y .
Prev ent ivesf ort heEr adicat ionofCommunal ism:
Thef ollowi ngmeasur esmaybet akenf ort heer adi cationofcommunal i
sm.
1.Abol iti
onofCommunal Par ties:
Allthepol i
tical par ti
eswhi cht hriveonr eligiousl oy altiesshoul dbebanned
orabol ishedbyt hegov er nment .Ev ennon- pol itical cultur alorganizations
shoul dal way sbekeptunderconst antv igil sot hatt heycannotpr each
communal i
sm.
2.Tr ansmi ssi onoft hePastHer itage:
Feel i
ngsofnat ional ism shoul dbei ncul cat edi nt hemi ndsofpeopl eby
remi ndi ngt hem aboutt hegl oriousmoment sofhi st oryi nHi ndus,Musl ims
andSi khswer ecombi nedt osaf eguar dt hei nter estoft hecount ry.
3.Publ icOpi ni on:
Effortsshoul dbemadet hr oughmassmedi af orchangi ngt heat t
itudeof
peopl et owar dsot hercommuni t
ies.Peopl emustbeawar eoftheev i
l
sof
thecommunal i
sm.
4.Inter -cast eandMar ri
ages:
Yout hor gani zat i
onsandot hert ypesofassoci ationsshoul dbefor medi n
ever ylocal i
tyt ogi veoppor tunityt opeopl eofdi ff er entcommuni tiest o
comecl oserandknoweachot her .Thi smayhel pt hem t opr acti
cei nter-
cast eandmar r
iageswhi chwi l
llessent hesoci al dist anceamongt he
member sofdi f
fer entrel i
gi ousgr oups.Bot ht heGov er nmentandpeopl e
shoul dmakeef for tsforer adi cationofcommunal tensi onandconf lict
RELI GI OUSFUNDAMENTALI SM
Fundament alism hasbeendef inedbyMar sdenast hedemandf orast rict
adher encet ocer taintheol ogi cal doct rines, inr eact ionagai nstModer nist
theol ogy .Thet erm wasor i
gi nallycoi nedbyi tssuppor ter st odescr ibewhat
theycl aimedwer ef ivespeci ficcl assi ct heol ogi cal bel ief sofChr istianity,
andt hatdev elopedi ntoaChr isti
anf undament alistmov ementwi thint he
Protest ant
communi tyoft heUni tedSt at esi nt heear lypar toft he20t hcent ur y.The
term usual lyhasar eli
gi ousconnot ationi ndi catingunwav er i
ngat tachment
toasetofi rreduci blebel iefs, butf undament ali
sm hascomet obeappl ied
toabr oadt endencyamongcer taingr oups, mai nly ,althoughnotexcl usivel
y,
i
nr eligi on.Thi st endencyi smostof t
enchar act erizedbyamar kedl yst rict
l
iteralism asappl iedt ocer tainspeci ficscr ipt ur
es, dogmas, orideol ogies,
andast rongsenseoft hei mpor tanceofmai ntaini ngi ngr oupandout group
distinct ions, leadi ngt oanemphasi son
pur i
tyandt hedesi retor et urnt oapr ev iousi deal from whi chitisbel ieved
thatmember shav ebegunt ost ray .Rej ect i
onofdi v ersityofopi nionas
appl i
edt ot heseest ablished" fundament als"andt hei raccept ed
i
nt erpr etat ionwi t
hi nthegr oupi sof tent her esul toft hist endency .
RELI GI OUSFUNDAMENTALI SM
Fundament alism hasbeendef inedbyMar sdenast hedemandf orast rict
adher encet ocer taintheol ogi cal doct rines, inr eact ionagai nstModer nist
theol ogy .Thet erm wasor i
gi nallycoi nedbyi tssuppor ter st odescr ibewhat
theycl aimedwer ef ivespeci ficcl assi ct heol ogi cal bel ief sofChr istianity,
andt hatdev elopedi ntoaChr isti
anf undament alistmov ementwi thint he
Protest antcommuni tyoft heUni tedSt atesi nt heear lypar toft he20t h
cent ur y.Thet erm usual lyhasar eligiousconnot ationi ndi cat i
ngunwav eri
ng
attachmentt oasetofi rreduci blebel iefs,but
fundament alism hascomet obeappl i
edt oabr oadt endencyamong
cer t
aingr oups, mai nly,althoughnotexcl usiv ely,inr el i
gi on.Thi st endencyi s
mostof tenchar act eri
zedbyamar kedl yst rictliteral i
sm asappl iedt o
cer t
ainspeci fi
cscr i
ptures, dogmas, ori deol ogies, andast rongsenseof
thei mpor tanceofmai ntaini ngi ngr oupandoutgr oupdi st i
nct i
ons, leadi ng
toanemphasi son
pur i
tyandt hedesi retor et urnt oapr ev iousi deal from whi chitisbel ieved
thatmember shav ebegunt ost ray .Rej ect i
onofdi v ersityofopi nionas
appl i
edt ot heseest ablished" fundament als"andt hei raccept ed
i
nt erpr etationwi thint hegr oupi sof tent her esul toft hi st endency .
Ther ehasbeenat remendousupsur gei nr el igional lov ert hewor ld.All
Rel i
gi onsar ei nter act ingwi thmoder ni tywhi chi senshr i
nedi nhuman
freedom, mar ketf reedom andv aluef reedom asencapsul ated
ormani fest edi nsecul ari
sm anddemocr acy .Int hismar cht hey
areposi t
ioneddi ff erent ly:Chr ist iani t
ywast hef irstonet onegot iate,
conf ront ,cont ainandcomet ot er mswi thmoder nity.I thasbeeni nt het i
p
oft hear rowi nt hismar ch.TheChr ist i
anf undament alism or
Chr istianr ightasi ti sknowni sar eact ionorar esul toft hei nt eract i
on
bet weenmoder nity andChr istiani ty.I slam andHi ndui sm, theot hermaj or
wor ldr eligions, ar ewaybehi ndi nt hismar ch.
Butt heyar er eact ingv i
olent lyt hr oughI sl ami candHi nduf undament ali
sm
tot heonsl aughtofmoder nity ,secul ar ism anddemocr acy .Thechar act erof
theser eligionsi tsel fischangi ngswi ft l
yl acedwi thpol i
tics.Rel igionhas
becomeat iger .Thosewhoi gnor et hi st igerar el ikel yt obeswal lowedup
byi t.
Allfundament alismsai m att r iumphal ism, est abl ishingagl obal chur ch,
nat i
ont or eclai mt hemor al highgr oundl ostt omoder ni t
ybyi nfluenci ng
political agendaoft heirgov er nment s, lar gel yt hrought hemedi a.Ther ei s
anunhol ynexusbet weenr el igionandpol i
ticswhosemai nagendai st o
bat tersecul arism anddemocr acy .Chr ist iansi nI ndiaar esubj ect edt o
atroci ti
esofHi ndut vaorHi nducul t
ur al nat ional ism andI slami ct errorism.
Ther ei sal sot he“ sy mbol i
cv iol ence”ofChr istianf undament alism
Rev ivalism ofr eligiousf undament alism haspi t
tedf ol lower sofdi ff
erent
reli
gi onsagai nsteachot her .InKashmi r, itisI slam agai nstHi ndu
hegemony ; i
nGuj ar at,itisHi ndut vaf or cesagai nstMusl imsandi nPunj abit
i
sSi khsagai nstHi ndus. Theset ensi onsar enotconf li
ct sofdi vergent
cultur es; eachoneoft hem i spot ent iallyandact ual l
yapol itical mov ement
aimi ngatr eal izingnotamer ecul tur al orr eligiousobj ect i
ve. Theobj ect iv
e
i
sopenorcamouf laged, pol iti
cal .
Ther ehasbeenat remendousupsur gei nr eligional l ov erthewor ld.Al l
Rel i
gi onsar ei nter act ingwi thmoder ni tywhi chi senshr i
nedi nhuman
freedom, mar ketf reedom andv aluef reedom asencapsul atedor
mani festedi nsecul ar i
sm anddemocr acy .Int hismar cht heyar eposi ti
oned
differ ently:Chr i
st iani tywast hef irstonet onegot iate, conf ront ,cont ainand
comet ot er mswi thmoder ni ty.I thasbeeni nt het i
poft hear r
owi nt his
mar ch.TheChr i
st ianf undament al i
sm or
Chr istianr ightassi ti sknowni sar eact ionorar esul toft hei nteract i
on
bet weenmoder nityandChr i
st iani ty.I slam andHi ndui sm, theot hermaj or
wor ldr eligions, ar ewaybehi ndi nt hismar ch.
Butt heyar er eact ingv iolent lyt hr oughI slami candHi nduf undament al i
sm
tot heonsl aughtofmoder nity ,secul ar i
sm anddemocr acy .Thechar act erof
theser eligionsi tsel fischangi ngswi ftl
yl acedwi t hpol i
tics.Rel i
gi onhas
becomeat i
ger .Thosewhoi gnor et hi st i
gerar el i
kel yt obeswal lowedup
byi t.Allfundament ali
smsai m att riumphal ism, est abl ishi ngagl obal chur ch,
nat i
ont or ecl aimt hemor al highgr oundl ostt omoder ni tybyi nf luenci ng
pol i
tical agendaoft hei rgov er nment s, largel yt hr ought hemedi a.Ther ei s
anunhol ynexusbet weenr el i
gi onandpol i
ticswhosemai nagendai st o
bat tersecul ar i
sm anddemocr acy .Chr i
st iansi nI ndi aar esubj ect edt o
atroci ti
esofHi ndut v aorHi nducul tur alnat ional ism andI slami ct error ism.
Ther ei sal sot he“ sy mbol i
cv iolence”ofChr istianf undament alism.
Rev ivalism ofr eli
gi ousf undament alism haspi ttedf ollower sofdi ffer ent
reli
gi onsagai nsteachot her .InKashmi r,itisI slam agai nstHi ndu
hegemony ;inGuj arat, itisHi ndut vaf orcesagai nstMusl imsandi nPunj abi t
i
sSi khsagai nstHi ndus. Theset ensi onsar enotconf li
ct sofdi ver gent
cultur es; eachoneoft hem i spot ent iall
yandact ual lyapol iti
cal mov ement
aimi ngatr ealizingnotamer ecul tur al orr eligiousobj ect ive.Theobj ect iv e
i
sopenorcamouf laged, pol i
t i
cal .
Ter rorism andMoneypower
Ter rorism i sper hapst hemostr ut hlesschal l
enget hr eat eni ngi nter nat ional
peacei nt hecont empor arywor ldandt hewor stt hingi st hati tisspr eadi ng
i
ndi fferentpar tsoft hegl obewi thal armi ngr api dity.Att heconcl usionof
theWor ldWarI I
,thest atesmenoft hewor ldhadcr eat edt heUni ted
Nat ionswi thI nternat ional Cour tofJust iceasi tsj udi cial organt or esol ve
theser iousconf l
ictspeacef ul l
yandt husav oidedt hepossi bil
ityofat hird
wor ldwar .Nev erthel ess, theI nt er nat ional Cour tcanr esol veadi sput eonl y
i
fi tfal l
swi thint hepar amet er sofI nt ernat ional Law.Ter ror i
sm
unf or t
unat elydoesnothav eani nt ernat ional lyaccept abl edef initiont hat
coul dhav eassi stedt hepeacel ov ingpopul aceoft hewor l
dt of astent hi s
scour get ot hest ruct ur eofi nt ernat ional cr imi nal l
aw.I ti sobv i
oust hat
terror i
sm t hrivesonv iolenceandf ort hatr easont heschol arsandt he
act i
v i
stsengagedi nei therst udy ingorconf ront ingt hemenacemake
attempt st odef i
nei tasdel i
ber ateandwel l-
plannedv i
ol entexpl oitsofa
distinctgr ouporcommuni tyt o
gener ateanenv ironmentoff eari nt heset ti
ngofi tsr eal orper cei v
ed
enemyandt husseekouti tsi deol ogi cal pur pose.Thought hi
sseemi ngl y
value- freedef initionr eliesmaj or ityont heconnot ationoft hewor d' terr or '
whi chpl ainlymeansf earorf right , itmayst i
llgetembr oi l
edi n
cont rov ersi esi fappl i
edt oanact ual actofv i
ol ence.Thepassi onat e
i
deol ogical conf li
ct st hatar ei nnat el yent renchedi nt hewor d'ter rorism'
makei tat hor oughl ycompl exnot i
ont hatdef i
esconcept ual izat ioni n
absol ut et er ms.Temper sr unhi ghandpassi onsgetgener at edwhena
par t
icul arsi del abel si tsadv er sar i
esast erroristsbecauset her ei sno
consensusont hei ssueofuseofl egi timat ev iolencef oraj ustcausebyan
organi sedgr oup; alsot hecont rov er sial subj ectofst atet err or i
sm makesi t
at hor nyi ssue.Qui teof tent heso- cal ledsecur ityagenci esofast atebr and
theirpol i
tical andi deol ogi cal adv er sar iesast er roristst odel egi t i
mi zet hei r
act i
v i
tiesev eni ftheyar ej ust .
DEFI NI TI ONOFTERRORI SM
Ter rorism asar ulei scl assi fiedi ntot wocat egor ies.Onei susual lycal l
ed
political ter rorism t hatai msatachi ev ingpol it
ical obj ectiv esbygener at ing
anat mospher eoft er rorwi tht heunbr idl eduseofv iolence.Theot hert y pe
i
susual lyl abel edascr imi nal t error i
sm whi chal sopr oducesar eignof
terrorbyexcessi vev iol entmeansbuti t sobj ect i
v esar ecr imi nal likedr ug
peddl i
ng, kidnappi ng, loot ing, ar son, ext orti
onet cmost l
yf ormonet ar y
gains.Thesecondki ndoft error ism
i
nr eal itybel ongst ocr imi nol ogyand, ther efore, isbey ondt hepur viewof
presentdi scussi on.I tist er ror i
sm t hatseekst oachi evepol itical aimsby
i
ndi scr imi nat euseofv i
ol encet hathasemer gedasadaunt ingchal lenget o
theci v i
lizedwor l
di nr ecentt imesandi ti sthisphenomenonwi thwhi chwe
areconcer ned.Ter ror ism, accor dingt oOxf ordUni v ersityDi ct i
onar y, “ist he
unof ficial orunaut hor izeduseofv i
ol enceandi nt i
mi dationi nt hepur suit s
ofpol i
tical aims. ”Let
usanal yzet hispur por tedl yunbi aseddef ini
tion.Thekey wor dv i
ol encei s
verymucht her ewhi chemphasi zest hatt erroristact sar ei nr eal i
tyv iolent
act sbutt heyar eknownasact soft er ror i
sm f ort wor easons—one, theuse
ofv iolencei sunof fici al orunaut hor izedandt wo, theuseofv iolencei sa
strategyt oachi evepol i
tical aims.Thesecondi mpl icationi suni v ersal l
y
accept ed.Howev er,
thereappear saser iouspr obl em r egar di ngt hef irsti nferencet hatdr aws
attent i
ont ot he' unof ficial 'or' unaut hor ized' useofv iolence.Whodeci des
thel egi ti
macyofv iol ence?Shoul dwecondonet hehor rifyingact sof
violenceofsomedi ct at ors, monar chs, mi li
taryj unt aandev ent heel ect ed
rulersagai nstt hei rownpeopl et or emai ninpower ?Si ncet heser uler sar e
'
thegov er nment s'thei ruseofv iolenceagai nstt hei rpeopl ecanl egal lybe
i
nt erpr etedas' of f
icial ' and
'
aut hor ized' .Thought her ear emy r
iadexampl est hatcanbeci tedi nt he
cont ext ,itisenought omakeament ionofwhati scur rent lyhappeni ngi n
Sy ri
a.Theov erwhel mi ngmaj or i
t yoft heSy riani sopposedt ot hedespot i
c
andt yranni cal ruleofBashar ul Assadandt heyar eagi t
at i
ngf oraf ree, fai r
anddemocr at icpol i
t y.Inr esponset opeopl e'sj ustagit ation, Assadhas
unleashedaser i
esoft err oristact ionsagai nstt heagi tator s.Thet roops
l
oy al tohi m ar ebombi ngci ties, f i
ring
i
ndi scr i
mi nat elyonunar medpeopl ei ncludingwomenandchi ldren,
mai mi ngandul timat elyki ll
ingt hepol iti
cal opponent sbyt or t
ur i
ngt hem and
showi ngabsol ut econt emptt ot hepr evaili
ngwor ldopi niont hathas
censur edhi sv i
ol entact ionsonaccountofabsol utev i
ol at i
onofhuman
right s.Shoul dwet hencal lAssad' shor r
endoususeofv i
ol ence' non-
terror istact ions' becausehebei ngt hegov er nment ,t
heuseofv i
ol encei s
of f
icial andaut hor ized?Obv iousl y,nosaneper son
woul dagr eet ot hat .Thedef initi
onoft heOxf or dEngl i
shDi ct i
onar yi s,
ther ef ore, notacompr ehensi veonebecausei tdoesnoti ncl ude' stat e
terror ism' ini tsambi t
FEATURESOFTERRORI SM ANDI TSCAUSES
Itisal sonecessar yt omakeadi stinct i
onbet weent errorism andot her
violentcr i
mes.I nor dert odosowemustkeepi nmi ndcer tain
char act eristicsoft er rorism.
Firstly ,terr orism i sessent iallyapol it
ical act .Anor ganisedgr oup
commi ttedt oani deol ogyadopt si tasast r
at egyt oaccompl ishi ts
object ive.I tmustbepoi nt edoutt hatbesi depol it
icizedr eligiousgr oupst he
Right i
st sandt heLef ti
stshav er esor tedt ot er ror i
sm atdi ff erentpoi nt sof
timei nwor l
dhi stor y,
Secondl y ,thet er r
or istact sar epl annedi nsuchmannert hatt heyshoul d
creat eal ong- l
ast ingi mpactbot hi npol i
tical andpsy chol ogi cal terms.For
thist het er rorist sat temptt ocauset hemaxi mum damaget ohumanl i
ves
andpr oper ti
essot hatt hepeopl ear et raumat isedandt het argetedgr oup
ort hest atei sf orcedt omakear etreat .
Thi r
dl y ,at er ror i
stgr ouphasahi er archal str uct ureandr esembl esany
nor mal organi sat ionwi t
hi tschai nofcommandf rom t hechi eftot hef oot
soldi er s.
Four t hly ,Ter ror istsdon' tal way sat tackt hei rr eal orper cei v edadv er sari
es.
Inmostcasest hei rv icti
mshappent obei nnocentpeopl ewhomi ghtnot
hav eanyspeci ficst anceei theri nf av ouroragai nstt het er ror i
sts.The
i
ndi scr i
mi nat eki l
li
ngsofi nnocentpeopl eobv i
ousl yinst i
ll feari nt hehear t
s
ofcommonpeopl eandt hati soneoft heobj ect ivesoft het errorist s.
Fifthly ,thought er r
or istact sar ebel i
ev edt obeper formedmost l
ybynon-
stateact or s, thest at eact orst oooccasi onal lyr esor ttot err orism.
Last ly ,asi gnificantf eatur eofst atet er r
or i
sm i st omakeadubi ous
distinct i
onbet weenanactof
terrorcar riedoutbynon- stat eact orsandt heoneexecut edbyt hest ate
agenci es.
Thef or meri st reat edasunl awf ul andt her ef oret er r
or istactwhi l
et hel atter
i
sconsi der edl egi ti
mat eev eni fitunabashedl yv iolatesal lciv i
lliberties,
humanr ight sandnor msofaci vil
isedpol i
ty .Fori nst ancebombi ngci ti
es,
torturingandmai mi ngpeopl ear eact sofbar barism andpr ohi bitedby
i
nter nat i
onal anddomest iclaws.Thest at e- sponsor edt er rorism, howev er ,
l
egi ti
mi sessuchhei nousact s.I nt hecont extt heobser vationoft hef or mer
Secr et ar yGener al oft heUni t edNat i
ons, Kof iAnnani ssi gnificant .Hesai d,
“…regar dl essoft hedi ff erencesbet ween
gov ernment sont hequest ionofdef init i
onoft error i
sm, whati scl earand
whatwecanal lagr eeoni sanydel iber at eat tackoni nnocentci vil
ians,
regar dl essofone' scause, isunaccept ableandf itsi nt ot hedef initi
onof
terrorism. ”
Oneoft hemostcont r ov ersial aspect soft er rorism r el atest oitscauses.
Thest at est hatar egui ltyofcommi tt i
ngt er ror i
stact sv ehement lydenounce
anyat temptbyany onet oaddr esst hecausesofdi f
fer enthuesoft errorism.
Thechampi onsofci villiber tiesandhumanr ights, ont hehand, arguet hat
unlesst hegenui negr iev ancesoft hei nsur gent sar egi venaser i
ous
consi der ationt het er ror istv iolencewi llnotsubsi de.Theor eticallyspeaki ng
therear equi teaf ewcausesoft error ism t hat
maybeenl i
st ed.
First,int hecont empor ar yscenar i
or eligiousf anat i
cism i st hemostt alked
aboutcauseoft er rorism.Thepr omi nentexampl ei sofcour seI slami c
fanat icism t owhi chIshal lret urni nashor twhi l
e.Second, imposi tionofa
par t
icul arf orm ofpol itical orderi sl oosel yr el atedt or eligiousf anat icism
par t
icul ar lyincaseofI slami ct error ism.Thewel l-knownexampl esar e
Afghani stanandPaki st an.
Thi r
d, separ atistt endenci est hati nst i
gat eadi stinctgr oupt oempl oy
terroristst rat egi esandsecedeat err i
tor yt of orm ani ndependentsov ereign
statef all i
nt hecat egor yoft error i
sm.
Themaj orexampl esf r om I ndi aar eJammuandKashmi randt heNor t
h
Eastt hatconsi st sof7st atesal soknownassev ensi ster sv iz.Assam,
Meghal ay a, Tr i
pur a, Ar unachal Pr adesh, Mi zor am, Mani purandNagal and.
Ther elat ionsbet weent hesest atesandt heCent rear ef arf rom f r
iendl y.Ill
feelingsbet weent henat ivet ri
bal peopl eandmi gr antpeopl ef rom di fferent
par t
sofI ndi aconst ant lyposeser ioust hreat st ol awandor deri nt hear ea.
Ear l
ierKhal istanmov ementwasal soanot ewor thyexampl e.Fr om abr oad,
ther ecent l
ycr ushedmov ementoft heLTTEofSr iLanka, Chechny a, and
IRAar er elev antcasesoft hecont empor ar ywor l
d.Four th, resist ancet ot he
existinggov er nment spr imar i
lydomi nat edorr unbyt heoccupy ingar med
forcesmi ghtmot ivatet hepol it
ical lyact i
v esegment soft hel ocal
popul ationt ogetdr awnt ot error i
sm.The
notewor thyexampl esar ePal est ine, I
raqandAf ghani stan.Fi ft
h, economi c
depr ivat i
onofanov erwhel mingl yl argepopul at ionmi ghtst irupt henat ives
ofar egi ont ooptf orv i
olentmeanst hatmaybeconst ruedast errorism.
Themostsi gni ficantexampl eist heMaoi st -
Naxal it
er esistancemost l
yi n
partsoft hest at esofWestBengal ,Bi har ,Jhar khand, Chhat tisgar h, Orissa,
Mahar asht raandAndhr aPr adeshandnowi nKer alaandKar nat aka.
SUMMARY
Terr orism i swi thoutdoubtaser iousandsi nist ert hr eatt owor ldpeace.I n
thecont empor ar ywor ldi thasemer gedasagl obal thr eatt hathas
chal lengedt hesur v i
val ofhumani ty.Despi t
et hecur rentconcer nsabout
terror i
sm, themenacedoesnothav easol itarydef i
ni t
iont hatcanbe
univ ersal lyaccept ablet oal l.TheUSmi li
t aryf or ceshav epoi ntedoutt hat
thereexi st smor et hanahundr eddef i
nitionsoft er r
or ism.I nspi t
eoft hi s,
mostcount riessubscr ibet ot hedef initi
onoft err ori
sm st atedi naUni ted
Nat ionsr epor tent itl
edLar gerFr eedom t hatwasr eleasedonMar ch17,
2005.I tdef inest errori
sm as“ (anyact ion)i ntendedt ocausedeat hor
seriousbodi lyhar mt oci v i
li
ansandnon- combat antswi tht hepur poseof
i
nt i
mi dat i
ngapopul ationorcompel l
ingagov ernmentori nt ernat i
onal
organi zationt odoorabst ainf rom doi nganyact .”Iti sal sonecessar yt o
makeadi st i
nct i
onbet weent error ism andot herv iolentcr imes.I nor dert o
dosowemustkeepi nmi ndcer tainchar act erist icsoft errorism.Ther ear e
certai nf eat ur esoft errorism whi chdi stingui sht hi smenacef rom ot her
crimes.Theyar e: f
irstly,terrorism i sessent i
allyapol i
tical act ;secondl y ,
terror i
stact i
onsar eal way swel lpl annedt ocr eat emaxi mum pol iticaland
psy chol ogi cal impact ; thir
dl y,terror istgr oupsar ehi er ar chal ;four thly,
terror i
stsdonotal way sat tackt hei radv er sariesandl ast ly,ther ear est ate
actor si nv ol vedi nt errorism.Somecausesoft er rorism canbei dent ifi
edas
reli
gi ousf anat icism, i
mposi ti
onofapar ticulart ypeofpol iti
cal or der ,
separ atistpol itics, resistanceagai nstf orei gnoccupat ion, economi c
depr ivat i
onet c.
Histor ical lyspeaki ng, terrorism i sav er yol dphenomenon.I nIndi at heact s
ofter r
or i
sm ar eusual l
yr epor tedf rom Kashmi r,Punj ab, t
heNor theast ,
Mahar asht raandmanyoft hest at eswher eNaxal i
tesar eact ive.I ndian
gov er nmentusual l
yf av our srepr essi vemeasur eswi thspeci alpowerl aws
todeal wi tht er ror i
sm.Howev er, anappr oachofr epr essi oncombi nedwi th
negot iationcan
yiel
dbet terr esul ts.
CRI MI NALI ZATI ONOFPOLI TI CS
Amaj ori ssuei ncont empor ar ypol iti
cal scenar ioi nI ndi ai s' cr i
mi nalizat ion
ofpol iti
cs. 'Thi si scompar ativel yanewphenomenonbuti tisnowal l
per vadi ng.Thepol itical schol ar s, seni orj our nal ists, theci vil soci et
y
act i
v i
st sandt hecommonmen—al l aret rul yconcer nedaboutt hi smal ady
ofI ndi anpol itics.Despi tesi ncer eef for tsont hepar tsofqui teaf ewhonest
publ icf igur est ocont ainandmi nimi zet hepr obl em, itisspr eadi ngl ike
canceri nt hebodyofI ndi anpol ity.Thewor stpar tist hatnobr anchoft he
gov er nmenti sf r
eef r om t henui sance.Si nceal mostal lthe
pol i
tical par tiesseem t obegui ltyofei therhar bour ingcr imi nal sorusi ng
them of fandont oachi ev epol itical ends, iti sunl ikel yt hatt hepol i
ticians
woul di niti
at et hepr ocessofcl eansi ngt hef abr icofI ndi anpol iticsoft he
crimeofcr imi nal izat ion.Thecancer ousgr owt hoft hephenomenoni s
hinder i
ngt heoper ationofconst itutional pr ot ect ionsofdemocr acy ,
blemi shi ngcent ral andst at el egi slatur es, eat ingawayatt her eput at i
onof
mi nist ri
es, demeani ngj udi cial inst i
tut i
ons, enmeshi ngt hebur eaucr atsatal l
l
ev elsandi mpedi ngt hei ndependentf unct ioni ngoft hemedi a.I fIndi af ail
s
towi peoutoratl eastmi nimi zet hescour geofcr i
mi nal izat ionofpol iticsat
theear l
iestt hent hev er yi nst itut i
onofdemocr acywoul dbei nj eopar dy .
DEFI NITI ONANDCONSTI TUENTSOFCRI MI NALI ZATI ONOFPOLI TI CS
Thet er m cr imi nal izat ioni sobv iousl yr oot edi nt hewor d' crime' , whi chi n
simpl et erm meansani ll
egal act .Howev er ,incr imi nol ogyt hegr av i
t yofa
crimedependsonhowt hecr imei sdef i
ned.
TheOxf ordDi ct i
onar ydef inescr i
meas, “anact ionwhi chconst it
utesa
ser i
ousof fenceagai nstani ndi vidual ort hest at eandi spuni shabl ebyl aw.”
Thi sdef initi
oni sv erycompr ehensi veandr el ev antf orourdi scussi on
becausei tunder l
inest henat ur eoft heof fenceandal socl ar ifiest hati tmay
becommi ttedagai nstani ndi v idual ort hest ate.I nI ndi a, theser i
ous
offencesar eusual ly
i
dent ifi
edasmur der , rape, fraud, or gani sedcr i
mes, cr i
mesagai nstwomen,
cor rupt ionandcy bercr imes.Thesear et hebr oadcat egor iesandwi thin
eachoneoft hem t her ear ev ariousl egal ter mst oconnot et hesev er ityof
thatpar ti
cul arcr ime.Fori nst ance' mur der 'hassub- cat egor iesl ike
homi cide( theki ll
ingofoneper sonbyanot herr egar dlessoft he
circumst ances) ,fir
st -degr eemur der( i
nt ent ional kill
ing) ,second-degr ee
mur der( unint ent ional killing) ,mansl aught er( uni nt ent i
onal butr eckl ess
conductofaper sont hatki l
l
sanot herper son) , andnegl igenthomi ci de
(kil
lingsomeonebynegl igence) .Thet ermr apei snotpol iti
cal lycor recti n
cont empor ar yI ndi a.Thi sof fencei spar toft hecr imesagai nstwoment hat
i
ncl udesexual assaul t,sexual har assment , dowr y,chi l
dmar riage, femal e
i
nf ant i
cideandt hewi despr eadcr imei .e.domest icv iolence.Sodomyi s
alsoasex-r el at edcr imei nI ndia.Thent her ear eof fencest hatar e
commi ttedbyor gani sedcar tels( themaf ia)t hatar eknownasor gani sed
crimes.Maj oramongsuchcr i
mesar edr ugt r
af f
icki ng, ar mst raf ficki ng,
moneyl aunder ing, ex t
or ti
on, mur derf orhi re, humant r afficki ng, bl ack-
mar ket ing, poachi ng, politi
cal violenceandt erroristact s.
Pr oper tyr el atedcr imesi ncl udebur glar y, thef t,mot or -vehi cl et hef tand
arson.Thecat egor yofcor rupt i
oni ncludesbr ibery ,ev asi onoft axes
embezzl ementet c.Theubi quitouspr esenceofcomput erst odayhasl edt o
anewcat egor yt hati sknownascy bercr i
mest hati ncl udespammi ng,
comput erhacki ng, e-mai l fraudandsoon.Theper sonorper sonswhoar e
guiltyofsuchser i
ousof fencesar ecr imi nal sandi ft heyi nt er venei npol iti
cs
direct l
yori ndi r ect l
yt heni tleadst ocr imi nal i
zat i
onofpol itics.Pol i
ticsi sthe
othert er mi ncl udedi nt heexpr essi on' cr i
mi nalizat i
onofpol itics. 'int hi s
cont extpol iticsdoesnotr ef ert ot hest udyoft hedi sci plineofpol i
tical
science.I tr at herr efer stot hepol iti
cal processesandt heper sons
responsi blet oconductt hosepr ocesses.I nademocr at icpol ityl ikeI ndi a
electionsar ef undament allyi mpor tantbecauset hr ought hem al onet he
politici
anscanhopeofcapt ur i
ngpol iti
cal power .Thus, ifi ndi v i
dual
politici
ansorpol it
ical par tiesasgr oupsseeksuppor tf rom t hecr imi nal sor
thecr i
mi nal st hemsel vescont estel ect i
onst heni ti sadef i
ni tei ndi cat orof
crimi nalizat ionofpol iti
cs.Besi des, ther ear ev ariouspol itical inst itut i
ons
suchasl egi sl at ure, execut ive, j
udi ciar y,
civilser vices, muni cipal cor por ations, muni cipali
ties, panchay ati nst itutions,
political par ties, pressur egr oups, tradeuni onset candt her ear ehundr eds
oft housandsofpeopl etomant hosei nst itut i
ons.I ft hesepeopl e
themsel v esar ecr imi nal sort heyhav er appor twi thcr imi nal s, thi ssi tuat ion
toocanonl ybedescr i
bedascr imi nal izat ionofpol itics.I nshor t, t
he
phenomenonofcr imi nalizat ionofpol iticscanbedef inedi nt woway s.In
ther est ri
ct edsensei timpl iest hedi rectpar ticipationoft hecr i
mi nal si nt he
elector al processandconsequent lyoccupy ingt heseat si nPar liamentor
statel egi slat ur es.I nt hebr oadersense, t
hephenomenonconnot est he
par t
icipat ionofcr imi nalsi nt hepol iti
cal pr ocessesofI ndi a.I tput sf or war d
thei nvol vementofcr imi nal si nthef unct ioni ngofpol i
t i
cal par tiesby
helpingcandi dat esei t
hermonet arilyorwi tht hehel pofcr i
mi nal manpower ,
ensur i
ngenbl ocv otingofal l t
hemember soft hev ot ebanksundert heir
cont rol,boot hcapt uring, disr uptingt hecampai gnofr i
v al candi dat esandi n
extremecaseski l
li
ngt her iv alcandi dat es.I tisobv ioust hataf t erel ect i
ons,
thecr i
mi nal saskf ort hei rpoundoff lesh, demandv ar iouski ndsoff av our s
from t hel egi sl at orsandmi ni sterswhogotel ectedwi t ht hei rsuppor t.It
mustal
sobepointedoutt
hatther
earetwomaj orconst
it
uentst
hathave
t
hei
rswayinthephenomenonofcri
minal
izat
ionofpoli
ti
cs.Thef
irstonei
s
t
hemusclepower.

Thei nv olv ementofor gani sedcr i

mi nals, thegangst ersandmaf i
adonsi sa
widespr eadat tribut eofI ndi a'spol i
t i
cal cul tur e.Nopol iti
cal par tyorpol i
tical
organi zat iont odaycancl aimt hati tkeepsi tsel falooff rom t heuseof
muscl epower .Thef acti st hatt heso- calledpopul arl eader sowet hei r
existenceaspol it
iciansbecauseoft hesuppor tofgangst er s.Dhar amVi ra
hasmadet hef ol l
owi ngobser vationi nar epor toft heNat ional Police
Commi ssi oni n1977: “Themanneri nwhi chdi fferentpol it
ical
parti
eshav ef unct i
oned, par ticular lyont heev eofper i
odi cel ect i
on, involv es
thefreeuseofmuscl emenand' Dadas' toi nfluencet heat titudeand
conductofsi zabl esect i
onsoft heel ector at e.
ThePanchay atel ect ions, likeot herel ect i
onsi nt her ecentpast ,hav e
demonst rat edonceagai nt hatt her ecanbenosani t
yi nI ndi aasl ongas
polit
icscont i
nuest obebasedoncast eandmuscl epower .”
Thesecondconst i
tuenti ncr imi nal i
zat ionofpol iti
csi smoneypower .A
democr aticpol i
tydependsonper iodi cel ect ionsandel ect i
onsi nv olvehuge
expendi tur e.I tiswi delyconcededev enbyt hepol it
icianst hatpr ohibi t
ive
elector al expensesbr eedcor rupt i
oni nI ndi anpol iti
cs.Thepr ocessof
criminal izat i
onofpol it
icsi nI ndiahashadt wophases.I nt hef ir
stphaset he
i
nst i
tut ionsgotcor rupt edandi nt hesecondphaset hecor rupt ionhasbeen
i
nst i
tut ional ized. Thecor rupt i
onofi nst ituti
onsr esul t
edi ndi shonest
personsmanni ngt hei nst itutions, bendi ngr ules, oftenpay ingnoat tent i
on
totheest abl ishednor msandpr act icesandi nv ar i
ablyf av our ing
unscr upul ouspeopl ei nr et urnofmonet aryorot herki ndsofbenef its.
Insti
tut ional izat ionofcor rupt ioni mpl i
est hatnot hingwor ksi nI ndiasav e
corruptpr act i
ces.Cor rupt i
on, insteadofbei nganaber rat i
on, hasbecomea
norm ofI ndi anpol ity.Thi sl edt ocommonpeopl edev elopi ngdi sdai nf or
thelaw.Thus, agr eatmaj or ityofI ndi ansbel i
ev et hatt heycangett heir
wor konl yt hr oughcor ruptpr act i
ces.Ther esul tisI ndiaemer gingasoneof
themostcor ruptcount riesi nt hewor ld.
TheGer manNGO, Tr anspar encyI nt ernat ional , i
ni tsCor rupt ionPer cept ion
Indexof1998, rankedI ndi a66outoft he85mostcor ruptcount ri
es.Thus,
whi l
eaddr essi ngt ot hei ssueofr easonsofcr imi nalizat ionofI ndi an
polit
icst hef irstonet hatcoul dbei dent ifi
edi st heent ryofpost -
i
ndependencegener ationi nt opol iti
cs.Formanyoft hey oungent rant s,
polit
icsi sj ustl ikeacar eerwhi choneopt sf ort omakesubst antialmat erial
gainsandenj oyt r
emendouspr est igeandpower .Asasi zeabl enumberof
l
eader soft odayhav esuchami ndsett her ef ore, i
ti snotsur pri
si ngt hat
political processesacr osst hecount ryhav ebeencr imi nal ized.I ti samat t
er
ofcommonknowl edget hatpol i
ticsi nI ndi at odayi snott hepr ef erred
areaofact ivityoft hebr ight ,intel li
gent , sel fless, commi ttedy oungpeopl e
wi t
habur ningdesi r
et omaket hei rser v icesav ail
abl efort hegoodoft he
count ryandt hepeopl e.I nstead, Indi anpol iti
csi nt hepr esentcont ext
l
ar gel yat tractt hesel f-seeker s, hool igans, thugs, r
owdi es, r apist sandev en
mur der er s.I tisnotpr opert osi ngl eoutanyonepol iti
cal par tyorf ew
political par tiesbecauseal l
pol itical par tiesar eequal lygui ltyofadmi tti
ng
per sonsofquest i
onabl ebackgr oundasmember s.
Thesecondr easoni st obef oundi nt heki ndofpar tysy st em I ndi ahas
opt edf or .Iti st echni cal lyknownasmul ti-par tysy stem.Howev er ,inactual
pract icei tseemst obeamocker yofdemocr acy .
InIndi apr act icallyspeaki ng,ev er yadul tci ti
zeni snotonl yguar ant eedt he
ri
ghtt ov ot e, tocont estel ectionandt ohol dpubl icof fi
cebutal sohast he
ri
ghtt of loatapol iti
cal par tyofhi sownev eni fhecannotmust ert he
suppor toff ivev ot ers.I tist ruet hatt heEl ect i
onCommi ssi onf ollowcer tain
guidel i
nest oconf ernat ional orr egi onal st atusonpol itical partiesbuti thas
nopowert ocont ainorcompl et elyst opt hemushr oomi ngofpol it
ical
par ti
es.Ther ef ore, i
ft hehar denedcr imi nal sf ai lt
ogetent ryi nto
mai nst r eam pol i
tical par t i
esori ft heyar edeni edt icket st ocont est
elect ions, theyst ar tt hei rownpol iti
cal par ties.Asar esul t,thenumberof
political par tiesj oi ningt heel ect ionf rayhasgonebey ondmanageabl e
l
imi ts.
Thegov er nmenti nst itut edacommi tteet oi nv est i
gat et henexusbet ween
crimi nal s, bur eaucr acyandpol i
ticians.I twasknownasVohr aCommi t
tee.
It
sChai r manwast heUni onHomeSecr et ar y ,N.N.Vohr awhi leot her
member swer et heSecr etaryofRAW, Di rect orofI BandDi rectorofCBI .
TheCommi tteewasassi gnedt het askofi nv est i
gatingt henef ar ious
activ i
t i
esoft hecr imesy ndicat esandMaf iaor ganisat i
onsandexposet he
l
inkagesbet weenor gani sedcr i
mi nalsandpol iti
ciansandci vilser vants.It
wasal soaskedf ormaki ngr ecommendat iont odeal witht hemenaceof
crimi nal izat ionofpol iti
cs
Anot hersi gni ficantmeasur et omakeI ndi anpol it
ycor rupt ionf r eeand
transpar entwast akeni nt hef orm ofRi ghtt oI nformat ionActof2005.
Accor di ngt ot heActi tismandat oryont hepar tofgov er nmentof fi
cial
st o
prov idet hei nf ormat iont oaper sonwhi chhehasaskedf orwi thi na
speci f i
ct imef rame.I ncaset heof fi
cialsconcer nedf ailt odoi t
, theyar ei n
forpuni shment .Thi si soneconcr etemeasur et hatt heUni tedPr ogr essiv e
Alli
ancegov ernment( UPA- I
)hast akent omaket hegov er nance
account abl eandt ranspar ent .Ithaspr ov edt obeusef ul inv ariedway sas
nowaday sanumberofcor ruptpr actices, casesofembezzl ement ,
nepot ism, discr imi nat ion, maj orscamsi nv ol
v ingseni ormi ni stersand
gov er nmentof f
icialsar ebei ngr epor tedbecauseofRTI .Ital soser vesasa
det errentl awbecauset hemi nister sandbur eaucr at sar ecur rent lywar yof
mi susi ngt hei rpower sandposi ti
onsf ort hef earofbei ngexposed.
Cr i
mi nal izat ionofpol iticsi sanal lper vadi ngandext r
emel ydanger ous
phenomenonofcont empor ar ypol i
ticsi nI ndia.I fiti snotur gent lycur bedi t
woul dper manent lydamaget hei nst i
tutionofdemocr acy .Themenaceof
crimi nal izat i
onofpol iticscanbedef inedi ntwoway s.
One, whent hecr i
mi nal sdi rect l
ypar t
icipat eint heel ector alpr ocesst o
becomel egisl ators.Two, whent hecr imi nal sgeti nv olvedi npol itical
processesbyhel pingpar tiesandcandi dat eswi t
ht hei rmoneyandmuscl e
power .Ther ear ev ariousr easonsofcr i
mi nalizationofpol i
ticsi nI ndia.
Someoft hem canbei dent ifi
edas: one, fort hepost -independence
gener at i
onpol iti
cshasbecomeamoneymaki ngv ocat ion; two, themul t
i
par tysy stem t hatpr ev ai l
si nt hecount r
y ;three, thel ureofmoneyt hatl ed
ourpol it
icianst ogeti nv ol v edi ncr imeandwi thcr imi nal s;four ,
transf or mat ionofcr imi nal sf rom t hesuppor ter sofpol iti
cianst opol i
ticians;
five,maj orpr obl emsofI ndi asuchaspov er t
y ,il
li
ter acy ,cast e- basedpol i
ti
cs,
communal i
sm andsoongi v eaf urtherpusht ot hemenaceof
crimi nal izat i
onofpol itics; six,absenceofet hical v aluesi nIndi anpol it
ical
sy stem; sev en, loophol esi nt hef unct ioni ngofi nvest i
gat iveandj udicial
agenci es, eight h,ther isingt rendofcoal itionpol it
ics; andl ast lyaweakci vi
l
soci ety .Thegov ernmenthast akencer tai nmeasur est ocur bt he
phenomenonofcr i
mi nal izat ionofpol i
tics.Howev er ,thosemeasur ear ef ar
from sat i
sf act ory.Al otmustbedonet okeepcr imi nalsoutoft hef i
eldsof
pol i
ticsandgov ernance.
MARGI NALI SEDSECTI ONS
Soci al inequal i
tyisapr oductofHi nducast er iddensoci et y.Twot hirdof
India’s
popul at i
onar esoci ally, economi callyandeducat i
onal l
ybackwar d.The
soci al hier archyoft heI ndi ansoci etyoper ati
ngt hroughsev eral centur ies
i
mposedanumberofbur densont hesocal l
edl owercl assesi ncl udingt he
unt ouchabl esandot hersocal l
edShudr as.Asar esul tcer t
ai ncl asses
adv ancedsoci ally,economi cally,educat i
onal lyatadi rectand
demonst rabl ecostoft hel ower
classest hat , ont heot herhand, wentonbecomi ngmor eandmor e
backwar d.ACommi ssi onf orBackwar dCl asseswasappoi nt edi n1953t o
maker ecommendat ionsast ot hest epst hatshoul dbet akenbyt heUni on
Gov ernmentort hest ategov er nmentt or emov esuchdi f
ficultiesand
i
mpr ovet hei rcondi ti
on.Thebackwar dcl assesast hegenuscanbedi v i
ded
i
nt othr eecat egor i
es,
suchast he( a)Schedul edcast e( b)t heSchedul edt r
ibesand( c)Ot her
backwar dcl asses.
SCHEDULEDCASTESANDSCHEDULEDTRI BES
Elabor atear r
angement shav ebeenmadef orpr ot ectingt hei nterest soft he
peopl ebel ongi ngtoSchedul edCast esandSchedul edTr ibesi nPar tXVIof
theConst itution.Thedef i
ni t
ionsoft heSchedul edCast esandSchedul ed
Tr i
bes, incl udi ngAngl o- I
ndians, aregi v eni nPar tXI Xoft heConst ituti
on.
Thus, Ar t.366( 24)def i
nesSchedul edCast esas" suchcast es, racesor
tri
besorpar t
sofgr oupswi t
hi nsuchcast es, r
acesort ri
besasar edeemed
underAr t
.341t obet heSchedul edCast esf ort hepur posesoft his
Const itution. "Li terallyspeaki ng, Schedul edCast esorDepr essedCl asses
belongt ot hel owcast es, whi char eal sot r
eatedasunt ouchabl esbyv irtue
ofbel ongi ngt otheSudr asegmentoft heHi ndusoci et y.Thati s, they
cannotcl ai mt hepr i
v i
legesoft hepeopl ebel ongi ngt ot heuppercast es
(Brahmi ns, Kshat ri
y asandVai shy as)knownassav arnarwhatt heEngl ish
rulerswr ongl ycal l
edt he'Cast eHi ndus' .Dr .Hut ton, t
heCensus
Commi ssi oneri nhi sRepor t( 1931) ,act edont hebasi sofsome
assumpt ionsandhel dt hev iewt hataper soncoul dbei ncludedi nt he
categor yofSchedul edCast esorDepr essedCl assesi fhe/she.
1.coul dnotser v
ecl eanBr ahmi ns;
2.wasawat er -
carrier, barber ,tailor,et c.,andcoul dnotser veCast eHindus;
3.pol l
ut edahi ghcast eHi ndubycont actorbypr oxi mi ty;
4.f r
om whosehandsaCast eHi nduwoul dnott akewat er;
5.wasdebar redf r
om usi ngpubl icconv eniencesasf er ri
es, roads, wells,
school s, et c.;.
6.wasdebar redf r
om ent ryi ntoHi ndut empl es;
7.ev enaf terr eceivingeducat ion, inor di naryspeci alint ercour sewasnot
treatedasequal byt hehi ghcast eper sons;
8.wasmer elydepr essedonaccountofhi sowni gnor ance, il
l
iteracyand
pov ertyandbutf ort hatr emai nedsubj ectt osoci al disabi lity;and
9.wasdepr essedonaccountoft heoccupat i
onf ol l
owedandbutf orthat
occupat ionwoul dbesubj ectt osoci al disabi l
it
y .
TheSchedul edCast eandSchedul edTr ibesconst ituteabout25%oft he
totalpopul ationofourcount ry.Theyhav etof acesoci aldi spar it
iesand
economi cbackwar dness.Thef ramer soft heI ndi anconst ituti
onwer ef ully
awar eoft hei rpoorsoci o-economi ccondi t
ions.Ther ef ore, theyhav ebeen
givenspeci al pr i
vil
egesbyt heI ndi anconst it
utionSchedul edCast es
refer r
ingt ot hel owercast esofHi ndusoci etywhosuf f
erf rom t hepr obl em
ofunt ouchabi lit
y .Theconst itut ionofI ndiai ncor por atescer tainpr ov i
si ons
andsaf eguar dsf ort hepr ot ect ionandupl i
ftmentofSchedul edCast es.A
tri
bei sanant hropol ogi cal concept .Iti sdef i
nedasasoci al gr oupusual ly
withadef initear ea, dialect ,cul t
ur al homogenei t
yanduni fi
edsoci al
organi zat i
on.I nt her ecentt i
mest het er m‘ Adi vasi’ isusedt or efert ot he
tri
be.Ther ear eanumberoft ribesi nI ndia,spr eadov erdiffer entpar ts, at
differentl ev elsofsoci o- economi cdev elopment .
L.PVi dy ar thihasmadeaf our -foldcl assi fi
cat ionofI ndi ant ribessuchas( i)
The
Himal ay an( i
i)Mi ddl eI ndian( iii)West er nIndi anand( iv
)Sout her nI ndi an
regions.I nspi teoft hei rcul tur al andeconomi cdi fferences, thet ri
bal ’sar e
economi cal l
y, educat ional lyandpol i
tical l
ybackwar d, compar edt ot henon
–t ribal gr oup.
CONSTI TUTI ONALSAFEGUARDS
Ourconst itutioncont ainsanumberofpr ovisionspr ov i
dingspeci al
progr ammesf orSchedul edCast eandSchedul edTr ibes, Int hef irstpl ace,
theconst i
tut i
onhasabol i
shedunt ouchabi li
ty.Noper soncanbedepr iv ed
oft heuseofshops, hot els, andpl acesofpubl icent er t
ainment ,pondsand
wel lsongr oundsonl yofr eligion, cast e,creedandpl aceofbi rthoranyof
them.Secondl y,ther eligiousi nst i
t utionsoft heHi ndushav ebeent hr own
opent oal l sect ionsoft heHi ndusoci ety .
Thir dly,theconst itutionpr ohi bi t
s
thedeni al ofadmi ssi ont oeducat ional insti
tut ionsmai ntainedbyt hest ate
orr ecei vinggr ant sf rom t hest atef undst oanyci t
izenongr oundsofcast e
orsex. Four thly ,therei sar eser vat ionofseat si nt heLokSabhaand
Legi slativ eAssembl iesoft hest at esf orSchedul edCast eandTr i
bes.Some
gov ernmentpost sar ekeptr eser vedf ort hem andot herbackwar dcl asses.
Tof acili
t at ethei radequat er epr esent ationi npubl icof f
ices, concessi ons
aregi v en, suchasr elaxat ionofagel imi t,
relaxat i
oni nst andar dof
suitabi li
ty ,relaxat i
onofqual i
f i
cat i
onr egar dingexper iencei nt hecaseof
directr ecr uitmentet c.
Fifthly,fort hesaf etyandsecur i
tyoft het ri
bal communi tiessome
restr i
ctionshav ebeeni mposed, sot hatnon- tribalscannotpur chaseany
proper tyi nt het ri
bal belt.
Reser v at ionsseat si nt heLegi slat ures
Reser v at ionshav ebeenmadei nf avourofSchedul edCast esand
Schedul edTr ibessoast osecur et hei rseat si nt heLokSabha, t
heVi dhan
Sabhasoft heSt at esandpost si npubl i
cser v ices.Thus, Ar t.330say st hat
seat sshal lber eser vedi nt heHouseofPeopl ef or( a)t heSchedul edCast es,
(b)t heSchedul edTr ibesexceptt heSchedul edTr i
besi nt heaut onomous
distri
ctsofAssam, and( c)t heSchedul edTr ibesi nt heaut onomous
distri
ctsofAssam.Thenumberofseat sr eser vedi nanySt ateorUni on
Ter r
it
oryf ortheSchedul edCast esorSchedul edTr i
besshal lbear , asnear l
y
asmaybe, thesamepr opor tiont ot het ot alnumberofseat sal lott edt othe
Stateort heUni onTer ritor yi nt heLokSabhaast hepopul ationoft he
Schedul edCast esi nt heSt at esorUni onTer ritoryoroft heSchedul ed
Tribesint heSt at eorUni onTer ritoryorpar toft heSt ateor
UnionTer ri
tory,ast hecasemaybe, i
nr espectofwhi chseat sar eso
reserved, bearst ot het ot al popul ationoft heSt at eorUni onTer ritory .I
t
may ,howev er,bepoi nt edoutt hatwhi l
er eser vat ionofseat si nt heLok
Sabhat oSchedul edCast esandSchedul edTr ibesi npr opor tiont ot heir
popul ati
oni ntheSt ateorUni onTer ri
tor yi scl ear lypr ov ided; aper son
belongingt ot hiscat egor ymayal socont estel ect ioni nanon- reser ved
const i
tuency .Obv iousl y ,thi spr ov isiongi v eswei ght aget ot hepeopl e
belongingt ot hesecat egor ies.
Then, Art.332makeasi mi larpr ov isionf ort her eser vat ionofseat si nt he
LegislativeAssembl i
esoft heSt ates.I tl ay sdown:
1.Seat sshal lber eser v edf ort heSchedul edCast esandt heSchedul ed
Tribesexceptt heSchedul edTr ibesi nt heaut onomousdi st rictsofAssam,
Arunachal Pradesh, Nagal and, Mi zor am andMeghal ay a, i
nt heLegi slati
ve
Assembl yofev erySt at e.
2.Seat sshal lber eser v edal sof ort heaut onomousdi strictsi nt he
LegislativeAssembl yoft heSt at eofAssam.
3.Thenumberofseat sr eser v edf ort heSchedul edCast esort he
Schedul edTr ibesi nt heLegi sl ativ eAssembl yofanySt at eundercl ause( 1)
shallbearasnear lyasmaybet hesamepr opor tiont ot het otal numberof
seatsi ntheAssembl yast hepopul ationoft heSchedul edCast esi nt he
Stateoroft heSchedul edTr ibesi nt heSt ateorpar toft heSt ate, ast he
casemaybe, i
nr espectofwhi chseat sar er eser ved, bear st ot het otal
popul ati
onoft heSt at e.
3A.not withstandi ngany t hingcont ainedi ncl ause( 3),unt ilthet aki ngef fect,
underAr t
.170, oft her eadj ust mentont hebasi soft hef i
rstcensusaf t
er
they ear2000oft het ot al numberofseat si nt heLegi sl ativeAssembl i
esof
theSt atesofAr unachal Pr adesh, Meghal ay a, Mi zor am andNagal and, the
seatswhi chshal lber eser v edf ort heSchedul edTr i
besi nt heLegi slat i
ve
Assembl i
esofanysuchSt at e, shal lbe”
(a)ifalltheseat sint heLegi sl ativ eAssembl yofsuchSt at ei nexi st enceon
thedat eofcomi ngi nt of or ceoft heConst i
tut ion( Fift
y -
sev ent hAmendment )
Act ,
1987( hereaf teri nt hiscl auser ef erredt oast heexi stingAssembl y)are
heldbymember soft heSchedul edTr ibes, al ltheseat sexceptone; "
(b)i nanyot hercase, suchnumberofseat sasbear st ot het ot al numberof
seat s,apr opor tionnotl esst hant henumber( asont hesai ddat e)of
member sbel ongi ngt ot heSchedul edTr ibesi nt heexi stingAssembl ybear s
tot het otal numberofseat si nt heexi st i
ngAssembl y ..
4.Thenumberofseat sr eser v edf oranaut onomousdi strictint he
Legi slativeAssembl yoft heSt at eofAssam shal l beart ot het otal number
ofseat sint heAssembl yapr opor tionnotl esst hant hepopul at i
onoft he
dist rictbear st ot het otal popul ationoft heSt ate.
5.Theconst ituenci esf ort heseat sr eser v edf oranyaut onomousdi str
ict s
ofAssam shal l notcompr i
seanyar eaout sidet hedi st rict.
6.Noper sonwhoi snotamemberofaSchedul edTr ibeofany
aut onomousdi st ri
ctoft heSt ateofAssam shal l beel igiblef orel ect iont o
theLegi slat i
v eAssembl yoft heSt atef oranyconst ituencyoft hatdi strict."
Ani mpor tantpr ov isioni scont ainedi nAr t.338t hatpr ov i
desf ort heset ting
upofa
Nat ional Commi ssionf orSchedul edCast esandSchedul edTr ibes, I
tlay s
down:
I.Ther eshal l beaCommi ssi onf ort heSchedul edCast esandSchedul ed
Tr ibest obeknownast heNat i
onal Commi ssi onf ort heSchedul edCast es
andt heSchedul edTr i
bes.
2.Subj ectt ot hepr ov i
sionofanyl awmadei nt hi sbehal fbyt hePar l
iament ,
theCommi ssi onshal lconsi stofaChai rper son, Vice- Chai rper sonandf i
v e
ot hermember ssoappoi nt edshal l besuchast hePr esi dentmaybyr ule
det er mi ne.
3.TheChai rper son, theVi ce- Chai rper sonandot hermember soft he
Commi ssionshal l beappoi ntedbyt hePr esi dentbywar rantunderhi shand
andseal .
4.TheCommi ssi onshal l hav et hepowert or egul atei tsownpr ocedur e.
5.I tshal lbet hedut yoft heCommi ssi on:
(a)t oinv est igat eandmoni toral l mat t ersr elatingt ot hesaf eguar ds
pr ov idedf ort heSchedul edCast esandSchedul edTr ibesundert hi s
Const i
tutionorunderanyot herl awf ort het imebei ngi nf orceorunderany
or deroft hegov er nmentandt oev aluat et hewor kingofsuchsaf eguar ds;
(b)t oinqui r ei ntospeci ficcompl aintswi thr espectt ot hedepr ivat ionof
right sandsaf eguar dsoft heSchedul edCast esandSchedul edTr ibes;
(c)t opar ticipat eandadv i
seont hepl anni ngpr ocessofsoci o-economi c
dev elopmentoft heSchedul edCast esandSchedul edTr i
besandt o
ev al uatet hepr ogr essoft hei rdev elopmentundert heUni onandanySt at e;
(d)t opar ticipat eandadv i
seont hepl anni ngpr ocessofsoci o- economi c
dev elopmentoft heSchedul edCast esandSchedul edTr i
besandt o
ev aluat et hepr ogr essoft hei rdev elopmentundert heUni onandanySt at e;
(e)t opr esentt ot hePr esidentannual lyandatsuchot hertimesast he
Commi ssionmaydeem f i
t ,repor tsupont hewor kingoft hosesaf eguar ds;
(f)tomakei nsuchr epor tsr ecommendat ionsast ot hemeasur est hat
shoul dbet akenbyt heUni onoranySt at ef ort heef fect ivei mpl ement ation
oft hosesaf eguar dsandot hermeasur esf orthepr ot ect i
on, welfar eand
soci o-economi cdev el opmentoft heSchedul edCast esandt heSchedul ed
Tr i
bes; and
(g)t odi schar gesuchot herf unct ionsi nr elationt ot hepr otect i
on, wel fare
anddev el opmentandadv ancementoft heSchedul edCast esandt he
Schedul edTr i
besast hePr esi dentmay , subj ect, tot hepr ov isi
onsofany
l
awmadebyPar li
ament ,byr ulespeci f y..
6.ThePr esi dentshal lcauseal lsuchr epor tstobel aidbef or eeachHouse
ofPar li
amental ongwi thamemor andum expl ainingt heact iont akenor
proposedt obet akenont her ecommendat ionsr elat i
ngt ot heUni onand
ther easonsf or t
henon- accept ance, i
fany ,ofanyofsuch
recommendat ions.
7.Wher eanysuchr epor t,oranypar tther eofr elatest oanymat terwi th
whi chanySt at eGov ernmenti sconcer ned, acopyofsuchr epor tshal lbe
forwar dedt ot heGov ernoroft heSt atewhoshal lcausei tt obel aidbef ore
theLegi slatur eoft heSt at eal ongwi thamemor andum expl ainingt he
act i
ont akenorpr oposedt obet akenont her ecommendat ions, relat i
ngt o
theSt ateandt her easonsf ort henon- accept ance, ifany ,ofanyofsuch
recommendat ions.
8.TheCommi ssionshal l
, whi lei nv estigat inganymat terref erredt oi nsub-
clause( a)ori nqui ringi nt oanycompl aintr ef erredt oi nsub- clause( b)of
clause( 5)hav eal lthepower sofaci vil cour tt ryingasui tand, inpar ticular
i
nr espectoft hef ol l
owi ngmat ters, namel y:
"(a)summoni ngandenf orci ngt heat t
endanceofanyper sonf r
om anypar t
ofI ndiaandexami ninghi m onoat h;
(b)Requi ringt hedi scov er yandpr otect ionofanydocument ;
(c)Recei vingev i
denceonaf fidav its;
(d)Requi sitioni nganypubl icr ecor dorcopyt her eoff rom anycour torof fice;
(e)I ssui ngcommi ssi onsf ort heexami nat ionofwi tnessesanddocument s;
(f)Anyot hermat terwhi cht hePr esidentmay ,byr ul e,det ermi ne.
9." TheUni onandev erySt at eGov ernmentshal lconsul ttheCommi ssi onon
allmaj orpol icymat tersaf fect ingSchedul edCast esandSchedul edTr i
bes.
10." Int hisar ti
cle, ref erencet ot heSchedul edCast esshal lbeconst ruedas
i
ncl udi ngr ef erencet osuchot herbackwar dcl assesast hePr esidentmay ,
ont her ecei ptoft her epor tofacommi ssi onappoi nt edundercl ause( 1)of
arti
cle340, byor derspeci f
yandal sot ot heAngl o- I
ndi ancommuni ty .
"
Theset tingupofsuchahi gh- power edcommi ssi onv idet heSi xty-fif
th
Const i
tut ionAmendmentActof1990i sr egar dedasadi st i
nct
i
mpr ov ementupont heear lierar rangementofaSpeci al Officerf ort he
Schedul edCast esandSchedul edTr ibes.
STATUSOFWOMENI NI NDI ANSOCI ETY
Onesi gni f i
cantsect ionofsoci etyt hathasbeendeni edj usticei nIndi ais
thatofwomen.Forcent uri
est heyhav er eceiv edunequal treat menti n
almostal l spher esofl ife.Dur i
ngBr iti
shcol onial periodt herespr angup
manyr ef or mistmov ementi nIndi at oadv ancet hecauseofwomenandt o
fi
ghtagai nsti njusticedonet ot hem.Theear lyr ef ormi stl i
keRaj aRam
MohanRoydenouncedchi ldmar r i
ageandSat i andwor kedf ort he
emanci pat ionofwomeni ngener al .
The19t hcent ur yalsosawf ort hef ir
stt imet heenact mentofsoci al
l
egisl ationbyt hegov er nment whi chi ncludedabol it
ionofSat i( 1829) ,
WidowRemar riageAct( 1856) .Al lIndiawomen’ sConf erencewasf or med
i
n1927f ort hewel far eanddev el opmentofwomen.
Asar esul tofsoci alr ef orms, t
her eemer gedawar enessaboutwomen’ s
pli
ghtand
consci ousnessf ort heupl i
ftment .Ingener al ther ewasnotmuchchangei n
thesoci al attit
udet owar dswomen.Thest udyr ev ealst hatt heHi ndu
womenenj oyedaf airlyhi ghst at usi nt hebegi nni ng, butt heirst atus
gradual lydecl inedi nt hemedi val per i
od.Thepar adoxi cal situat i
onwas
sucht hatshewassomet imesconsi der edasaGoddessandatot hert imes
mer elyasl av e.
Accor dingt oonev i
ew, womendur ingt heVedi cper i
odoccupi edanexal ted
positionandt heyenj oy edaf airamountofper sonal freedom andequal
ri
ght swi thmen.Butanot herv iewhol dst hatbi rthofagi rlwasnota
welcomeev ent .Howev er,shedi dnotsuf ferduet ot hatr eason.
Shewasgi v enal l
pr i
v ilegesent itl
edt oason.Women, int heVedi cer a,so
excel l
edi nt hespher eofeducat iont hatev ent hedei tyofl ear ningwas
concei vedofasaf emal epopul ar lyknownas‘ Sar aswat hi’.Thewi fehel dan
honor abl eposi tioni nt hehousehol d.Thest atusofwomengr adual ly
declineddur ingpost–Vedi cper i
od.Mostpr obabl y,thewomenst atus
deterior at edduet othei ntroduct i
onofnon- Ar yanwi fe.Thenon- Ar yanwi fe’
s
didnothav eanyknowl edgeofVedi crituals.Theycoul dnotassoci ate
themsel veswi ththei rAr yanhusbandsi nv ariousr eligiousper for mances.
Thegi rlswer edeni edoff or mal educat ion.Themar ri
ageabl eageofgi rl
s
camedownt o8or10t ear s.Jaj nav alklyadecl ar edt hatwomenshoul d
foll
owt hewor dsoft hei rhusbands.Aposi ti
onofwi dowwasnotmi serable
dur i
ngt hepost–Vedi cper iod, butwi dowr emar ri
agewasnotusual ly
favor ed.
Thest at usofwomenwasr ai seddur i
ngt heBuddhi stper iod.Women
regai nedapar toft hei rlostf reedom dur ingt her uleofChandr agupt a
Maur ya, Ashokaandot heremper or s.Thi swaspossi bl eduet ot hebr oad–
mi ndedBhuddi stphi losophy .Kal idasaandot herpoet sbel ongi ngt ot he
goldenAgeoft heGupt asenhancedt hepr est igeofwomeni nt hei r
classi cal wr i
tings.I nt hi sper i
odgi r l
smar ri
edi nt hei ry out hful year s.Lov e
mar r
iageswer ev er ycommondur ingt hose
day s.Dur ingt her eignofMaur yasandGupt as, woment ookal eadi ngr olein
Bhuddi stmonast icl i
fe.Theposi tionofwomendecl inedi nmedei val or
Musl i
m per iod.TheMusl i
m per i
odwi t nessedsev eral i
ndi cator sofl ow
statusofwomen, par ti
cular lyHi nduwomen, Hi ndugi rl
swer edeni ed
educat ionpol ygamyand‘ Pur dah’ sy st em wer epr act iceddur ingt heMusl im
per i
od.
TheHi nduwi dowspentherday si nt hemostpat het iccondi tion.The
pract iceof‘ Sat i
’ hasencour agedandt hewi dowswhodi dnotper for m‘ Sati’
wer el ookeddownupont hesoci et y.
Thest at usofwomen, att hedownoft heBr itishr ulei nI ndia, reachedt he
l
owestl ev elint hesoci ety.Ther at eofl iteracywassol owandnotabl et o
readorwr it
e.Manysoci al ev ilsexi stdur ingt hatper iodasSat i
, Dev adasi ,
pur dah, dowr y…et c.Manysoci al refor mer smadeser i
ousef for tst o
i
mpr ov et hecondi tionsofwomen.Publ i
copi nionwasar ousedagai nst
thesesoci al ev i
ls.Thusdur ingt heBr itishr ei gn, wi tht hehel pofsev eral
soci al l
egi slationst heI ndianwomen’ sposi tionwhi chhadt akenachequr ed
cour sewassoughtt obebal anced.Peopl ebecame
consci ousoft hesoci al disabi l
it
ies.
WOMENSWELFAREI NI NDEPENDENTI NDI A
Theconst i
tut i
onofI ndiacont ainssev er al pr ovisionsai mi ngatt hewel fare
and
dev elopmentofwomen.Mostoft hesepr ov isionsar econt ainedi nPar tIII
deal i
ngwi thFundament al Right sandPar tIVcont ai ningDi rectivePr inciples
ofSt at ePol i
cy .Ar ticle14guar ant eest oal lpeopl e’ sequal itybef orel awand
equal pr otect i
onoft hel awswi t
hi nt het er r
itor yofI ndi a.Thi smeanst hat
l
awscannotbedi scrimi nat oryagai nstwomen.Ar ticle15notonl ypr ohibits
anydi scr i
mi nat ionongr oundsofr eligion, race, cast esexorpl aceofbi rth
butal soempower st hest at et omakeanyspeci al prov isionf orwomenand
children, simi l
ar l
y ,Article
16guar ant eesequal it
yofoppor tuni t
yi nmat tersr elatingt opubl ic
empl oy ment .Thef undament al Ri ght s, thusmakewomenl ikemanand
ot hersect i
onsofsoci et yequal andf reeinal lwal ksofl i
fe.Fundament al
Rightgi vespowert ot hest atet omakespeci al pr ov isionsf orwomenand
chi ldr en.Besi des, speci al prov isi onsar egi v eni nt hef or m ofdi rect i
v est o
thest at ei nt he
Di rect iv ePr i
nci pl esofst atepol i
cy .Theyar e( i
)Menandwomenequal l
y
hav et her ightt oanadequat emeansofl i
v elihood( Ar ticle39)( i
i)Ther eis
equal payf orequal wor kf orbot hmenandwomen.
Topr ot ectt her i
ght sofwomen, theI ndianpar l
iamenti n1990passedal aw
toest abl isht heNat i
onal Commi ssi onf orWomen.Thecommi ssi oncame
i
nt oexi stenceon31Januar y ,1992: Thef unct ionsassi gnedt oi tar ewi de
andv ar iedcov eringal mostal l fact sofi ssuesr elat ingt osaf eguar ding
women’ sr ight sandpr omot ion.Atpr esent ,legal l
yandconst itutional ly,
womeni nI ndi aar egi v enast at usofequal itywi thmen.
CHI LDREN
Indi ahasmadesomesi gni ficantcommi t
ment st owar dsensur i
ngt hebasi c
right sofchi ldr en.Ther ehasbeenpr ogr essi nov er allindi cat ors: infant
mor talityr at esar edown, chi ldsur v ival i
sup, literacyr ateshav ei mpr ov ed
andschool dropoutr at eshav ef allen.Butt hei ssueofchi ldr ight si nI ndiais
still caughtbet weenl egal andpol i
cycommi tment st ochi ldr enont heone
hand, andt hef alloutoft hepr ocessofgl obal izat ionont heot her .
Ov ert hel astdecade, count r i
esacr osst hewor ldhav ebeenchangi ngt heir
exi st i
ngeconomi cmodel si nf av ourofonedr ivenbyt hef r eemar ket ,
i
ncor por at ingpr ocessesofl i
ber alizat i
on, pr i
v atizat ionandgl obal ization.
Thedi recti mpactoff reet radeonchi l
drenmaynotl eapt ot heey e, butwe
doknowt hatgl obal isedI ndi ai swi tnessi ngwor seni ngl ev elsofbasi c
heal th, nut ritionandshel ter .Chi ldr enar esuf feringasar esul tofsoci al
sect orcut backs/ policiesandpr ogr ammesanddev elopmenti nitiativest hat
depr ivecommuni tiesandf ami li
esofaccesst oandcont rol ov erl and, for
est
andwat err esour cest heyhav et radi ti
onal lydependedon.
Thenegat i
v ef allouti sv isible: chi ldr enar ebei ngdepr ivedofev ent he
scar cesoci al benef i
tsonceav ailabl e; t
heyar edi spl acedbyf orcedand
economi cmi grat ion, i
ncr easi ngt henumberofchi ldrensubsi stingont he
str eet s; mor eandmor echi ldrenar ebei ngt raf fi
ckedwi t
hi nandacr oss
bor der s; andr i
si ngnumber sofchi ldrenar eengagedi npar t-orf ull-
time
l
abour .(1)
Gr oundr eal i
t i
es
Wi thmor et hanone- thirdofi t spopul ati
onbel ow18y ear s, Indiahast he
l
ar gesty oungpopul ationi nt hewor ld.
Onl y35%ofbi rthsar er egi st ered, impact ingnameandnat ional ity.
Oneoutof16chi l
dr endi ebef or et heyat tai nt heageof1, andoneoutof
11di ebef oret heyar e5y ear sol d.
35%oft hedev elopi ngwor l
d’sl ow- bi r
th-wei ghtbabi esar ebor ninI ndia.
40%ofchi l
dmal nut riti
oni nt hedev elopingwor ldisi nI ndi a.
Ofev er y100chi ldr enwhodr opoutofschool , 66ar egi rls.
65%ofgi rl
si nI ndi aar emar r
iedbyt heageof18andbecomemot her s
soonaf ter.
I
ndi aishomet ot hehi ghestnumberofchi ldl abour ersi nt hewor l
d.
I
ndi ahast hewor ld’sl argestnumberofsexual lyabusedchi ldren, witha
childbel ow16r apedev er y155t hmi nut e,achi ldbel ow10ev ery13t hhour ,
andatl eastonei nev er y10chi ldr ensexual lyabusedatanypoi ntint i
me.
GOVERNMENTPOLI CYONCHI LDREN
OnNov ember20, 1989, t
heUNGener alAssembl yadopt edt heConv ention
ont heRi ghtsoft heChi ld( CRC) .OnJanuar y26, 1990, theopeni ngdayof
thesessi on, 61count riessi gnedi t.TheCRCcov ersal lchi ldrenundert he
ageof18y ear s, regar dlessofsex, colour ,language, rel
igionorr ace.I ndia
rati
fiedt heCRCi n1992.
Sev eral const itutional prov isionspr ot ectchi ldreni nI ndia.Amongt hem:
Article15af firmst her i
ghtoft heSt at etomakespeci al pr ov isionf or
womenandchi ldr en.
Article24pr ov idest hatnochi ldbel owt heageof14shal lbeempl oy edto
wor k…i nany
haz ardousempl oy ment .
Article39( e)oft heDi rect ivePr incipl esofSt atePol icypr ov idest hat
childrenoft enderage
shoul dnotbeabusedandt hatt heyshoul dnotbef orcedbyeconomi c
necessi t
yt oent erv ocat i
ons
unsui tedt ot hei rageorst rengt h.
Article39( f )requi reschi ldr ent obegi venoppor tuni ti
esandf aci l
itiest o
dev elopi naheal thy
mannerandi ncondi tionsoff r
eedom anddi gni ty,andt hatchi ldhoodand
yout hbepr ot ect ed
agai nstexpl oi t
at ionandmor alandmat erial abandonment .
Article45oft heDi rect i
v ePr i
nci pl esofSt atePol icypr ov i
desf orf reeand
compul sor yeducat ionf oral lchi ldrenunt il theycompl etet heageof14.
Pr i
ort ot heFi fthFi ve- YearPl an, thegov ernment ’sf ocuswasonchi l
d
wel faret hrought hepr omot ionofbasi cmi ni mum ser v i
cesf orchi ldr en.This
culmi nat edint headopt ionoft he
Nat i
onal Policyf orChi l
dr en, in1974.
TheFi fthFive- YearPl an( 1974- 79)sawashi ftoff ocusf rom wel faret o
dev elopmentandt hei nt egr at i
onandco- or dinat i
onofser v i
cesaf tert he
Integr atedChi l
dDev el opmentSer v i
ces( I
CDS)1975.
TheSi xthFi ve-YearPl anst r
engt henedchi ldwel far eanddev elopment .Itled
tot hespat ial expansi onandenr ichmentofchi l
ddev el opmentser v i
ces
throughav ar i
et yofpr ogr ammes.Thef ocusoft heEi ght hFi ve-YearPl an
(1992- 97)shi ftedt ohumandev elopmentt hroughadv ocacy ,mobi lisat ion
andcommuni tyempower ment .
TheGov er nmentofI ndiadecl ar edi tscommi tmentt oev erychi ldint he
Nint hFi v e-YearPl an( 1997- 2002) .
TheTent hFi ve-YearPl anadv ocat edaconv ergent /integr atedr ight s-based
appr oacht oensur et hesur vival ,dev elopment ,pr otect ionandpar t
ici pat i
on
ofchi ldren.Thedr aftappr oachpaperoft heEl ev ent hFi ve-YearPl an( 2007-
2012)pr epar edbyt hePl anni ngCommi ssionemphat icallyst atedt hat
‘
Dev elopmentoft hechi ldi satt hecent reoft heEl ev ent hPl an’.Despi te
thesel aws, pol i
ci esandcommi tment s, howev er ,whati stheact ual
situat ionf orI ndi a’schi l
dr env is-à-v i
sheal th,educat i
on, ear l
ychi ldhoodcar e
andpr otect ion?
Element ar yeducat ion
Whi leenr ol mentl ev elspr opel ledbyt hef lagshi pSar vaShi kshaAbhi y an
showani ncr ease, lev elsofr et ent ioni nschool sr emai namat t
erofconcer n.
Ther ehasbeenamar ginal impr ov ementi nt heper cent ageofst udent swho
stayi nschool unt ilCl ass5- -f rom 61. 2%t o62%- -butt hisiswaybel owt he
global av er ageof83. 3%( 10) .Ther eisashar pdecl inei nt heenr olmentr ati
o
att heupperpr imar yl evel .Al so, thedr opoutr atei ncreasescumul ativ elyas
i
tpr oceedst owar dshi gherl ev els.Al thoughshowi ngi mpr ov ement ,t he
enr olmentofgi rlsi sst il
l bel owt hatofboy s.Thedr opoutr atef orgi rlst ooi s
higher .Chi ldr enbel ongi ngt oSchedul edCast esandSchedul edTr ibes
cont inuet of acedi scr imi nat ioni nschool sandhav el ower
enr olmentandhi gherdr opoutr ates.Despi tet hepr omi seofeducat ionf or
all
, 46%ofchi ldrenf rom Schedul edTr ibesand38%f rom Schedul edCast es
cont inuet obeoutofschool , asagai nst34%i nt hecaseofot her s.( 11)Thi s
i
snotsur pr isingconsi der i
ngt hedi scr i
mi nat i
ont hatt hesechi l
drenf aceat
school .Thesamecanbesai doft hedi scr i
mi nat ionf acedbydi sabl ed
childr en.
TheConst i
tut ionofI ndiaf ailst oev enr ecogni seeducat ionasa‘ ri
ght ’for
thoseaged15- 18y ear s.Manychi ldrendr opoutaf t
ert heel ement ar yl ev el.
Indeed, thesy st em i sdesi gnedt opushchi l
drenoutofeducat i
on- -ther ei s
alackofadequat eschool infrast ruct ure, thequal ityofeducat i
oni spoor ,
theeducat ional sy stem i sgender -
unf riendl y,
di sabl ed- unf riendly,
cast edi scr imi nat or yandv iolentbecauseofahi ghdegr eeofcor por al
puni shment .
AModel Educat i
onBi ll hasbeendev elopedandci rculatedt ot hest at esf or
adopt ioni nt ost at el aw.Ther ewi llthusbenocent rallegislationon
educat i
on, onl yst atel egi slationsi nceeducat ioni sast atesubj ect.Ifst ates
deci det oadoptt heModel Educat ionBi l
l asi tis,theywi llbeel i
gibl ef or75%
assi stancef rom t heCent ref oreducat ionpr ogr ammes.Buti ft heymodi fy
theModel Bi ll
i
nt heirf ormul at ionoft hest at eeducat i
onl aw, theywi llonlybeel igiblef or
50%ofcent ral gov ernmentassi st ance.TheModel Educat ionBi l
lisnot
av ailablef orpubl icscr utiny ,posi ngser iousquest i
onsaboutt he
gov er nment ’
saccount abilityandt ranspar ency .
Chi ldl abourandRi ghtt oEducat ion: Acont radi ct i
on
Indiahast hehi ghestnumberofchi ldlabour ersi nt hewor ld.
Censusr epor tscl ear l
ypoi ntt oani ncr easei nt henumberofchi ld
l
abour ersint hecount ry ,
from 11. 28mi llioni n1991t o12. 59mi lli
oni n2001.
Repor tsf rom t heM VFoundat ioni nAndhr aPr adeshr eveal t hatnear l
y
400, 000chi ldren,
most lygi rl
sbet ween7and14y ear sofage, toilfor14- 16hour sadayi n
cot tonseedpr oduct ion
acr osst hecount ry.Ni net yper centoft hem ar eempl oy edi nAndhr a
Pradeshal one.
Rescueoper at ionsi nMumbai andDel hi in2005- 2006hi ghlightt he
empl oy mentofchi ldren
i
nzar iandembr oider yuni ts.Theexi stingl awonchi ldlabourt hatal lows
chi l
dr ent owor ki noccupat ionst hatar enotpar toft heschedul eof
occupat i
onst hatar econsi der edhar mf ul tochi l
dr encont radi ct st her ightof
ev erychi l
dt of reeandcompul sor yeducat ion.Andy etnoat tempti smade
tor esol vet hi scont radi cti
on.
Howcanchi ldrenbeatwor kandatschool att hesamet i
me?Sur elyt his
meanst hatanyat temptt ogi v et hem accesst oeducat ionwi ll besecond-
rate, par all
el non- f
or mal educat ion?
TheSoci al Jur ist ,HAQ: Cent r
ef orChi ldRi ght sandM VFoundat ionhav e
fil
edaj ointPI Lwi tht heSupr emeCour tofI ndi achal lengingt hev ali
di tyof
theChi l
dLabourActi nt hewakeoft heconst itutional guar ant eet orightt o
educat i
onf orchi ldreni nt he6- 14age- group.I nt hemeant ime, v i
dea
not ifi
cat ioni nt heof ficial gazet tedat edOct ober10, 2006, theCent rehas
expandedt hel istofhazar dousoccupat ionsbanni ngempl oymentof
chi l
dr enunder14y ear sasdomest ichel pori n
rest aur antsandt heent ertainmenti ndust ry.
Gov ernmentAct ion: AnAnal ysis
Ov ert hel astf ewy ear s, thegov er nmenthast akenanumberofmeasur es
relatedt ochi l
dr en.Themosti mpor tanthasbeent heset ti
ngupofaf ull-
fl
edgedMi ni stryofWomenandChi ldDev elopmentasagai nstt he
Depar tmentofWomenandDev elopmentt hatusedt of unct i
onaspar tof
theHumanResour ceDev elopmentMi ni stry .Amongt hepol icyandl aw
i
nitiativest hatwer eunder takenwast hef or mul ationoft heNat i
onal Char ter
forChi l
dr en2003, theNat ional Pl anofAct ionf orChi l
dr en2005, and
enf orcementoft heNat ional Commi ssi onsf orPr ot ect i
on
ofChi l
dRi ght sAct2006.Howev er ,theNat i
onal Pol icyf orChi l
dren1974
hasnotbeenr epeal ed, nordoest hechar terov erridei t.Thus, thest at usof
thechar teri snotv erycl ear .Thegov er nmentannouncedt hemuch-
discussedandl ong- del ay edNat i
onal Pl anofAct i
on2005onl yinAugust
2005.Ledbyt heMi nist ryofWomenandChi ldDev elopment , the
gov ernmenthascompl etedast udyonchi ldabusei nI ndi aandi sint he
processofdr aftingal awonOf fencesagai nstChi l
dr en.I thasal soi nitiat ed
thepr ocessofamendi ngt hepr esentl awonchi l
dmar ri
age.
Par li
amenthasr ecent lypassedt hePr ohibi tionofChi l
dMar riageBi ll 2006,
whi chenhancespuni shmentf ort hosei nvol vedi nt hesepr act i
ces, and
peopl eabet tingorat t
endi ngchi ldmar riages.I talsodecl aresal lchi l
d
mar r
iagesnul landv oid.Thi sisal sot hemai ncr i
ticism agai nstt he
l
egi slationt hatwi ll comei ntof or ceasal awappl i
cabl er et rospect ively–i e,
allchildmar riagest hathav etakenpl acei nt hepastwi llbedecl arednul l
andv oidandt hest at usofchi l
dr enbor noutofsuchmar ri
ageswi llcome
underquest ion.TheJuv eni leJust ice( Car eandPr ot ect i
on)Act2000was
amendedi n2006andt heCent ral Model Rul esi nt hi sr egar dar ebei ng
formul ated.
TheModel Ri ghtt oEducat ionBi l
l isnotav ailabl eforpubl i
c
scr uti
ny /comment ,asi sal sot hecasewi tht heOf fencesagai nstChi ldren
Bill
.TheOf fencesagai nstChi ldr enBi ll hasdr awncr i
ticism basedondr af ts
avai l
abl et hroughv ar i
oussour ces.Thef i
rsti st hati tist oov asti nt ermsof
theki ndofof fencesi tseekst oaddr essunderoneumbr ellal egislation.The
secondi st hat ,unl iket heI mmor al Traf f i
cPr ev entionAct( ITPA)t hat
extendst ot hewhol eofI ndi a,the
proposedl egi slat ionkeepst heSt ateofJammuandKashmi routofi ts
scope.Thet hird, andmosti mpor tant , cr i
ticism i st hatsi ncemanyoft he
offencesdeal twi thundert hepr oposedBi l
l areofav er yser iousnat ur e, the
criminal ityoft hoseof fencesshoul dbeest abl i
shedt hrought hemai n
criminal l
awoft hel and, iet heI ndi anPenal Codeandnott hr oughasoci al
l
egi slation.I ndi aal readyhasast rongj uv eni lejust icel awt odeal withsoci al
andr ef ormat oryaspect sofacr ime;
thatl awcoul dbest rengt henedf urt
hert oensur et hathumanr ight s
standar dsofchi ldpr ot ect ionar emetwhi lstr ehabi litatingachi ldv ictim.
Mor eov er ,bot ht heHomeMi nistryandt heLawMi ni str yarewor kingon
amendment sint heCr imi nal Pr ocedur eCode, andmanyact i
v i
st sf eel that
thisi st her ightt imet oseekappr opr iateamendment st oensur echi l
d-
fri
endl ylegal procedur eswi thi ntheCRPCandt heI ndi anEv i
denceAct .
ETHNI CANDLI NGUI STI CMOVEMENTS
Mov ementi nTami lNadu
Ther egi onal mov ementi nTami l
naducanbeunder st oodbyt heanal ysisof
i
t ssoci o-cul tural andhi stor ical dimensi ons.Themov ementi nTami lNadu
hasbeengener al l
yl ookeduponasasoci or eligiousr ev oltagainstt he
domi nat ionoft heAr y ancul t ure.Inf act ,thismov ementwaspr oj ect edasa
conf l
ictbet weent woet hni cgr oups, theAr y ansoft heNor t
handt he
Dr av i
diansoft heSout h.Thi st wo-racet heor y,ifitcanbecal ledt hat ,has
resul tedi nt heTami lisat ionofpol it
ics( i
nTami lNadu) .Thesuppor tersof
theDr av idianmov ementconsi derHi ndui sm asf or eignt ot heirwayofl ife.
Thi sdef i
ni ti
onofHi ndui sm hasf ar-reachi ngpol iti
cal i
mpl i
cations.
Thi shascer tainlyaf fect edt hef oundat ionsofpol itical unityinI ndi a.The
soci o-cul tural domi nat ionoft heBr ahmi nshascont ribut edt oqui tean
ext entt ot hegr owt hoft hissepar atei dent ityconsci ousness.
TheDr av i
di anmov ementcoul dbet racedt ot hef or mat ionoft heDr av idian
Associ at i
oni n1915.Subsequent l
y,thisAssoci ationwaschangedi ntot he
Sout hIndi anPeopl esAssoci ation,whi chdemandedt hecr eat i
onofa
Dr av i
dianSt ate.In1917, thisassoci at i
onwasagai nchangedi nt oSout h
IndianLi ber al Feder at i
onandcamet obepopul ar lyknownas' Just icePar ty
'.
TheJust icePar tywasi nf av ourofcont i
nuat i
onoft heBr i
ti
shr ul ei nI ndia
fori tv i
ewedi tasadi v i
ne
dispensat i
on.I n1937, aCongr essgov er nmentwasf or medi nMadr as
undert hel eader shi pofC.Raj agopal achar i.Hi sgov er nment '
si nt roduct i
on
ofHi ndi asacompul sor ysubj ectwasopposedbyt hesuppor t
er soft he
Dr av i
dianmov ement .Themov ementt ooksuchav i
ol entt urnt hatt he
gov er nmentwasf or cedt or ev i
sei t
sdeci si onandHi ndi wasmadean
opt ional subj ect.
E.V.Ramaswami Nai ckerwasel ectedast hePr esi dentoft heJust icePar ty.
Thi spar tydemandedasepar ateDr av i
dianst ate' direct l
yundert he
Secr et aryofSt atef orI ndi a'.Just icePar tyev ensuppor tedt heMusl im
League' sdemandf ort hecr eat ionofPaki st an.I n1944, thepar tybecame
theDr av idaKazagham.Nai ckerdecl ar ed, 'aHi ndui nt hepr esentconcept
maybeaDr avidian, butaDr av i
diani nt her eal senseoft het erm cannotand
shal lnotbeaHi ndu' .Wi tht hef ormat ionoft heAndhr aPr adeshi n1956, the
nameofMadr aswaschangedt oTami lNadu.I n1967, theDMKsecur ed
absol ut emaj or ityi nt hest ateassembl y.Si ncet hen, ithasbeen
consi st ent lyopposi ngt hei mposi tionofHi ndi andal ternat ely,ther et enti
on
ofEngl i
shast heof ficiallanguagei ndef i
ni t
el y.I thasal sobeendemandi ng
mor eaut onomyf ort hest ateandl imi tationoft her oleoft hePl anni ng
Commi ssi on.
TheTami lnadugov ernmentappoi nt edt heRaj aMannarCommi tteei n1971
tosuggesti mpr ov ement si nt hecent re-st ater elations.TheCommi tt
ee's
recommendat i
onsf ort her eor gani sat ionoft hePl anni ngCommi ssi on,
'
bar estmi ni mum' oft heConcur r
entLi standr emov aloft heappel l
at e
j
ur i
sdi ct ionoft heSupr emeCour t,excepti ncasesi nvol vingi nt er pret ati
on
oft heConst i
tut ion, wasunder standabl ynotaccept edbyt heGov er nment
ofI ndi a.
In1972, theDMKwasdi videdi ntot wof act i
ons, t
heDMKandt heAI ADMK.
TheDr av idianmov ementi snowmor econcer nedwi thmai ntenanceand
cont inuat ionofwhati snor mal lyref er redt oast heTami lident ity.Some
criti
csar eoft heopi niont hat'Itisar ev oltagai nstt hecent reandt hesum
total ofcent re'spol icieswhi chseekt oper pet uat et hemi dland' s
domi nat i
onoft hecoast l
ands' .
TelenganaMov ement
Regar di ngt hepol i
t i
cal andot herpr obl emsoft heTel enganar egi on, the
Stat esReor gani sat i
onCommi ssionwasoft heopi niont hati twi llbei nthe
i
nt erestofbot hAndhr aandTel engana, ifTel enganai scar vedoutasa
separ atest at e.Howev er,a' Gent leman' sAgr eement 'reachedbet weent he
l
eader sofAndhr aandTel enganamadet hel atterapar tofAndhr aPr adesh.
Undert hisagr eement ,thepeopl eofTel enganar egioni nt hest at e
Assembl ywer et of or m aRegi onal Commi tteet odeal withmat ters
concer ni ngt hei rr egi on.Theent i
rer evenuef r om t hisr egi onwast obe
spentf ort hedev elopmentoft hear eaconcer nedandr ecr uitment st o
cer tainpost swer et obemadef r
om amongTel enganapeopl eonl y.
Besi desei theraChi efMi nisteroraDeput yChi efMi nisterwast obemade
from amongt heTel enganai nhabi tant s.
Sev er al fact or shav econt r i
but edt ot hedev elopmentofaf eel i
ngofsub-
regional ism i nt heTel enganar egion.Fact orssuchascul tural ,histor icaland
economi coneshav eaddedanewdi mensi ont owhatshoul dbecal led
politicsoft hel anguage.Di ff
er ent' at ti
tudi nal subcul t
ur es' bet weent he
peopl eofAndhr aandTel enganaar ear esul toft hesef act or s.For rest er
say s, "Hi stor i
cal andeconomi cf act or spr oducesub- r
egi onal pr obl emsand
encour aget hegr owt hofcompel l
ingpol iti
cal sub- cul tures" .
TheTel enganaagi tationof1969wasagai nsteconomi cexpl oitat i
onand
pol i
t i
cal domi nat ionoft hepeopl eofAndhr aov ert hatofTel engana.The
agit ati
onwasmor eaggr av atedbyt hei nt ra-Congr esspol iticsoft hest ate.
Thedi ssi dentCongr essl eader sundert hel eader shi pofChennaReddy
conv ertedt heTel enganaPr ajaSami t
hi int oamassmov ement .
Thej udgementoft heSupr emeCour tin1972uphol di ngt heMul ki rulesfor
theTel enganar egi onspar kedof fanagi tat ioni nt heAndhr ar egi on.Andhr a
want ed' theel i
mi nat i
onofal lconcessi ons, r ootandbr anch' whi let he
Tel enganaNGOsdemandedf ullimpl ement at i
onoft heMul ki rules.
Ther esi gnat ionoft hemi nist ersf rom t heAndhr ar egi onr esul tedi nt he
procl amat ionoft hePr esi dent 'sr uleint hest at e.Ul t i
mat ely, asi x-poi nt
formul awasar rivedatt opl easebot ht hef act ionsoft hest ate.Thus, i
tis
seent hatt heaccept anceoft hepr i
nci pleofl ingui sticst at eshasl edt oa
situat i
ont hathasof tenbeenconsi der edasdet ri
ment al tot hegr owt hof
nat ional economi cpl anni ng.
Mahar asht raMov ement
TheShi vSenaundert hel eader shipofBal Thacker ayhasbeenbehi ndt he
mov ementofMahar asht raf ort heMahar asht rianssi nce1966.Thi s
mov ementi sof tendescr ibedbysomecomment at or sast he' cr ystal li
sati
on
ofasub- nat i
onal ism f or gedbyt hepr imor di al sent i
ment sofl anguageand
reli
gi on'.Asami li
tantpr essur egr oup, theShi vSenahasbeenqui te
successf ul inappeal ingt ot her egi onal consci ousnessamongt he
Mahar asht rians.I ti sdemandi ngapr ogr ammeofsoci al andeconomi c
transf ormat i
onf ort hepeopl eofMahar asht ra.Unl esst he' Sonsoft heSoi l
Theor y'issuccessf ullymetbyeconomi cpr ogr ammesandpol i
tical and
soci al mov ement s, thist heor ymi ghtcr eat easi tuat ionwher eet hnocent ric
feel i
ngsmi ghtul timat elyr esul tint hef r
agment at i
onoft hev er yf ramewor k
ofnat ional int egr ation.My ronWei nerobser v es, 'int er-st atemi gr ationi n
Indiahascr eat edanewt ensi oni nt hecompl exr el ationshi pt hatexi sts
bet weenmoder nisat ionandi nt egr ati
on.Sol ongast hesenseofr egi onal
i
dent it
ywasnotwel l articul at ed, I
ndi answer egener allydi sposedt obe
toler antt owar ds, ormor eof t eni ndi fferentt ot hosei ndi vidual sspeaki ng
otherl anguagesandsubscr ibi ngt oot hercul tur al tradi tionswhoent ered
thei rstat est owor kandset tl
e' .
TheMahaVi darbhaMov ementi nMahar asht rai sdemandi ngasepar ate
stat ef ort heVi dar bhar egi on.Theyar epr ot est ingagai nstt hest ep- mot herly
treat mentt ot heirr egi onbyt heMahar asht rast at e.I nf act ,t heirdemandf or
asepar at est atehasar isenf rom t heeconomi cbackwar dnessoft his
regi on.I n1968, for tyfivemember sofpar l
iamentbel ongi ngt ot hev ar i
ous
pol i
t i
cal par tiessubmi ttedamemor andum t ot hePr imeMi ni ster
demandi ngar ef erendum f orasepar at eVi dar bhast at e.
Jhar khandMov ement
Thedemandf oraJhar khandst ateconsi st i
ngoft ribal domi nat edar easof
Orissa, Bihar, WestBengal andMadhy aPr adeshwasputbef or etheSt ates
Reor gani sati
onCommi ssion.TheCommi ssionwhi l
econcedi ngt heset ti
ng
upofaSpeci alDev el opmentBoar df ort hedi strictsofChhot anagpurand
Sant hal Par ganas, rejectedt hedemandf orasepar atest atehood.The
Jhar khandst atewast oconsi stofsev endi strictsofsout hBi har ,three
districtsofnor t
hernOr i
ssa, twodi st r
ictsofMadhy aPr adeshandsome
areasofWestBengal .Thesuppor tersoft hi s
mov ementar guet hatt hepeopl ebel ongi ngt ot hisar eahav enotonl y
cultur al,geogr aphical andhi stor i
cal l
inkages, theyal soconsi stofone-
four thoft het otaltribal populat i
onofI ndi a.
Thismov ementcoul dbet racedbackt ot heBi rsaMundaMov ementoft he
l
at e1890s.Thr eef act orssuchasadmi nist rativeuni tyoft her egi
on,
expl oitationoft her esour cesandt hepeopl eoft hisr egionbyt heout si
der s,
andt heet hnicdi f
fer encesbet weent hepeopl eofJhar khandandt heot her
areashav econt ri
but edt ot hesuccessoft hemov ement .Thenoni nduction
oft het ribal populat ioni ntother egional dev elopmentpr ogr ammeshasal so
aggr av atedt hesi tuat ion.A
numberofor ganisat ionssuchasBi rsaSev aDal ,Jhar khandMor chaand
Jhar khand
Mukt iAndol anhav ei njectedanewspi ri
tint ot heJhar khandMov ement .The
differencesbet weennon- Chri
st i
ant ribalsandChr i
stiant ri
bal s, mi cro-
i
dent ifi
cat i
onoft hel eader swi t
ht heirownt ribeandadmi nistr ati
ve,
economi candpol i
tical opposi ti
ont ot hemov ementnot withst andi ng, t
he
Jhar khandmov ementev ennowposesaser ioust hreatt ot hedev elopment
ofani nt egrated
political cultureoft her egion.
TheAssameseMov ement
Thel i
ngui sti
cmov ement sinAssam becamepr omi nenti nthe1960sand
thenin1972.Thei ntr
oduct i
onofAssameseast heof f i
ciall
anguageoft he
statespar kedof fanti
-Bengal iri
otsthroughouttheBr ahmaput ravall
ey.This
mov ementwasl edbyt heAl lAssam St udent
sUni onwhent heAssam
Assembl yunani mouslypassedar esol
utiontoestablishasepar at
e
universit
yf ortheBengal i-
speaki ngCachardistri
ctin1972, i
twasopposed
bytheAASU.Theycr i
tici
sedt heAssam Assembl yfor' f
aili
ngtogivedue
recogniti
ont ot heAssamesel anguage'.Theydeclaredt hatthi
sresoluti
on
woul d'endanger 'theexistenceofAssam andt heAssamesepeopl e.The
AssameseGov ernment '
spolicyofconcedi ngtothedemandsoft heAASU
wasopposedbyt heBengal ipopul at ionoft hest at e.I twasal socr i
tici sed
bytheBodoagi tationi st s.
Sincemi d-sev ent ies, theBodoagi tationhast akenaser ioust ur n.The
Bodosopposedt hepol icyofAssami sat i
on.Si nce1979, theAASUhasbeen
mor econcer nedaboutt hemi grant sf rom ot herI ndi anst at esandf rom
outsidet hecount ry .
Anof f
ici al repor toft heGov ernmentofI ndi afor1980- 81acknowl edgedt he
seri
ousappr ehensi onsoft hepeopl eofAssam.TheAssamesehav ebeen
assur edt hat' thei rsoci al,cul tural andl ingui sticident ityshal l bepr eser ved'.
Varioussub- nat ional gr oupshav er ai sedt heirheadsagai nstt he
Assami sat i
onpol icy .Nosol ut i
onhas, asy et,beenf oundf orr esol v i
ngt he
Bodoagi tat ionai medatasepar atest ate.I tcoul dbesaf elyar guedt hat
mostoft hepr obl emsi nAssam, l
ikeot herr egional mov ement s, iret her e
becauseofwr ongadmi nistrat i
veandeconomi cpol i
ciesoft hegov ernment .
Punj abMov ement
Thedemandf oraSi khst atewasof ficiallyadopt edbyt heAkal i Dal in1946.
It
sr esol ut i
ondemanded' thepr eser v ationandpr ot ectionoft her eligi ous,
cultural andeconomi candpol it
ical right soft heSi khnat ionandt he
creat i
onofaSi khSt at e'.TheCabi netMi ssi onr eject edal l proposal sai med
atthedi v i
si onofI ndi a.I t,howev er, suggest edaconf eder ationt y peof
const i
t utional sy st em.TheVi ceroywasnotpr epar edt oacceptt hedemand
forani ndependentSi khst at ewi thint heCommonweal th.
TheSi khl eader sdemandedapr ov incet osaf eguar dt heircul tural and
social tradi tionswi thi nt hef ramewor koft heI ndi anf eder ation.Punj abwas
declaredabi l
i
ngual st ateundert heSacharf ormul a.Thi sf or mul a
emphasi sedbot hPunj abi andHi ndi asmedi um ofi nst ruct i
on.Thi swas
alsoappr eci atedbyt heSi khcommuni ty.Ther oleoft heHi nducommunal
organi sat ions, att hi sst age, wasmai nlyr esponsi bl ef oraggr av at ingt he
demandsf ort hePunj abi Suba.Theseor gani sat i
onsaskedt heHi ndusof
Punj abt odecl ar eHi ndi ast heirmot hert ongue, althoughathome, they
conv ersei nPunj abi .TheAkal isputt hei rdemandf oraPunj abi Subabef ore
theSt at esReor gani sat i
onCommi ssi on.
Duringt hef ift
ies, ther ewer econf r
ont ationsbet weent heAkal isandt he
vari
ousHi nduor gani sat ionsdemandi ngPunj abi SubaandMahaPunj ab
respect iv ely.Itwast heonl yst atewher et hedemandf oraPunj abi speaki ng
statewasopposedbyl ar gesect ionsoft hepopul at i
on, whi chspoket he
Punj abi language.Accor dingt otheCommi ssion, '
Thepr obl em ofl anguage
i
nt hePunj abi spr imar ilyoneoft he' scr ipt sandi nt hisbat tleofscr ipt s,
sent i
menti sar ray edagai nstsent i
ment '
.TheSRCul ti
mat elyr eject edt he
demandf oraPunj abi Suba.Thi sr epor twas
consi der edasa' decr eeofSi khanni hilat i
on'.Sar dar Hukam Si ngh, whol ater
becamet hespeakeroft heLokSabha, obser v edon17December1955i n
theLokSabha' Ourcasehasnev erbeenconsi der edonmer it.Ther ewas
alway sthatl ur kingsuspi cioni nt hemi ndsofourl eader sandsubsequent l
y,
i
nt hemi ndsofourcount rymenal sot hatper hapswear enotl oy al tothis
count r
y .
Wehav esomeev i
ldesi gnsandwehav esomet ruckwi thsome
foreignpower ’.React ingt othedemandf ort hePunj abi Suba, thet hen
PrimeMi ni sterJawahar l
al Nehr udecl ar edont hef looroft heLokSabhat hat
suchademand, eveni fmadeont helanguagebasi s, woul dbeacommunal
demand. React i
ngt ot hedemandsoft heAkal i Dal in1965, af ewday s
bef oret heI ndo- Pakwar ,theGov er nmentofI ndi aappoi nt edacabi netSub-
commi tteet oconsi dert hequest i
onofPunj abi Saba.TheSub- commi tt
ee
wasi nf av ourofachangeofboundar yi nPunj abonal inguist i
cbasi s.
TheCongr essWor kingCommi tteepassedar esol ut i
oni nsuppor tofa
Punj abi speaki ngst atei n1966.Accor di ngl y
,t hest atewasr eor gani sedon
1stNov ember1966.Howev er,theexcl usi onofChandi gar handcer tain
otherPunj abi speaki ngar easoft hest at ebecamet heboneofcont entioni n
thepost- 1966per i
od.
Aftert hedeat hofMast erTar aSi ngh, asmal l factionoft heAkal iDal
demandedasov ereigni ndependentst at e.Thr oughout1970s, Punj abwas
compar ativel yf reefrom anyl anguageagi tation.Thepr esentphaseoft he
Sikhagi tationi sl i
nkedwi tht heAnandpurSahi bResol ut i
onof1973.Thi s
wasendor sedbyt heAkal iDal in1978.Thi sr esol ut i
onemphasi sedt hat
besi desDef ence, For eignAf fairs, Communi cat ionsandCur rency ,thepower
tol egislatev is-a- v
isr estof
thesubj ect s( depar t
ment s)shoul drestex cl
usi velywi thPunj ab.I tshoul d
hav er ightt of ramei t
sownconst ituti
on.I trev i
v edt hesepar atenat ion
theor y.Theot heraspect soft her esolut i
onwer eregar dingcent re-state
relations, transf erofChandi gar h, all
otmentofr i
verwat ersofPunj aband
enact mentofanAl lI
ndi aGur udwar aAct .Thesi t
uat i
oni nPunj abst i
ll
cont inuest obehi ghl yfluidandv olati
le.
IndianFeder alism andSt ateAut onomy
Sixt
yt hr
eeyearsofI
ndependencehav ewit
nessedtremendouschanges
andt her
eisimmediateneedt ohav eafr
eshl ooki
nani nt
rospect
ivespir
it
attheCentreStat
erelati
onsbot hinthecontextofvari
ous
recommendat i
onsoft heSarkari
aCommi ssionandf or
mationofthree
mor enewstatesinrecentyears.
India,asanat i
on,hasbeenundergoi
ngaradi
calt
ransformati
on
unpr ecedentedini
tsscal
e,sweepandint
ensi
ty,
duringthelastone-decade
sincet helaunchi
ngofthepackageofneweconomicreformsinmi d-1991.

Str
ucturalarr
angement sandclearl
ydefinednor msandpr ocedures
embodiedi ntheConstit
uti
onhav eprovi
dedt hegui del
inesforIndian
fl
edgingfederal
ism butiti
si nt
heoperatingdy namicsofCent re-Stat
e
rel
ati
onshipthanoneseest hetr
uenatureofI ndianfederalequationat
thr
eeoper ati
nglevel
s,viz.
,poli
ti
cal
,constit
uti
onal andpr ocedural
.

Thepol i
ti
cal orpolit
ico-consti
tut
ionalpendul
um ofIndi
anfederalsystem
hasbeenr elentlesslyswingingtowardsast r
ongCentreforthelastfi
ve
decadesandI ndiahasbecomewhatK.Sant hanam cal
led“Centre
ParamountFeder ation”inviewofthepar amountneedtomai nt
aintheunit
y
andintegri
tyofI ndia.

Alli
snotwel lwit
hthepresentf
ederal
syst
em.Empiri
calevi
denceexist
sto
provethattheUnionvestedwit
henormousfi
nancepowersmightuse
fi
nanci
al l
everagetostar
v et
hestat
esgover
nedbypoli
ti
calpart
iesofother
complexionandhue.

Ther ei saneedt odev iseaper manentmechani sm, whi chwoul densur ea

bettershar ingofeconomi ccakesot hatthest at esdonotbecomet he
perpet ual war dsoft heCent reeconomi cally
.Recentr iseofr egional i
sm
cannotbev iewedasat hr
eatt oourf eder alsyst em butasar eaction
againstov er -cent ral
isat i
onanddemandf oramor ebal anceddev elopment
ofthev ar i
ousst ates.
TheUni onandSt aterel
at i
onscanbemademor est ableandf aironly
whent hepol i
tical partiesandt hepeopl ear eact iv elyinv ol
v edatal l l
evels.
Union- stater elationscanbei mprov edwhent her ei sgr eat ercooper ati
on
andcoor dinat ionbet weent het wof orgoodandef fectivegov ernance.
Tensi onAr easofUni on-StateRelations
Appoi nt mentofgov er nors,all
ocationofr esour cesf rom Cent retoSt at
es,
deploy mentofCent ral Poli
ceFor cesandi mposi t i
onofPr esident ’
sr ulein
theSt at esar esomeoft hemai nirritantsinCent r e-Stater elations.
Gov ernor sar ei ncreasi ngl
ybecomi ngconst it
utional redundanci esandar e
perceiv edast hewhi ppi ngboy soft heUni onGov er nment ,doinga
commandper for mancewher everdifferentpar tiesar er uli
ngatt heCent re
andst atelev els.
Demandsoft heSt ates
Thoughtheproblem i
sgeneral
lyt
ermed‘
Uni
on-St
aterel
ationshi
p’,t
hereis
nounanimit
yamongt heStatesonmanyi
ssuesandhencet hedisputeis
notbet
weenUni ongovernmentononesi
deandtheseveralStat
e
gover
nmentsont heother.

Thenon-CongressChiefMinist
ersheldaseri
esofconclavesthr
oughthe
1980sinVij
ayawada,CalcuttaandSri
nagar,whi
leaproposedconclav
ein
Amrit
sarwasov ert
akenbyt hespreadofter
rori
sm i
ntheSt at
e.

Att hesefor
ums,thenon- CongressChi efMi ni
stersforgedstrategiesf
or
j
ointact i
onsandar t
icul
atedtheirconcer nsandagendasf orfederal
reformsmost l
yrelati
ngtor el
ieffrom arbit
rarydismissalsbythe
Presidenti
ali
nter
vent i
onintheSt ateadmi nist
rati
onunderAr ticl
e356ofthe
Const i
tut
ionandfiscalautonomywi t
haugment edshar einrevenue
resourcesandenlargedroleint heplanningpr ocess.

Forexampl e, aconf erenceofnon- Congr essChi efMi nistersforthesecond

ti
meinCal cut taon15December1987depl oredtheuni l
ateralformulat
ion
bytheCent reoft heter msofreferenceoft heNinthFi nanceCommi ssi
on
andappoint edawor kinggroupchai r
edbyWestBengal FinanceMi nist
er
Asim DasGupt atopr eparealt
ernativeter msofr eferencekeepi nginv i
ew
theneedsoft heSt ates.TheChi efMi ni
st ersfel
tthatt heuni l
ateralacti
onof
theCentr
ev iolatedtheneut ralr
oleoft heCommi ssionasani nter
government al agencyi ntunewi t
ht hespi ri
tofAr ti
cle280oft he
consti
tut
ion.

Terr
it
orial
lybasedethnicmov ement s,especial
l
yi nthenorth-
westandt he
nort
h-eastposedseriouschallengestoI ndi
anfeder al
ism i
nav er
yacut e
wayinthe1980sundert heregimesofI ndir
aGandhi andRaji
vGandhi these
movement s,especi
all
yi nPunjab,Assam, Mizoram andJammuand
Kashmirtookseparatisttur
nsi ntheform ofagitati
ons,ter
ror
istvi
olence,
andinsurgency.

Ext
remepr essurewasmount edbythesepar at
istsi
nspir
edandai dedfr
om
acr
ossinternat
ionalborder
s.Inmid-1980s,
theRaj i
vGandhi gov
ernment
ent
eredintoaser i
esofaccordswiththemajorr egi
onalpart
iesor
movement sinPunjab,Assam,Mizoram andTripuratodif
fusethecri
si
s.

ThePunjabAccor
d,betweenRajivGandhiandtheAkaliDall
eaderSant
Harchar
anSinghLongowal,
signedinJuly1985proposedthetransf
erof
Chandigarh,thej
ointcapitalofPunjabandHar yana,tothef or
meri nli
euof
thecedingofsomeHi ndi-speakingareast ot
helatt
er;ther ef
erenceofthe
AnandpurSahi bResoluti
onoft heAkaliDalongreat
erSt ateautonomyt o
theSarkariaCommi ssiononCent r
e-St
ateRelati
ons;theexpansi onofthe
j
urisdi
ctionoftheJusticeRanganat hMi shraCommi ssi
oni nquir
ingintot
he
Nov ember1984ant i
-SikhriotsinDelhii
nt hewakeofMr s.Gandhi’
s
assassinati
ontoincludesimi l
ardistur
bancesinBokar oandKanpur ;the
enactmentofanAl l-
IndiaGur udwaraAct ,
etc.

TheAssam- Accor dsignedi

nAugust1985bet weentheHomeSecr etary
R.D.Pradhanandt heAssam agit
at i
onl eader
sprovi
dedf ordetect
ionand
deleti
onofthenamesoff or
eignintr
uder sint
oAssam wi ththebase-
date
forthi
soper ati
onfixedonJanuary1, 1966.Thosemi grat
ingtoAssam
earli
ertothedatewer etoberegulari
zedpr ovi
dedtheirnamesappear edin
theelector
al r
oll
sof1967.

Thecut-offpointear l
i
eri nsi
stedonbyt heagi tati
onistswast obe
determinedont hebasi soft heNat i
onal RegisterofCi ti
zenshipof1957and
the1952el ectoralrol
ls.Thegov ernmenthadear li
erinsist
edonMar ch25,
1971,i.
e.,t
hosewhoent eredAssam f rom nei ghbour i
ngEastPaki stan(Now
Bangladesh)af t
erthatdat ewer etobedepor ted, wi
tht herat
ioncar ds
beingusedasv ali
ddocumenti ndet erminingci ti
zenship.Moreov er,t
hose
whocamet oAssam af terJanuar y1,1996( i
ncl usiv
e),upt oMarch24, 1971,
wer et
obedet ectedinter msoft heForeignersAct1946andFor eigners
(Tri
bunalOr der,1964).

Thef or
eignerssodetect
edwer etobeexcludedfrom t
heel ect
oralr
oll
sfor
10y ear
s.Inthemeanwhi l
e,theywererequi
redtoregi
sterthemselvesin
respect
ivedistr
ict
sinaccordancewithRegist
rat
ionofForeignersAct1939
andRegi st
rati
onofForei
gner sRul
es1930.

Theabov et womov ement swereinawaydi ametri

cal
lyopposedt oeach
otherinthesenset hattheSikhagit
ati
onwasf uell
edbyani ntoler
ant
reli
giousfundament al
ism seeki
ngtoterr
or i
zeanddri
veawayt heHindus
andmoder ateSikhsoutofPunjab,whil
etheAssam agitat
ionst emmed
from theparanoiaoftheAssameset hreatenedtobesubmer gedint hei
r
ownhomebyi l
legalMusli
mi nfi
lt
rat
orsfrom Bangl
adesh.

Moreover
,Raj
i
vGandhialsoenter
edint
oanaccor
dwi
tht
heMNFleader
Lal
dengaendi
ngi
nsurgency,gr
anti
ngStat
ehoodt
oMi
zor
am,andhol
ding
elect
ionsl eadi ngt otheaccessi onoft heMi zorebel ast heChiefMi nist
erof
newlycr eatedSt ate.Furt
her,thepol i
ti
cal condit
ioninJammuandKashmi r
sharplydet erioratedafter1989l eadingtoasi t
uationev enwor set hanin
PunjabandAssam.Howev er,bymi d-1990st err
oristv i
olencewasbr ought
considerabl yundercont r
oltof aci
li
tateLokSabhael ecti
onsi ntheSt atein
May -
June1996andVi dhanSabhael ecti
onsi nSept ember -Octoberthe
samey ear.Democr at
icprocessest husr eturnedtot heSt ateaftermor e
thanhal fadecadewi ththeCongr essgai ningelector al
lyinthe
parli
ament ar yelect i
onsandt heNat ional Conferencesweepi ngthepol l
sin
theAssembl yelections.

Thedemandf orgr
eat
erst
ate-
aut
onomyandal
soi
tsi
mpactont
hesmoot
h
funct
ioni
ngoftheI
ndi
anpoli
ty
Indi
anconst i
tutiondi vi
dest hepowerofgov ernancebet weenUni onand
statewhi chi smor eorl essbasedonFeder al structureoft hegov ernment.
Thisdi visionofpoweri smor eincl i
nedt owar dsuni ongov er nmentseei ng
thetradi ti
onoft heI ndi anpol i
ti
cal hist
or y
.
Today ,st atesi noneorot hercont extdemandf orgr eateraut onomy .The
centrei sst rongi nI ndianpol it
ical sy st
em.Thecent rehasbeengi ven
monopol yonal mostal l t
hesubj ect sexceptf ew, onwhi chst ateshas
reservedsayduet osomel ocal impor tance.Thecent rehas, yet,powert o
givedirect ionst ot hest atesi ncer tainmat t
er s.Thest ateshav etodepend
upont hecent ref orf inanci al assi stance.
Suchpr ov i
sionsandpr act i
cesmaket hest at esdependentupont hecent r
e
i
ncer tainci r cumst ances.I ft hest atesar egi venaut onomy , t
houghnot
accordi ngt ot hei rdemands, butaf terinit
iatingsomest udiesi nt hisfiel
d,it
willprov et obev eryef fect ivei nt hedev el
opmentatt hest atesandt hus,of
thecount ry.
States, donotgetpr opor tional shar einf i
nanci alassi stance, ifther ul
ing
governmentt hisper i
odoft ime.
Expertshav e,beensuggest ingsomechangesi ntheconst itution.Though
constitutional amendment shav er eachedt ot hescor eofacent ur y
,the
constitutionsomet imeski ckpr ov i
sionsandef fectivemachi ner i
est o
handlecr it
ical situat i
ons.
i
.Twopar t
ypol i
ticscanbei nt r
oducedasaconst it
ut i
onal measur e,atleast
atthecent re, toensur est abl egov er nment s.
i
i.Changei npr ov isionsr elat edt omi suseofcent regov ernment ’scont r
ol
overst ateandmi suseandi nef fectivenessoft heof fi
ceofGov ernorcanbe
remov ed.
i
ii.Unbal ancedgr owt hofdi fferentstatesar eduet osomepol icydef ects.
Prov isionscanbei ntroducedt oeff
ect i
vePl anningofst atesandcent r
e
throughanon- pol i
tical,independentbody .
i
v .Mor edecent ralizati
on, mor eandmor epar ti
cipat i
onofpeopl e, social
dev elopment ,prev enti
onandpr ohi
biti
onofcr i
mi nali
zat ionand
commer ci
alizat i
onofpol i
ticsar eotherar easthatposeaneedf orrev i
ewof
theI ndiaconst i
tution.
Apar tfor mt hisl ongl istofmaj orandmi norimpr ovement scanbe
prepar ed, thought hepr esentconst i
tuti
oni saf lexiblesuccess, t
ogov ern
thenat ion.
Thi spr ov i
sioni si nthei nter estofpubl i
cheal thandsaf etyoft hel iv
esof
children.I nM. C.Meht av sst ateofTami lNaducase, thesupr emecour t
heldt hatt hest ateaut hor iti
esshoul dpr otecteconomi csoci al and
humani tar
ianr ight sofmi lli
onsofchi ldren,wor kingillegallyi npubl i
cand
privatesect or .
(i
)Ar t23-Thi spr ohibitst rafficinhumanbei ngandf or cedl abour .Itisan
openf actt hatmanychi ldrenwor kasf orcedlabouri ndi fferentsect ors.
(i
i)Ar t39( c)-t ell
st hatheal thandst rengthofwor kersandt het enderageof
childrenmustnotbeabused.
(i
ii)Ar t45-pr ov i
sionf orf reeandcompul soryeducat i
onf orchi ldrenupt o
theageof14y ears.

Federalism undert heI ndianConst it

ut ion–Meani ngandFeat ures
Af ederal gov ernmenti sasy stem ofgov ernmentt hatsepar atest hepower
betweencent ralgover nmentandst ategov ernmentoft hecount ry .It
delegatescer tainresponsi bi
li
tiest oeachsect orsot hatthecent ral
gov er
nmenthasi tsownt askt odoandst ategov ernmenthasi tsown.
AQuasi -
Feder algover nmenti sasy stem ofgov ernmentt hatsepar atesthe
powerbet weencent ralgov ernmentandst ategov ernmentoft hecount ry
buti nquasi -federalgov ernment ,thecent r
algov er nmentassi gnedmor e
powert hant hest ategov ernment .I naquasi -
cent ralgov ernmentsy st
em,
thecent ralgov ernmentcani nt erferei nt hedeci sionwhi chi smadebyt he
stategov er nment .
Nat ur
eofI ndianf ederalism
Theconst itutionofI ndiahasnotdescr i
bedI ndiaasaf eder at i
on.Howev er,
Articl
e1ofI ndianconst ituti
ondescr ibesI ndiaasa‘ ’UnionofSt at es.’’Thi
s
meansI ndi aisauni oncompr isi ngofv ar i
ousst at eswhi char eani ntegral
partofi t.Her e,thest atescannotbr eakawayf r
om t heuni on.Theydonot
hav ethe powert o secede f rom t he uni on.I nat rue f eder at i
on,t he
constit
ut i
nguni tsort hest at
eshav ethef r
eedom t ocomeoutoft heuni on.
Indi
ai snotat ruef eder algov er nmentbecausei tcombi nesf eat uresofa
federalgov er nmentandt hef eat uresofuni tarygov ernmentwhi chcanal so
becal ledasaquasi -feder al gov ernment .
Feder al Feat ur esofI ndi anConst itution
1.Twoset sofGov ernment -Ther ear e2set sofgov ernmenti nI ndi aand
thati suni ongov er nmentand cent ralgov ernment .Cent ralgov ernment
l
ooksaf t
ert hewhol ecount ryandst ategov ernmentmai nl ywor ksf orthe
states.Wor ki ngofbot hgov er nment sar edifferent.
2.  
 Div isionofPower s
Power sbet ween cent ralgov er nmentand st ategov ernmenthav ebeen
divi
ded byConst itution ofI ndi a.The sev enth schedul e oft he I ndian
constit utionpr ov i
deshow t hedi v i
sionofpower si smadebet weenst ate
andcent ralgov er nment .Bot hcent ralandst at egov er
nment shav esepar ate
powerandr esponsi bili
ties.
The7t hschedul eofI ndianconst i
tut i
onconsi stsofuni onl ist,statel ist,and
concur r entl ist.
Unionl ist-I
tcont ainsal lt hemat tersonwhi chonl ycent ralgov ernmentcan
makel aws.
Statel ist-Itcont ai nsal lthemat tersonwhi chst ategov ernmentcanmake
l
aws.
Concur rentl i
st -
Itcont ainsal lt hemat tersonwhi chbot hcent r
alandst ate
governmentcanmakel aws.
3)Wr i
ttenConst itut i
on- Indi ahast heoneoft hel argestconst i
tutioni nthe
worldwhi chconsi stof395ar ticles22par t
sand12schedul es.Ev eryar t
icl
e
ofIndi anconst i
tut ioni scl earlywr i
ttendownandhasbeendi scussedi nfull
detail
.
4)Supr emacyoft heConst i
tut ion- TheConst i
tuti
onofI ndiai sregar dedas
supreme l aw ofl and.No l aw can be made orpassed agai nstt he
constit utionofI ndi a.TheConst itutionofI ndi ai sabov eal lciti
zensand
organi zat i
onsoft hecount ry.
5)Supr emej udi ciar y
TheSupr emeCour tofI ndi ai sr egar dedast hesuper i
orcour toft hecount r
y.
Thedeci sionoft heSupr emeCour ti sbi ndi
nguponal lcour tsandi thast he
powert oi nt er prett hear ticlesoft heconst i
tution.
6)Bicamer al-legisl ation
InIndi a,t hel egi slat urei sbi camer al .Ithast wohousesandt hatar eLok
Sabha and Raj y a Sabha.The upperhouse oft he par li
amentwhi ch
represent st hest at esi sRaj y aSabhaandt hel owerhouseoft hepar l
iament
whichr epr esent st hepeopl eingener al isLokSabha.
Theconst i
tut ionofI ndiaconsi st soff ederalism f eatur essuchasdi vi
sion
ofpower ,supr emej udi ci ary ,twosetofgov ernment ,bicamer al-l
egi slation
etcwhi chcl ear lyshowsi tsFeder alnat ur e.Thedi visionofpowerbet ween
stat eandcent r algov er nmentshowst hef eder alnat ur
eoft heI ndi aand
supr emacyofj udi ciaryshowst heabsol utepoweroft hesupr emecour t
thati tsdeci sioni ssupr emeandbi ndi nguponal lcour ts.Howev er,t he
power sgi vent ot hecent r al gov ernmenthav emor ewei ghtincompar isont o
thest at egov ernment .
Non- Feder al Feat ur esofI ndi anConst itut i
on
1)Di v i
sionofpoweri snotequal
InI ndia cent ralgov er nmenthas been gi v en mor e power st han st ate
gov ernment .Usual lyi nf eder algov er nmentpower sar edi v ided equal ly
bet weent het wogov er nment .
2)Si ngl eConst itut ion
Anot hernon- feder alf eat ureofI ndi anconst i
tutioni st hatitonlyhav esi ngle
const it
ut ion.Ther ear enosepar ateconst i
tutionsf ort hest at
esi nIndi aand
i
ti sappl icabl et obot ht heuni onasawhol eandt hest ates.Inat ruef eder al
sy stem t her ear esepar at econst ituti
onsf ort hest at eanduni on.
3)Theconst it
ut ioni snotst rictl
yr igid
Anot hernon- feder al feat ur eofI ndi anconst i
tuti
oni st hatitcanbeamended
byt heI ndi anpar li
ament .Par li
amentonmanysubj ectmat ter sdoesnot
need t he appr ov aloft he st atel egislat ur
et o amend t he const itution.
Howev er ,int ruef eder algov ernmentbot hst ateandcent r
algov ernment
takepar ti nt heamendmentoft heconst ituti
onwi t hr espectt oal lmat t
er s.
Ther efor e,thoseconst i
t ut i
onsar er i
gidandnoteasyt oamend.
4)Cent ral cont rol ov erst at es
Anot her non- feder al f eat ur e of I ndi an const i
tut ion is t hat cent ral
gov ernmenthascont r olov erst at egov ernment .Thi smeanst hatanyl aw
made by t he cent ralgov er nmenthas t o be f ollowed by t he st ate
gov ernmentandt hest at egov ernmentcannoti nt er fereint hemat t ersof
cent ralgov ernment .
5)Si ngl eCi tizenshi p
InI ndi aci t
izensonl yhav esi ngleci t
izenshi poft hewhol ecount r
y .Buti n
truef eder algov er nment , citizensar eal l
ot eddualci tizenship.Fi rst,theyar e
theci t
izensoft hei rr espect ivepr ovi
ncesorst at esandt hent heyar et he
citizensoft heircount ry .
6)Par l
iamentdoesnotr epr esentt hestat esequal ly
InI ndi at heupperhouse( Raj yaSabha)andl owerhouse( LokSabha)donot
hav eequal repr esent at ioni nst at es.Thest atewhi chi smor epopul oushav e
mor er epr esent at ivesi nt heRaj yaSabhat hant hest atewhi chi s  less
popul ous.But ,i nat rue f eder algov er nmentt he upperhouse oft he
l
egi sl at urehasequal represent at ionf rom t heconst itutingst at es.
7)Uni fiedj udiciar y
TheI ndi anj udi cialsy stem i suni fiedori ntegr atedandsupr emecour tof
Indiai sr egar dedast hehi ghestcour tofj usticei nt hecount ry.Hi ghcour t s
andal lot hersubor dinatecour tsar eundert hesuper visionoft hesupr eme
cour t.   
8)Pr ocl amat ionofemer gency
Presi dentofI ndiahasbeengi v enemer gencypower sbyt heconst itutionof
India.Howev er, hecanexecut esuchpower sanddecl areemer gencyi nt he
count r y undert hree condi ti
ons.Once emer gency i s decl ar ed by t he
presi dent t he cent ralgov ernment become domi nant and t he st at e
gov er nment scomeundert het ot alcont rolofi t.Thest at egov er nment s
l
oset hei rliber tyandt hisisagai nstt hepr inciplesofaf eder algov er nment .
 
 
WhatmakesI ndi aQuasi -Feder al?
Ther ear emanyexampl eswhi chcl ear l
yshowst hatt heI ndi anconst i
tution
hasf eder alf eat uresbuti tal soshowst hati thasbeenev identwi thquasi -
feder alf eat urest oo.Someoft heexampl eswhi chshow t hatI ndi ai sa
quasi -feder al aref oll
owedas-
– Di visi onofpowerbet weent hecent ralandst ategov er nmentbutt he
cent r al gov ernmenthasbeengi v enmor epowert hant hest ategov ernment .
–Par liamentcanov er r
idet hel awswhi char epassedbyt hest atesf ort he
reasonofnat ional i
nterest .
–Resi dual power sar ev est edwi t ht hecent ralgov ernment .
–Maj ort axat ionpower sar eal sov est edwi tht hecent ral gov ernment .
– Par li
amentdoesnotr epr esentt hest atesequal ly,howev er ,inapur e
feder algov er nment t he upper house of t he l egi slat ure has equal
repr esent ationf rom t heconst itut i
ngst at es.Buti nourRaj yaSabha,t he
stat esdonothav eequalr epr esent at i
on.Thepopul ousst at ehasmor e
repr esent ativesi ntheRaj yaSabhat hatt hel esspopul ousst at es.–I nI ndi a,
cit
izensar eal lottedsi ngleci ti
zenshi pwhi chi snotaf eat ur eofpur ef eder al
gov er nment .Asi nt r
uef eder alnat i
on, citizensar eal lotteddualci tizenshi p.
First ,t heyar et heci tizensoft hei rpr ov i
ncest hent heyar et heci tizensof
theirnat ion.
Const itutional Debat eonFeder al ism
Dr.Ambedkarl isted sev er alf eat ur es oft he dr aftconst itut i
on whi ch
mi tigat edt her i
gidityandl egal ism off eder alism i nhi shi stor icspeechi n
theconst ituentassembl yi nnov ember1949.Thef ollowi ngf eat uresar e
followsas:
  Arti
cle 246 ofI ndi
an consti
tut
ion distr
ibut
es legisl
ati
ve power
between union and states.Itgives union exclusiv
e powert o
l
egislat
ei nrespectofmat ter
scontainedi nli
st1andconcur r
ent
powert ol egi
slateinrespectofmat ter
scont ai
nedi nlist3of
schedule7oft heconst
ituti
on.

 Par
li
amentisgi
venpowert
olegi
sl
ateonexcl
usi
vel
yst
atesubj
ect
s
matt
ersnamely
:

 Arti
cle249ofI
ndi
anconsti
tut
iongi
vespowertopar l
i
amentwi
th
respectt
omatt
eri
nthest
ateli
sti
nthenat
ional
int
erest
.

 Arti
cle250ofI ndianconsti
tut
iongivespowertoparli
amentin
respectofany mat t
erinthe stat
el i
stifa procl
amati
on of
emer gencyi
sinoperati
on.

 Ar
ti
cle252ofIndi
anconst
it
uti
ongivespowertopar l
iamentt
o
l
egi
slat
etwoormor
est
atesbyconsentoft
hosest
ates.

 Art
icl
e352and353st at
esaboutprovi
si
onsforthepr
ocl
amat
ion
ofemergencyandt
heeff
ectofsuchpr
oclamat
ion.

 Thereareprovi
sionsincl
udedi
ntheconst
it
uti
onwhi
char
etobe
operat
iveunl
esspar l
i
amentmadeanycontrar
ypr
ovi
si
onorwor
d
tothesameeffect.

 Arti
cl e368ofI ndianconst i
tutionst atesaboutpr ovisi
onsr egarding
theamendmentoft heconst i
tut i
on.
DrAmbedkarmadei tcleart hatthepr ov i
si onsmaket heI ndianconst it
ution
bot huni taryaswel lasf ederalaccordi ngt other equi rement soft i
meand
circumst ances.Hef urtherst at
edt hati nnor malt imesi tisf r
amedt owor k
asaf eder alsy stem.Buti nt i
mesofwari tisdesi gnedast omakei tas
thoughi twasauni t
ar ysy st
em.Heal somadei tcleart hatAr ti
cl e250, 352,
353ofI ndi anconst i
tutioncanonl ybeexer cisebyt hePr esidentofI ndia
andr equi rest heappr oval ofbothhousesoft heI ndianpar l
iament .
TheI ndiangov ernmenti squasi -
federal innat ureasi tcont ainsf eaturesof
singlecitizenshi p,asingl econst i
tuti
on, andf l
exibili
tyofconst itutionwhi ch
arenott hef eat uresofapur ef ederalgov ernmentwhi chi sonlyf ollowedi n
theUni tedSt atesofAmer i
ca.Althought heI ndiangov ernmentcont ains
featuresofFeder algov ernmentsuchasdi v i
sionofpower ,par t
lyr i
gidit
yof
const i
tutioni tdoesnotconsi deraspur ef ederal gover nmentbutasquasi -
feder al gov er nment .
Cent ral Stat eRel at i
on-Legi slat iv e,Admi ni strativeandFi nanci al
InIndi a, bef or et hef or mat i
onoft hef eder at iont heSt at eswer enot
‘
sov er eign’ ent ities.
Assuch, ther ewasnoneedf orsaf eguar dst opr otect‘ St ates’ .Onaccount
oft heexi genci esoft hesi tuat ion, theI ndi anf eder ationhasacqui red
char act erist icswhi char equi tedi fferentf rom t heAmer icanmodel .
(i
)Ther esi duar ypower sundert heI ndi anConst itutionar eassi gnedt ot he
Uni onandnott otheSt at es.Howev er, i
tmaybenot edt hatt heCanadi an
Const it
ut i
ondoest hesamemodeofdi strib¬ut ingt hepower scannotbe
consi der edaser odi ngt hef eder al nat ur eoft heConst itution.
(i
i)Thought her eisadi visionofpower sbet weent heUni onandt heSt ates,
theI ndi anConst it
ut ionpr ov i
dest heUni onwi thpowert oexer cisecont rol
overt hel egi sl ationaswel last headmi nist rat i
onoft heSt at es.Legi slation
byaSt atecanbedi sal lowedbyt hePr esi dent ,whenr eser v edbyt he
Gov er norf orhi sconsi der ation.
TheGov ernori sappoi nt edbyt hePr esi dentoft heUni onandhol dsof fice
“dur inghi spl easur e”.Agai nt hesei deasar ef oundi nt heCanadi an
Const it
ut i
ont houghnoti nt heConst itut i
onoft heU. S. A.
(i
ii
)TheConst ituti
onofI ndi al ay sdownt heConst itut ionoft heUni onas
wel l ast heSt at es, andnoSt at e, exceptJammuandKashmi r, hasar ightt o
det er mi nei tsown( Stat e)Const itut i
on.
(i
v)Whenconsi der i
ngt heamendmentoft heConst itutionwef i
ndt hat
excepti naf ewspeci ficmat ter saf fect ingt hef eder al st r
uct ure, theSt at es
neednotev enbeconsul tedi nt hemat t erofamendmentoft heConst itution.
Thebul koft heConst itut ioncanbeamendedbyaBi l
l int heUni on
Par li
amentbei ngpassedbyaspeci al maj or i
ty.
(v)I nt hecaseoft heI ndi anConst it
ut ion, whi letheUni oni sindest ruct i
bl e,
theSt atesar enot .I tispossi blef ort heUni onPar liamentt or eor gani set he
Stat esort oal tert hei rboundar iesbyasi mpl emaj or ityi nt heor dinar y
processofl egi slation.
The‘ consent ’ oft heSt ateLegi slat ur econcer nedi snotr equi red; the
Presi denthasonl yt o‘ ascer tai n’ thev iewsoft heLegi slatur esoft he
affect edSt at es.Theeasewi t hwhi cht hef eder al or gani sat i
onmaybe
reshapedbyanor di nar yl egi slat ionbyt heUni onPar liamenthasbeen
demonst r
at edbyt heenact mentoft heSt at esReor gani sat ionAct , 1956.A
l
ar genumberofnewSt ateshav e, since, beenf or med.
(i
v)Undert heI ndianConst itution, ther ei snoequal ityofr epr esent at i
onof
theSt atesi nt heCounci lofSt at es.Hence, thef eder al saf eguar dagai nst
thei nt er est soft hel esserSt at esbei ngov er r
iddenbyt hei nter est soft he
l
argerormorepopul atedStatesisabsentunderourConst
it
uti
on.I
ts
f
ederalnatur
ei sfur
theraffectedbyhavi
nganomi natedel
ementoftwelve
member sagainst238r epr
e¬sentati
vesoftheStatesandUni
onTerri
tor
ies.

Cent r
eSt at eRel ations
TheConst i
tut i
onofI ndi apr ovidesadual poli
tywi thacl eardi visionof
power sbet weent heUni onandt heSt at es, eachbei ngsupr emewi thint he
spher eal lottedt oi t.TheI ndi anf eder at ioni snott her esul tofanagr eement
bet weeni ndependentuni ts, andt heuni tsofI ndi anf eder at ioncannotl eav e
thef eder ation.
Thust heconst itutioncont ai nsel abor at epr ov i
sionst or egul atet hev ar i
ous
dimensi onsoft her elationsbet weent hecent reandt hest at es.
Ther elationsbet weencent reandst at ear edi v i
desas:
1.Legi slat i
v er elations
2.Admi nist rativer el ations
3.Fi nanci al relations
1.Cent r
eSt at eLegi slat i
v eRel at ions
Articles245t o255i nPar tXIoft heConst it
utiondeal wi tht helegi slat ive
relationsbet weent heCent reandt heSt ate.
Ext entofl awsmadebyPar l
iamentandbyt heLegi slat uresofSt ates
ThePar li
amentcanmakel awsf ort hewhol eoranypar toft het er r
itor yof
India.Ter ritor yofI ndi ai ncl udest hest at es, UTsandanyot herar eaf ort he
timebei ngi ncl udedi nt het er r
itor yofI ndi a.Wher eas, thest atel egislat ure
canmakel awsf orwhol eoranypar tofst ate.
ThePar li
amentcanal onemake‘ extrat er ri
torial l
egi slat ion’ t
hust hel awsof
thePar l
iamentar eappl i
cabl etot heI ndi anci tizensandt hei rpr oper tyi nany
par toft hewor ld.
Subj ect -
mat terofl awsmadebyPar liamentandbyt heLegi slationofSt ates
TheConst i
tut i
ondi v i
desl egi slativeaut hor i
tybet weent heUni onandt he
Stat esi nt hr eel ists-t heUni onLi st ,theSt ateLi standt heConcur rentLi st.
TheUni onl i
stconsi st sof99i tems.TheUni onPar l
iamenthasexcl usi v e
aut hor it
yt of ramel awsonsubj ect senumer at edi nt hel ist.Thesei ncl ude
foreignaf fairs, def ence, armedf or ces, communi cat ions, post sand
telegr aph, foreignt radeet c.
TheSt atel istconsi stsof61subj ect sonwhi chor dinar il
yt heSt at esal one
canmakel aws.Thesei ncludepubl i
cor der,pol ice, admi ni st r
ationofj ustice,
prison, l
ocal gov ernment s, agr icultureet c.
TheConcur rentl istcompr isesof52i temsi ncl udi ngcr imi nal andci vil
procedur e, mar ri
ageanddi vor ce, economi candspeci al planni ngt rade
unions, elect r i
city, newspaper s, books, educat ion, popul at ioncont r
ol and
fami lypl anni nget c.Bot ht hePar liamentandt heSt atel egi slat urescan
makel awsonsubj ect sgi veni nt heConcur rentl i
st, butt heCent rehasa
priorandsupr emecl ai mt ol egi sl ateoncur rentsubj ect s.I ncaseofconf li
ct
betweent hel awoft heSt ateandUni onl awonasubj ecti nt heConcur rent
l
ist, thelawoft hePar l
iamentpr ev ails.
Resi duar ypower sofl egi slation
Theconst it
utional sov est sther esiduar ypower s( subj ect snotenumer ated
i
nanyoft het hr eeLi st s)wi tht heUni onPar liament .Ther esiduar ypower s
hav ebeengr ant edt ot heUni oncont raryt ot heconv ent ioni not her
feder ationsoft hewor ld, wher et her esiduar ypower sar egi vent ot he
Stat es.Howev er ,incaseofanyconf li
ct ,whet herapar ticularmat terfalls
undert her esiduar ypowerornoti st obedeci dedbyt hecour t.
Par li
ament ’
sPowert oLegi sl
at eonSt at eLi st
Thoughunderor di nar yci rcumst ancest heCent ralGov er nmentdoesnot
possesspowert ol egi sl ateonsubj ect senumer atedi nt heSt at eLi st ,
but
undercer tainspeci alcondi ti
onst heUni onPar liamentcanmakel awsev en
ont hesesubj ect s.
a)Int heNat i
onal Inter est( Art.249)
IftheRaj y aSabhadecl ar esbyar esol ut i
onsuppor tedbynotl esst han2/ 3
ofit smember spr esentandv oting, thati ti snecessar yorexpedi enti nthe
national interestt hatt hePar liamentshoul dmakel awswi thr espectt oany
mat terenumer at edi nt heSt at eLi st( Art.249) .Af tersuchar esol ut ionis
passed, Par li
amentcanmakel awsf ort hewhol eoranypar toft het erri
tory
ofI ndia.Suchar esol ut i
onr emai nsi nf orcef oraper i
odof1y earandcan
bef ur therext endedbyoney earbymeansofasubsequentr esol ut i
on.
b)UnderPr ocl amat ionofNat i
onal Emer gency( Ar t
.250)
Par li
amentcanl egi slat eont hesubj ect sment ionedi nt heSt at eLi stwhen
thePr oclamat i
onofNat ional Emer gencyi sinoper at i
on.Howev er, thelaws
madebyt hePar li
amentundert hi spr ov i
si onshal lceaset ohav eef fecton
theexpi rat i
onofaper iodofsi xmont hsaf tert hePr oclamat i
onhasceased
tooper ate, exceptasr espect st hingsdoneoromi t
tedt obedonebef ore
theexpi ryoft hesai dper iod.
c)ByAgr eementbet weenSt at es( Ar t.252)
ThePar l
iamentcanal sol egisl ateonaSt atesubj ectift hel egisl atur esof
twoormor est at esr esol vet hati ti slawf ul ofPar l
iamentt omakel awswi th
respectt oanymat terenumer at edi nt heSt at eLi str elat i
ngt ot hoseSt ate.
Ther eaf ter ,anyactpassedbyt hePar li
amentshal lappl yt osuchst atesand
toanyot herst at ewhi chpassessuchar esol ut ion.ThePar l
iamental so
reser vest her ightt oamendorr epeal anysuchact .
d)ToI mpl ementTr eat ies( Ar t.253)
ThePar liamentcanmakel awf ort hewhol eoranypar toft het er r
itoryof
Indiaf ori mpl ement i
nganyt reat y ,int ernat i
onal agr eementorconv ent i
on
wi thanyot hercount ryorcount riesoranydeci si onmadeatany
i
nt ernat ional conf erence, associ at ionorot herbody .Anyl awpassedbyt he
Par li
amentf ort hispur posecannotbei nvalidat edont hegr oundt hati t
relatest ot hesubj ectment ionedi nt heSt at elist .
e)UnderPr ocl amat i
onofPr esi dent ’sRul e( Art.356)
ThePr esidentcanal soaut hor i
zet hePar l
iamentt oexer ciset hepower sof
theSt atel egi slat uredur ingt hePr ocl amat i
onofPr esident ’
sRul eduet o
br eakdownofconst itutional machi ner yi nast at e.Butal lsuchl awspassed
byt hePar liamentceaset ooper at esi xmont hsaf tert hePr oclamat ionof
Pr esident ’
sRul ecomest oanend.
Cent er '
scont rol ov erSt at eLegi sl at i
on
TheConst itut i
onempower st hecent ret oexer ci secont rolov ert hest ate’s
l
egi slat urei nf ol l
owi ngway s:
1.Thegov ernorcanr eser vecer t
ai nt ypesofbi l
lspassedbyt hest ate
l
egi slat uref ort heconsi der at ionoft hePr esi dent .ThePr esidentenj oys
absol ut ev et oov ert hem.
2.Bi ll
soncer t
ai nmat ter senumer at edi nt heSt at eLi stcanbei nt roducedi n
thest atel egi slatur eonl ywi tht hepr evioussanct ionoft hePr esi dentas
i
mposi ngr est rictionsonf reedom oft radeandcommer ce.
3.ThePr esi dentcandi rectt hest at est or eser vemoneybi l
lsandot her
financi al billspassedbyt hest atel egi slatur ef orhi sconsi der ationdur i
nga
financi al emer gency .
2.Cent r eSt at eAdmi nist rati
v eRel at i
ons
Theadmi ni strat i
v ejurisdi ctionoft heUni onandt heSt at eGov ernment s
ext endst ot hesubj ect si ntheUni onl istandSt at el i
str espect i
v ely.The
Const itutiont husdef i
nest hecl ausest hatdeal wi tht headmi nist r
at iv
e
relationsbet weenCent reandSt at es.
Cent reSt at eRel ationsDur i
ngNor mal Ti es
1.Execut ivePower sofSt atebeexer cisedi ncompl iancewi t
hUni onLaws:
Ar ti
cle256l aysdownt hatt heexecut ivepowerofev er ySt ateshal lbeso
exer cisedast oensur ecompl i
ancewi tht hel awsmadebyPar liamentand
anyexi st i
ngl awswhi chappl yint hatSt ate, andt heexecut ivepoweroft he
Uni onshal lext endt ot hegi vingofsuchdi rectionst oast ateasmayappear
tot heGov er nmentofI ndi at obenecessar yf ort hatpur pose.
2.Execut ivePower sofSt atenott oi nt erferewi t hExecut ivePowerofUni on:
Ar ti
cle257oft heConst i
tutionpr ov i
dest hatt heexecut i
vepowerofev ery
stat eshal lbesoexer cisedasnott oi mpedeorpr ejudi cet heexer ciseof
theexecut i
v epoweroft heUni on, andt heexecut ivepoweroft heUni on
shal l ext endt ogi vi
ngofsuchdi rect ionst oast at easmayappeart ot he
Gov ernmentofI ndi at obenecessar yf ort hatpur pose.I nshor t,theUni on
Gov ernmentcani ssuedi rectionst ot hest at eGov er nmentev enwi thr egard
tot hesubj ect senumer atedi nt hest at elist .
3.Mai ntainmeansofcommuni cat i
onofNat ional orMi li
t aryimpor t
ance:
TheUni onGov ernmentcangi vedi r ect i
onst ot hest at ewi t
hr egar dt o
const ruct ionandmai nt enanceoft hemeansofcommuni cat i
ondecl aredto
beofnat ional ormi li
tar yi mpor tance.
4.Pr otect ionoft heRai lway s: Uni oncani ssueSt at eGov ernment s
necessar ydi rectionsr egar dingt hemeasur est obet akenf ort hepr ot ect
ion
oft her ailway swi thint hej uri
sdi ctionoft heSt ate.I tmaybenot edt hatt he
expensesi ncur r
edbyt heSt at eGov er nment sf ort hedi schar geoft hese
funct ionshav etober eimbur sedbyt heUni onGov er nment .
5.Toensur ewel fareofSchedul edTr ibesi nt heSt at es: Uni oncandi rectthe
Stat eGov er nment stoensur eexecut ionofschemesessent i
al fort he
wel far eoft heSchedul edTr ibesi nt heSt ates.
6.Tosecur ei nstructioni nt hemot her -tongueatt hepr imar yst ageof
educat i
on: Uni oncandi rectt heSt at eGov ernment st osecur et hepr ov i
si
on
ofadequat ef acil
iti
esf ori nst ruct ioni nt hemot her -tongueatt hepr i
mar y
stageofeducat i
ont ochi ldrenbel ongi ngt ol ingui st icmi nor itygr oups.
7.Toensur edev elopmentoft heHi ndi language: Uni oncandi rectt heSt ate
Gov ernment st oensur et hedev el opmentoft heHi ndi l
anguage.
8.Toensur egov ernmentofaSt at ei scar ri
edoni naccor dancewi tht he
prov isionoft heConst itution: Uni oncandi rectt heSt ateGov er nment st o
ensur et hatt hegov ernmentofaSt at ei scar riedoni naccor dancewi ththe
prov isionoft heConst itution.I fanySt at ef ailedt ocompl ywi thany
direct ionsgi venbyt heUni oni nexer ciseofi tsexecut ivepower ,then
Presi dentmayhol dthat ,asi tuat i
onhasar i
seni nwhi cht heGov er nmentof
theSt at ecannotbecar ri
edoni naccor dancewi tht hepr ov isionsoft he
Const i
tut i
on.Thushemaypr ocl ai m Pr esi dent ’sRul ei nt hatSt ate.
9.Del egat i
onofUni on’ sf unct i
ont oSt at e: ThePr esi dentofI ndi acan
ent rustt ot heof ficersoft heSt at ecer tainf unct ionsoft heUni on
Gov ernment .Howev er, bef oredoi ngsot hePr esi denthast ot aket he
consentoft hest at eGov er nment .Butt hePar l
iamentcanenactl aw
aut hor izingt heCent ral Gov ernmentt odel egat ei tsf unct iont ot heSt ate
Gov ernment sori tsof ficer sirrespect iveoft heconsentofsuchSt ate
Gov ernment .Ont heot herhand, aSt at emayconf eradmi nistrative
funct ionsupont heUni on, witht heconsentoft heUni ononl y.
10.Appoi ntmentofHi ghDi gni taries: Uni onhasmaj orsayi nappoi nt ment
andr emov al ofGov ernorandappoi nt mentofJudgesofHi ghCour tand
Member sofSt at ePubl icSer v i
ceCommi ssi on.
11.Al lIndi aSer vices: Thepr esenceoft heAl l Indi aSer v i
ces-t heI ndi an
Admi ni st rativeSer v ices, Indi anpol iceSer v ices-f ur theraccor dsa
predomi nantposi tiont ot heUni onGov ernment .Themember soft hese
serv icesar er ecr uitedandappoi ntmentbyt heUni onPubl i
cSer vice
Commi ssi on.Themember soft heseser v icesar epost edonkeypost si n
thest at es, butr emai nl oy al tot heUni onGov er nment .
12.Uni ont oadj udi cat eI nter -StateRi v erWat erDi sput e: ThePar liamenthas
beenv est edwi thpowert oadj udicat eanydi sput eorcompl aintwi thr espect
tot heuse, dist ri
but ionorcont roloft hewat er sof ,ori nanyi nter-stater iver
orr i
v er -val l
ey .Int hi sr egar d, thePar liamental sor eser vest her i
ghtt o
excl udesuchdi sput esf rom t hej uri
sdi ct ionoft heSupr emeCour torot her
Cour ts.
Cent r eSt at eRel ationsDur i
ngEmer genci es
1.UnderPr esident ’sRul e: TheSt ateGov er nment scannoti gnoret he
direct ionsoft heUni onGov ernment ,ot her wi set hePr esi dentcant aket he
actionagai nstt heGov er nmentoft heSt at est atingt hatt headmi nistration
cannotbecar riedont heaccor dancewi tht hepr ov i
si onsoft heConst it
ut ion
andt huscani mposePr esi dent 'sruleont heSt at e.Insuchanev ent uality
thePr esi dentshal lassumet ohi msel fal l oranyoft hef unct i
onsoft he
stateGov er nment .
2.UnderPr oclamat i
onofNat ional Emer gency : Dur ingaPr oclamat ionof
Nat ional Emer gency ,thepoweroft heUni ont ogi vedi rect i
onsext endst o
thegi vingofdi rect i
onsast ot hemanneri nwi tht heexecut iv
epoweroft he
Stat ei st obeexer cisedr el atingt oanymat ter.
3.UnderPr oclamat i
onofFi nanci alEmer gency :Dur i
ngaPr oclamat i
onof
Financi al Emer gency ,
Uni oncandi rectt heSt at eGov er nment stoobser ve
certai ncanonsoff inanci al propr i
etyandt or educet hesal ari
esand
all
owancesofal loranycl assofper sonser v ingi nconnect i
onwi tht he
affairsoft heUni oni ncl udingt heJudgesoft heSupr emeCour tandHi gh
Cour ts.Uni onal sor equi r
esal lMoneyBi llsorFi nanci al Bill
st ober eser ved
fort heconsi der at i
onoft hePr esidentaf tert heyar epassedbyt he
Legi slat ur eoft heSt ate.
Itist hus, ev i
dentt hati nt headmi nistr ativespher et heSt at
escannotacti n
compl etei solat i
onandhav et owor kundert hedi rect ionsandi n
cooper at i
onwi tht heCent er .
3.Cent reSt ateFi nanci al Rel ations:
IndianConst itutionhasmadeel abor at epr ov isions, rel atingtot he
distribut i
onoft het axesaswel lasnon- taxr ev enuesandt hepowerof
bor rowi ng, suppl ement edbypr ov i
sionsf orgr ant s-in-ai dbyt heUni ont ot he
States.
Arti
cle268t o293deal swi tht heprovisi
onsoffinancialrelat
ionsbet ween
Cent r
eandSt ates.
TheConst i
tutiondiv i
dest het axingpower sbetweent heCent reandt he
statesasf ollows:
ThePar li
amenthasexcl usi vepowert olevytaxesonsubj ectsenumer ated
i
nt heUni onLi st,
thest at el egisl
aturehasexclusivepowert olevytaxeson
subjectsenumer atedi nt heSt at
eList,bothcanlevytaxesont hesubj ects
enumer atedi nConcur r
entLi stwher easresi
duarypoweroft axationlies
withPar l
i
amentonl y.
Distri
buti
onoft het ax-revenue
1.Dut i
esLev i
edbyt heUni onbutCol l
ectedandAppr opriatedbyt heSt at
es:
Stampdut i
esonbi ll
sofExchange, etc.,
andExcisedut i
esonmedi caland
toil
etprepar ati
onscont ainingal cohol.Thesetaxesdon’ tformt hepar tof
theConsol idatedFundofI ndia,butareassignedt othatst at
eonl y.
2.ServiceTaxar eLev i
edbyt heCent r
ebutCol l
ectedandAppr opriatedby
theCent r
eandt heSt ates.

3.TaxesLev iedasWel lasCol lectedbyt heUnion, butAssi gnedt ot he

St ates: Thesei ncl udet axesont hesal eandpur chaseofgoodsi nt he
cour seofi nter-statetradeorcommer ceort het axesont heconsi gnment
ofgoodsi nthecour seofi nter-statet r
adeorcommer ce.
4.TaxesLev iedandCol l
ectedbyt heUni onandDi stri
but edbet weenUni on
andt heSt ates:Cer tai
nt axesshal lbel evi
edaswel lascol lectedbyt he
Uni on, butt heirpr oceedsshal lbedi videdbet weent heUni onandt heSt ates
i
nacer tai
npr opor ti
on, inordert oef fectonequi tabl edi vi
sionoft he
financi al r
esour ces.Thi scat egor yincludesal ltaxesr ef err
edi nUni onList
exceptt hedut i
esandt axesr eferredt oinAr t
icl
e268, 268-Aand269;
sur char geont axesanddut i
esment ionedi nArticle271oranyCessl evi
ed
forspeci f
icpur poses.
5.Sur char geoncer taindut i
esandt axesf orpurposesoft heUni on:
Par li
amentmayatanyt i
mei ncr easeanyoft hedut iesort axesr eferredin
thosear ti
clesbyasur chargef orpur posesoft heUni onandt hewhol e
pr oceedsofanysuchsur char geshal lform partt heConsol idatedFundof
India.
Gr ants- in-
Ai d
Besi desshar i
ngoft axesbet weent heCent erandt heSt ates,the
Const ituti
onpr ov idesf orGrant s-i
n-aidt otheSt at esf rom t heCent ral
resour ces.
Ther ear et wot ypesofgr ants:-
1.St atutor yGr ants: Thesegr antsar egi venbyt hePar liamentoutoft he
Consol i
dat edFundofI ndiat osuchSt ateswhi char einneedofassi stance.
DifferentSt atesmaybegr anteddi ff
er entsums.Speci ficgrant sareal so
givent opr omot et hewel fareofschedul edt ribesi nast at
eort oraiset he
l
ev el ofadmi ni strationoft heSchedul edar east her ein( Art.
275) .
2.Di scret i
onar yGr ants: Cent erpr ovidescer taingr ant st othest at
esont he
recommendat ionsoft hePl anningCommi ssi onwhi char eatt hedi scretion
oft heUni onGov er nment .Thesear egi vent ohel pt hest atefinanci all
yto
fulfi
llplant ar get s( Art
.282) .
Effect sofEmer gencyonCent er-StateFi nanci al Rel ations:-
1.Dur i
ngNat i
onal Emer gency :ThePr esi dentbyor dercandi rectt hatall
prov i
sionsr egar di ngdi visionoft axesbet weenUni onandSt atesandgr ants
-i
n-aidsr emai nsuspended.Howev er,suchsuspensi onshal lnotgobey ond
theexpi r ati
onoft hef inanci alyeari nwhi cht hePr oclamat i
onceasest o
oper ate.
2.Dur i
ngFi nanci al Emer gency :Unioncangi v edi rect ionst ot heSt ates:-
1.Toobser vesuchcanonsoff inanci al proprietyasspeci fi
edi nt he
direction.
2.Tor educet hesal ar
iesandal l
owancesofal lpeopl eser v
ingi nconnect i
on
witht heaf fairsoft heSt ate, i
ncludingHi ghCour tsj udges.
3.Tor eser vef ort heconsi der ati
onoft hePr esi dental l moneyandf i
nanci al
Bil
ls, aftert heyar epassedbyt heLegi slatureoft heSt ate.

FinanceCommi ssion
Althought heConst i
tutionhasmadeanef f
ortt oallocateev erypossi bl
e
sour ceofr evenueei thertot heUni onort heSt ates,butt hi
sal l
ocationi s
quitebr oadbased.Fort hepur poseofal l
ocat i
onofcer tainsourcesof
revenue, betweent heUni onandt heSt ateGov ernment s,theConst ituti
on
prov i
desf ortheest ablishmentofaFi nanceCommi ssionunderAr ticle280.
Accor dingt otheConst i
tution,thePr esidentofI ndiaisaut hori
zedtosetup
aFi nanceCommi ssionev eryfivey earst omaker ecommendat i
onr egar ding
distri
but i
onoff i
nanci al r
esour cesbet weent heUni onandt heSt at
es.
Const i
tution
FinanceCommi ssioni st obeconst i
tutedbyt hePr esidentev ery5y ear s.
TheChai rmanmustbeaper sonhav ing‘ exper i
encei npubl icaffai
rs’.Ot her
fourmember smustbeappoi ntedf rom amongstt hefollowing:-
1.AHi ghCour tJudgeoronequal i
fiedt obeappoi ntedasHi ghCour tJudge;
2.Aper sonhav i
ngknowl edgeoft hef inancesandaccount soft he
Gov ernment ;
3.Aper sonhav i
ngwor kexper iencei nf i
nanci al mat t
ersandadmi nist r
ation;
4.Aper sonhav ingspeci alknowl edgeofeconomi cs.
Funct ions
TheFi nanceCommi ssi onr ecommendst ot hePr esidentast o: -
1.Thedi stri
but i
onbet weent heUni onandt heSt atesoft henetpr oceedsof
taxest obedi v i
dedbet weent hem andt heal l
ocat i
onbet weent heSt atesof
respect i
v eshar esofsuchpr oceeds;
2.Thepr incipleswhi chshoul dgov er nthegr ant s-i
n- ai
doft her evenueof
theSt atesoutoft heConsol idatedFundofI ndi a;
3.Themeasur esneededt oaugmentt heConsol i
dat edFundofaSt at et o
suppl ementt her esour cesoft hePanchay atsandMuni ci palitiesi nthe
State;
4.Anyot hermat t err ef erredt otheCommi ssi onbyt hePr esidenti nt he
i
nter estofsoundf inance
Concl usi on:
InIndi a, theCent re-St at esr elat i
onsconst itutet hecor eel ement soft he
feder alism.TheCent ral Gov ernmentandSt ateGov ernmentcooper atef or
thewel l-beingandsaf etyoft heci t
izensofI ndi a.Thewor ktoget heri nt he
fi
eldofenv i
ronment al pr otect ion, t
er r
orcont rol, f
ami l
ycont rol andsoci o-
economi cpl anning.
TheI ndi anconst itutionai m atr econci li
ngt henat i
onal uni tywhi l
egi v ingt he
powert omai ntainst at et ot heSt at
egov ernment s.I ti
st ruet hatt heuni on
hasbeenassi gnedl ar gerpower sthant hest at egov ernment s, butt hisi sa
quest ionofdegr eeandnotqual i
ty,sinceal l theessent ial feat uresofa
feder ationar epr esenti ntheI ndianconst itution.I tisof t endef i
nedt obe
quasi -feder alinnat ur e.Thus, itcanbesaf elysai dt hatI ndi anConst itut ion
i
spr imar ilyfeder al innat ureev ent houghi thasuni quef eat ur est hatenabl e
i
tt oassumeuni tar yf eat uresupont hetimeofneed.Feder albuti tsspi r i
tis
unitary .
Wh atisSpe c
ialCa tegor ySt a t
ust ostatesa ndh owi sitdifferen tfromSpe cial Statu
s?
JammuandKashmi renj oyedaspeci alstat usasperAr ticle370andal so
Speci alCat egor ySt at us.Butnowt hatAr ticle35Ahasbeenscr appedandi t
hasbecomeauni ont er ri
torywi thlegi sl
atur e, SCSdoesn' tappl yt oJ&K
any mor e.
ASpecialCategoryStat us(SCS)isacl assifi
cati
ongivenbyCent retoassist
i
nt hedevel
opmentoft hosest at
est hatfacegeographicalandsocio-
economicdisadvantagesl i
kehi l
lyt
er r
ains,str
ategi
cinternat
ionalborder
s,
economicandi nf
rastructuralbackwar dness,andnon-viabl
estatefi
nances.
Special
categorystatus-Hi stori
calbackground
Theconceptofaspeci alcategorystatuswasf ir
stint
roducedin1969when
 thef ifthFi nanceCommi ssi onsoughtt opr ov idecer t
ai ndi sadv ant aged
stateswi thpr efer ent i
al treat menti nt hef or m ofcent ral assi stanceandt ax
breaks, est abl ishi ngspeci al dev elopmentboar ds, reser v ationi nl ocal
gov ernmentj obs, educat ional i
nst itut i
ons, et c.
Thisf or mul awasnamedaf tert het henDeput yChai r
manoft hePl anni ng
Commi ssi on, DrGadgi lMukher j
eeandi sr elatedt ot het ransf erof
assist ancet ot hest atesbycent reunderv ar iousschemes.
Ini
tially, threest at es; Assam, Nagal andandJammu&Kashmi rwer e
grant edspeci al st atusbutf rom 1974- 1979, fivemor est at eswer eadded
undert hespeci al cat egor y .Thesei ncl udeHi machal Pr adesh, Mani pur ,
Meghal ay a, Sikki m andTr ipur a.
In1990, wi tht headdi tionofAr unachal Pr adeshandMi zor am, thest at es
i
ncr easedt o10.Thest at eofUt tar akhandwasgi venspeci al cat egor y
statusi n2001.
Butaf tert hedi ssol utionoft hepl anni ngcommi ssionandt hef ormat i
onof
NITIAay og, ther ecommendat ionsoft he14t hFi nanceCommi ssi onwer e
i
mpl ement edwhi chmeantt hedi scont i
nuat i
onoft heGadgi lformul a-based
grant s.
The14t hFi nanceCommi ssi onef f ect i
v elyr emov edt heconceptofspeci al
categor yst atusaf teritsr ecommendat i
onswer eaccept edi n2015.
Ther ational ef orspeci al stat usi st hatcer tainst ates, becauseofi nher ent
featur es, hav eal owr esour cebaseandcannotmobi lizer esour cesf or
dev elopment .
Whogr ant sspeci al statust ost ates?
Thedeci siont ogr antspeci al cat egor yst at usl i
eswi tht heNat ional
Dev elopmentCounci l
, composedoft hepr imemi nister, uni onmi nister s,
chiefmi nist ersandmember soft hepl anni ngcommi ssi on, whogui deand
reviewt hewor koft hecommi ssi on.
Speci al cat egor yst atusf orpl anassi stancehasbeengr ant edi nt hepastby
theNat i
onal Dev el opmentCounci l (NDC)t osomest at est hatar e
char act er i
zedbyanumberoff eat ur esnecessi tatingspeci al consi der ati
on.
Criteriaf orspeci al categor yst atus:
 Hill
yanddi f fi
cul tt errain
 Lowpopul ationdensi tyorsi zeabl eshar eoft ribal popul ation
 Strategi cl ocat ional ongbor der swi thnei ghbour ingcount r
ies
 Economi candi nf rastruct ur al backwar dness
 Non- v i
abl enat ureofst atef inances
Canspeci al cat egor yst at usbegr ant edt omor est atesnow?
Inthepr esentscenar io,iti sbel i
ev edt hat nomor estat escanbegi vent he
statusofaspeci al categor yst ate.
TheConst itut ionofI ndi adoesnoti ncl udeanypr ov isionf ort he
categor izat ionofanyst atei nI ndi aasa' speci al cat egor yst at e.
Howev er ,awi der angeofpr ovisionsar eav ailabl et oasmanyas10st ates
thathav ebeenl i
st edunderAr ticles371, 371- At o371- H, and371- J.
Someoft hesest at esar eMahar asht raandGuj ar at ,Nagal and, Assam,
Mani pur , Andhr aPr adesh, Sikki m, Mi zor am, Ar unachal Pradeshand
TelanganaandGoa.( Ar t371Ideal swi thGoa, butdoesnoti ncl udeany
prov i
siont hatcanbet er med' speci al'.)
Whi l
et hesesetofpr ov isionswer ei ncor por at edi nt ot heConst it
ut i
onby
Parliamentt hr oughamendment sunderAr ticle368, Ar ticl
es370and371
hav ebeenpar toft heConst itut i
onf rom t het imeofi t
scommencementon
Januar y26, 1950.
Whyt hesespeci al pr ov i
sions?
Thei ntent i
onbehi ndt hesepr ov i
sionsi st osaf eguar dt hei nt er estand
aspirationsofcer t
ai nbackwar dr egi onsort opr ot ectcul t
ur al andeconomi c
i
nter estsoft het ribal peopl eort odeal wi tht hedi stur bedl awandor derin
somepar ts.
Benef i
tsst at esconf erwi thspeci al cat egor yst at us:
Stateswhi char egr ant edspeci al cat egor yst at usenj oysev er al benef i
ts.
1. 
Thecent ral gov er nmentbear s90per centoft hest at eexpendi tureonal l
cent ral
ly-sponsor edschemesandext er nal ai dwhi ler est10per centi s
givenasl oant ost at eatzer oper centr ateofi nt er est .
2. 
Pr efer ent ial treat menti nget tingcent ral funds.
3. 
Concessi ononexci sedut y toat tracti ndust riest ot hest ate.
4. 
30per centoft heCent re'sgr ossbudgetal sogoest ospeci al categor y
states.
5. 
Thesest at escanav ailthe benef itofdebt -swappi ng  anddebtr elief
schemes.
6. 
St ateswi thspeci al cat egoryst at usar e exempt edf rom cust omsdut y,
corpor atet ax, incomet ax andot hert axest oat tracti nv estment .
7. 
Speci al cat egor yst at eshav et hef aci l
ityt hati ft heyhav eunspentmoney
i
naf inanci al y ear ;itdoesnotl apseandget scar ryf orwar df ort henext
fi
nanci al y ear .
Whati st hedi fferencebet weenspeci al cat egor yst atusandspeci alstatus?
Theconst itut ionpr ov i
des  speci al st at us  throughanActt hathast obe
passedby2/ 3r dsmaj or i
tyinbot ht hehousesofPar liamentwher eas
the speci al cat egor yst atus isgr ant edbyt heNat i
onal Dev elopmentCounci l
,
whichi sanadmi nist rat i
v ebodyoft hegov er nment .
Forexampl e, JammuandKashmi renj oy edaspeci al st atusasperAr t
icl
e
370andal sospeci al cat egor yst at us.Butnowt hatAr ticle35Ahasbeen
scr
appedandithasbecomeauniont
err
it
orywithl
egi
sl
atur
e,speci
al
cat
egoryst
atusdoesn'
tappl
ytoJ&Kanymore.

“Coali
ti
on,asemploy
edinpoli
ti
calsense,commonl ydenot
esaco-
operati
vearr
angementunderwhichdist
inctpol
it
icalpar
ti
es,oratall
event
s
member sofsuchpart
iesuni
tetoform agovernmentorMinistr
y.”

A coalit
iongov ernment  
ina  parli
ament arysy stem  i
saf orm ofgov ernment
i
nwhi chmul t
iple poli
tical parti
es cooper ate,reducingthedomi nanceofany
onepar tywithinthat" coal i
t i
on".Theusual reasonf orthisarrangementi s
thatnopar tyoni tsowncanachi ev eamaj ori
tyint he 
par l
i
ament .A
coalit
iongov ernmentmi ghtal sobecr eat edinat imeofnat i
onal di
ffi
cult
y
orcrisis(f
orexampl e,dur ingwar ti
meoreconomi ccri
sis)togi vea
governmentt hehi ghdegr eeofper ceived politi
callegi
timacy  
or col
lecti
ve
i
dent i
ty i
tdesireswhi leal sopl ayingar oleindi minishi
ngi nternalpoli
ti
cal
stri
fe.Insucht imes, partieshav eformedal l
-partycoalit
ions( nati
onalunit
y
government s, 
grandcoal itions).Ifacoalitioncollapses, a 
conf i
dence
vote i
sheldora  mot i
onofnoconf idence istaken.

Coal
i
tionI
ndi
a
SinceI ndia'sIndependenceon15August1947,  I
ndi anNat i
onal Congr ess,
themaj orpol it
ical partyi nst r
ument alin Indi
ani ndependencemov ement ,
ruledt henat ion.Thef irstPr i
meMi nister  
Jawahar lalNehr u,secondPM  Lal
BahadurShast ri andt het hi rdPM  IndiraGandhi ,all werefrom t heCongr ess
par t
y .Howev er,
 Raj Nar ain, whohadunsuccessf ullycont estedel ection
agai nstIndiraf rom theconst i
tuencyof  RaeBar eill
y i
n1971, lodgedacase,
all
egi ngel ectoral mal pract ices.I nJune1975, I
ndi rawasf oundgui lt
yand
bar r
edbyHi ghCour tf r
om hol di
ngpubl icoffi
cef orsixy ears.Inr esponse,
anungr aciousEmer gencywasdecl aredundert hepr etextofnat ional
secur it
y.The  nextel ect i
on' sr esult wast hat I
ndia' sfirst
-evercoal iti
on
gov ernmentwasf ormedatt henat ional levelundert hePr imeMi nister
ship
of Mor arj
i Desai ,whi chwasal sot hef irstnon-Congr essnat i
onal
gov ernment ,whi chexi stedf rom 24Mar ch1977t o15Jul y1979, headedby
the Janat aPar ty ,
 anamal gam ofpol i
tical par
tiesopposedt oEmer gency
i
mposedbet ween1975and1977.Ast hepopul ar i
tyofJanat aPar t
y
dwi ndled, Mor arjiDesai hadt or esignand  CharanSi ngh, arivalofDesai
becamet hef if
thPM.Howev er ,
duet ol ackofsuppor t,thi
scoal iti
on
gov ernmentdi dnotcompl etei t
sf ive-yeart er
m.
Congr
essr
etur
nedt
othepoweri
n1980underI
ndi
raGandhi
,andl
ater
under  Raj ivGandhi  ast he6t hPM.Howev er, t
henext  generalel ecti
onof
1989  onceagai nbr oughtacoal i
ti
ongov ernmentunder  
Nat i
onal Front,
whi chl ast eduntil1991, wi t
ht woPr i
meMi nisters,thesecondonebei ng
suppor tedbyCongr ess.The1991el ectionr esultedinaCongr essled
stabl e mi nori
tygov ernment  
forfivey ears.Thenext
11t h par liament  
pr oducedt hreePr i
meMi nistersint woy earsandf orced
thecount rybackt ot hepol l
si n1998.Thef i
rstsuccessf ul coaliti
on
gov er nmenti nIndi awhi chcompl etedt hewhol e5- y
earter m was
the Bhar atiy
aJanat aPar ty 
(BJP)l ed National Democr at
icAl l
iance with Atal
Bihar i Vaj payee asPM f rom 1999t o2004.Thenanot hercoal i
tion,
Congr essl ed UnitedPr ogressiv eAl l
i
ance, consi sti
ngof13separ at
epar ti
es
ruledI ndi afortwot er msf rom 2004t o2014wi th ManmohanSi ngh asPM.
Howev er ,inthe 16t hgener alelection i
nMay2014, BJPsecur edmaj or i
tyon
i
tsown( fir
stpartyt odososi nce1984el ection)andNat ional Democr atic
Alli
ancecamei ntopower ,
wi t
h Nar endraModi  asPr i
meMi nister.In2019,
Nar endr aModi gotr e-electedasPr imeMi nisterforthesecondt imeas
Nat ional Democr aticAl li
anceagai nsecur edmaj orit
yi nthe 17t hgener al
elect i
on.

onsareinval
uabl
einadvocacybecausetheycreat
est r
uctur
esfor
organi
zati
onsandindi
vi
dualstoshareownershipofcommongoal s.
Advocacyworkcanbestrengt
henedconsiderabl
ythroughtheuseof
coali
ti
ons.

Iscoal i
t i
onpol i
ti
csgoodf orI ndia?
Witht her ecentv i
ct oryoft he“ Mahagat hbandhan”i nBi har,analystsar e
sayingt hatcoal i
tionpol it
icsi nIndi aisfarf rom ov er.Acoal iti
on
gover nmentf ormswhent wo/ mor epol i
tical parti
esfor m anal li
ance
compr omi singont heirconcer nedpar typol i
cyandagenda.Coal i
tion
gover nment shav ebeenar oundf oral ongt imenow.Var iouscount r
ies
i
ncludi ngUK, FinlandandAust raliahav ewi tnessedf or mationofcoal i
tion
gover nment s.Buti sacoal iti
ongoodf ort hepeopl e?Let ’
sseewhatt he
rul
ingv erdictis.
1.Anundemocr aticandunel ect edcoal i
tion:  Coali
ti
oni smadeupof
democr aticall
yel ect edrepr esent ati
ves, buti nitsel
f,itisawayt ogr ab
powerr egar dlessoft hever dictoft heel ector at
e.
2.Par ti
sangr abofpoweri napol iti
calcr i
sis:  
Coalit
ionpol iti
csismer elya
parti
sangr abt ocapi tal
iseonapol i
ti
cal crisis.
3.Coal iti
oncr eatespol iti
cal i
nsecur i
ti
es:  For mingalliancesi sfil
ledwi th
challengesandeachcoal itionmembersuf fersfrom insecur i
tiesregar ding
theal liance.Fur ther ,ci tizensal socannotbesur ewhent hecoal i
tion
gov ernmentwi l
l gi v ewayandl eav et hem i nast ateofpol it
ical anar chy .
4.Coal itionpol iti
csi mpact st hepoweroft heCent re: Alliancebet ween
national andr egi onal par tieshasi mpact edt her elationsbet weent heUni on
andt heSt ates.Whi l
er egi onal par tiesgi vest resst ot heirst at e’spr oblems
andpl acepr essur eoncoal itiongov ernmentt opr ovidegr eat erat tent iont o
these, theCent ret riest obal ancer egi onal inter est sindi ffer entst ates.Thi s
creat esal ackofcongr uencei nt hef unct i
oni ngoft hef eder alpol ityi nIndi a.
5.Coal itionsy mbol isespol itical inst abi lity: Notoneper sont houghtabout
thecoal i
tionwhenI ndi ar egai nedf reedom andt heI NCwast hesol er uli
ng
party .Wi tht headv entoft heNDAi n1971, coal iti
onpol it
icsi nIndi agai ned
moment um.Now, wi tht her egi onal isat ionandf ragment at ionofpol it
ics,
coal i
tionshav ebecomeanunst ableagr eementi nuncer t aint imes, wher e
therear enopol itical alliesorenemi es.
6.Coal itiongov er nmenti sbycompul sion:  Itisnotanal liancef ormedby
wi l
l
ingpar ti
es.Of t en, thepar tiesi nt hecoal itionar eatoddswi theachot her
onev enbasi ci ssues.Thi sl eadst oal otofpol iticalinfight i
ngapar tf r
om
creat ingpol iti
cal compul sionsf orpar tiest ocompr omi seont hei rideal s
andv al ues.
7.Vot ingf oracoal iti
oni snotv otingf orchange:  
Of t
en, coal it
ionscause
ther ul i
ngpar tyorl eadi ngpar tiest of or m al lianceswi thl essnumberof
seat s.Thi senabl est hem t ogr abpoweragai nandgoesagai nstt hev er di
ct
oft heel ect or atef orachange.
8.Toomanycooksspoi lthebr ot h:  Ift her ear et oomanypar tiescont roll
ing
thef at eoft hepeopl e, anar chyanddi sor derwi l
l event uallyr esul tbecause
nosi ngl epar tyi si npower .Mul ti
pl epar t
iesmeansamul tit
udeofopi nions
onev er yi ssueandl ackofagr eementonpol ici esort heiri mpl ement at i
on.
9.Leadst ounnecessar ydi scussi onsov erbi ll passagei nt hepar li
ament:  If
therear emor epar tieswi thasayi nt hemat t
er , noBi llwi l
l bepassed
wi t
houtl engt hydebat es, di scussi onsanddi sr upt i
ons.Thesmoot h
funct ioni ngoft hePar li
amenti shar medbyt headv entofcoal iti
onpol it
ics
andt hisi snotgoodf ort hecount ry.
10.Out sidesuppor ti nacoal itioncanbewi thdr awnanyt i
me:  
Out side
suppor ti sal soacr itical pol iti
cal quot ienti nt heent ir
eequat i
on.I fout side
suppor ti swi thdr awn, ther ul ingpar tywi llnotbeabl et ogov ernandpol i
ti
cal
i
nst abi lit
ywi llresul t.
11.Ri ghtpol iciescannotbei mpl ement ed:  Ast her uli
ngpar tyhast o
pandert ot heneedsofr egi onal par ties, of t
enr i
ghtpol iciesar epr ev ented
from bei ngi mpl ement ed.Thegov er nmentbecomesf ragileandseekst o
engagei ndeci si onmaki ngwhi chi sbi asedt owar dsit spol itical sur v i
val
rathert hant hewel far eoft henat ion.
1.Ensur esr epr esent ati
onofr egi onal par ties:  Byf ar, themostl ar gest
adv ant ageofcoal iti
ongov er nmentatt hecent rei st hepr opor tionat e
represent at i
onofr egi onal pol i
tical partiesi nt heLS.Thi sensur est hatt hey
hav eav oi cei nthedeci si onsorpr oceedi ngsoft hecour t
.
2.Undemocr aticbi llsar eopposed:  Coal itionsr epresentt hewi l
l ofa
broadersect ionoft hepopul ationt her ebywor kingasanef fect ivet ool to
stav eof fpassageofundemocr aticbi llswhi char enoti nt hei nterest sof
thel argerdemocr acy
3.Doesr epr esentt hewi lloft hepeopl e:  Ifacoal iti
ongov ernmenti si n
power , thismeanst hatt heel ect or atehasgi v enav er dictwhi chi smi xed.
Thef or mat ionofacoal i
t i
ongov ernmentt her ef oredoesr ef lectt hewi l
l of
thepeopl e.
4.Coal itiongov ernment swor ldwi dehav ebeensuccessf ul : Thi si ncl udes
gov ernment si nCanada, Aust ral i
aandFi nl and.Acoal itiongov ernment
offer sgr eat ersuccessf ordi ver secommuni tiesofI ndi at ohav easayi nt he
deci sionmaki ngpr ocess.
5.Acoal iti
ongov er nmentr epr esent st het r uespi r
itofdemocr acy:  Itisa
gov ernmentoft hepeopl e, byt hepeopl eandf ort hepeopl e.Vot eshav et o
bedi videdi nt henameofcommuni ti
es, cast esandr eligionsbecauseI ndia
i
st rulyapl ur ali
st i
csoci etywhi chv aluesdi v ersi ty.
6.Deci sionmaki ngi smor edemocr atic:  Sincemanyoft hecoal i
tion
member sdonotshar eacommoni deol ogy , theyengagei nwi despr ead
discour ser egar dingpol icyanddeci sionmaki ng.Thi sr ef l
ect st het r ue
essenceofdemocr acy .
7.Al li
ancesr epresentaspi rat ionsofpeopl e:  Theal liancesofpol itical
par t
iesr epr esentt heaspi r
at i
onsofpeopl ef rom ev er yr egi onand
const ituency ,rathert hanadomi nantmaj or ity.Thev oiceoft hemi nor i
tyi s
notst i
f l
ed.I ndi ast at esf indspacewi thint henat i
onal agenda.
8.Joi ntmani festoi st ot hebenef itoft henat ion:  
Al l
iancesf or cepol i
ti
cal
par t
iest obeconsci ousoft hei rpubl i
ci mageandpr act icedi scr etionwi t hi
n
theirpol icymaki ng, actionsanddeci sions.I tr ef l
ectsanunder standi ngof
ther eal ityofcont empor ar ypol iti
cal scenar i
os.
9.Pr ev ent spol arisat i
on:  
Pol itical al l
iancesmeant hatpar ti
eswi llhav et o
compr omi seonr adi cal ideol ogi esandappr oachest omakedeci si ons
whi char emor ei nt hei nter est soft hepeopl e.
10Pastpol itical mi stakeswi ll notber epeat ed:  Whendi ver ser egional
par t
iescoal escet of or m auni on, theyar eabl et oconcent rat eonsol uti
on
orient eddeci sionmaki ngandpr ev entr epet itionofpol itical mi stakes.
Concl usi on
Allsai danddone, pol itical par t i
eswi llcont inuet or elyoncoal itions
regar dlessofel ect or al verdi cts.Thi shasi t
sadv ant agesaswel l as
disadv ant ages.I nt heul ti
mat eanal y sis,itist hecompet encyoft he
gov ernmentandnotwhet heri tisacoal it
ionorani ndi vidual par ty,that
playsani mpor tantr olei ni mpact i
ngt hewel far eoft hepeopl e.Whet herthe
ri
ghtdeci sionscomef rom acoal i
tionorani ndiv i
dual r uli
ngpar ty ,theywi l
l
alway sbeappr eciat edandr ewar dedbyt hepubl i
c.
adv ant agesanddi sadv ant agest of or mi ngorj oini ngacoal iti
on.
Deci sionsonj oi ningacoal itionshoul donl ybet akenaf tercar ef ul
consi der at i
onf oll
owi ngr esear chandr i
skanal ysis.Deci dewhet herwor ki
ng
witht hecoal i
tioni st hebestwayt osol vey ourpr obl em, andwhet hery our
valuesandappr oachescanbeshar ed.
Wor kingwi thcoal itionsmayhav et hef ollowi ngadv ant ages:
Adv ant ages:
1.Enl ar gesy ourbaseofsuppor t,net wor ksandconnect i
ons; gives
strengt hi nnumber s: y
oucanachi ev emor et oget hert hany oucanal one.
2.Pr ov idessaf etyf oradv ocacyef fortsandpr ot ect ionf ormember swho
maynotbeabl et ot akeact ional one, par ticular lywhenoper atingi na
host il
eordi fficul tenv i
ronment .
3.Magni f iesexi st i
ngf i
nanci al andhumanr esour cesbypool i
ngt hem
toget herandbydel egat ingwor kt oot her si nt hecoal it
ion.
4.Reducesdupl i
cat ionofef for tandr esour ces.
5.Enhancest hecr edi bili
tyandi nfluenceofanadv ocacycampai gn, aswel l
ast hatofi ndi vidual coal itionmember s.
6.Hel psdev elopnewl eader shi pski ll
samongstmember s.
7.Assi st si nindi vidual andor gani zat ional net wor king.
8.Faci litat esexchangeofi nf or mat ion, skills, exper i
ence, mat erials,
oppor tuni t
iesf orcol labor at ionet c.
9.Br i
ngst oget heradi v erser angeofpeopl eandor gani zat ions.Di versit
y
canst r engt henacampai gnbybr oadeni ngper spect iveand
under st andingoft hei ssue.I tcanal soassi stout reachbyappeal i
ngt oa
wi derpopul at i
onbasewi thdi fferingpr ior i
tiesandi nter est s.
10. Pr ov idespeersuppor t,encour agement , mot ivationandpr ofessional
recogni t i
on.
Someoft hedi sadv ant agesoff ormi ngorj oi ningacoal iti
onar egi v enbelow:
Disadv ant ages:
1.Canl ackcl earobj ect ives, orbedi fficultt oagr eecommonobj ect i
ves.
2.For mi ngandmanagi ngacoal itioncanbeav er yt ime- consumi ngand
bur eaucr aticpr ocesst hatcant akeawayt i
mef rom wor kingdi rectl
yon
campai gni ssuesandor gani zat ional tasks.
3.Maybedomi natedbyonepower ful or gani zat ion.Poweri snotal way s
dist ribut edequal lyamongmember s; lar gerorr icheror gani zat ionscan
hav emor esayi ndeci si ons.
4.Mayr equi rey out ocompr omi sey ourposi tiononi ssuesort act ics.
5.Shar eddeci sion- maki ngcanbesl owandmaypar alyzepr ogr ess.
6.Canof t
enbeconst rainedbyal ackofr esour ces.
7.Pot ent i
al fordonori nt erfer ence( e. g.adonori si nter est edi nf undi ng
cer tai nact i
v i
tiesbutt her ei sadangerofpl anni ngact iviti
esonl y
becausey ouknowy oucangett hef unds) .
8.Youmaynotal way sgetcr edi tf ory ourwor k.Somet imest hecoal i
tionas
awhol eget sr ecogni tionr athert hani ndi vidual member s.Orcer tain
member sgetorcl aim mor er ecogni ti
ont hanot her s, causi ngconf l
ict
andr esent ment .
9.I ft hecoal it
ionpr ocessbr eaksdowni tcanhar m ev eryone' sadv ocacyby
damagi ngmember s' credi bility .
10. Coal itionact iviti
escanbedi ffi
cul tt omoni torandev aluat e.
 
Int er estandPr essur eGr oupsi nI ndi a!
Pr essur et act icsandmet hodshav ebecomeani ntegr al par toft hepol it
ical
processi nI ndi a.Thet echni quesofor gani zedpr essur e, throughmass
campai gns, demonst rat ions, st ri
kes, civ i
l di sobedi ence( sat yagr ahd) ,
gher aosandbandhs, hav ebeenf requent lyusedbyi nter estgr oups.
My ronWei ner( 1962)hasr ight l
yobser vedt hatt hev eryf requency ,with
whi chmassact ionhassucceededi nv et oi nggov ernmentact ion, ori n
posi tiv elymodi fy i
ngpubl icpol i
cy ,hasst r engt henedt hepubl i
cbel i
eft hat
suchmeasur esar ebot hdesi rabl eandef f ect i
v e.Vi ol enceandanomi c
act ivitieshav ebecomeani nst rumentofi nt erestar ticul ationi nt heso-
cal l
eddev elopi ngnat ions, i
ncl udi ngI ndi a.
LikemanyAsi anandAf ricancount ries, Indi ahasagoodnumberofi nterest
groups, althought heyar enotl ar gei nnumberandar edi fferentf rom t hose
i
nwest erncount i
es.I nI ndi a, inter estgr oupsar eor gani zedmai nl yar ound
tradi ¬t i
onal l
oy al t
iest ocast e,rel igion, communi tyandal sowi thr egional ,
l
ingui st icandet hni cloy alties.Theyar ei mpor tantf or cesi nI ndi a.
Wei nerhast ermedt hem as‘ communi tyassoci ations’ .I nhi swor ds, ‘
Indian
soci al sy stem hasbot hhi erar chi cal ( cast eandcl ass)andhor izont al(tri
bal,
religious, l
ingui st i
c)gr oupsf rom whi chpol iti
cal expr essi onsf ol l
owsui t’
.
Ofcour se, gr oupsconst itut edont hebasi sofoccupat ional andeconomi c
i
nt er est s, suchast radeuni ons, peasantor gani zat ions, teacher -student
groups, women’ sassoci at i
ons, dal i
ts( schedul edcast esandt ribes) ,
organi zat i
ons, busi nessmen( commer ci al)or gani zat ions, etc.,hav e
becomev eryi mpor tanti nmodem I ndi a.
Ani nt erest ingf eat ur eofi nter estgr oupsi nIndi ai st he‘ cast el obby ’.These
l
obbi est ryt oi nfluencet hei nt erest sofpar ti
cul arcast esanddemand
suppor tf ort hei rmember si nt hel egi sl atur es.Rel igional sopl ay san
i
mpor tantr ol ei nf ur ther ingt hei nt erest soft hef ol lower sofpar ticul ar
religion.Ther eexi st sabondofr el at i
onshi pbet weenI ndi anl egi s¬l ators
andr el igiousl eader s.
Inter estgr oupsofbusi nesscl assi nI ndi aar eext remel ypower ful .Busi ness
associ ationsl ikeChamberofCommer ce, Al l I
ndi aManuf actur er s
Or gani zat i
onandmanyot her sdev el opedaf t eri ndependencef ort he
pur poseofpr otect ingandpr omot ingt hei rint erest s.Li ket hese
organi zat ions, ther ehav ebeensomeor gani zat ions, suchasKi sanSabha,
tol ookaf tert hei nt erest soft hepeasant s.
Besi des, differ entpol itical par tieshav eal soest abl ishedt heirownpeasant
organi zat ionswhi char ebei ngusedaspol i
tical weapons.Si mi larly ,polit
ical
par tieshav eal sot hei rownt r adeuni ons, studentor gani za¬t ionsandy outh
wi ngs, whi chactaspr essur egr oupsi nt hei rr espect iv ef i
el ds.I nI ndi a,such
communi tyassoci at i
onsar emor eef fect iveandpower ful thant he
economi candoccupat ional or gani zat ions.
Bymeansof‘ l
obby i
ng’ , behi nd- the- schemesbar gai ni ng, pr opagandaand
i
nf or mat ionandel ect or al suppor t, per suasi onandt hr eat sofv iolence,
thesegr oupsmaket remendouspr essur eont hegov er nmentpol itical
process.Theov erwhel mi ngpol itical cl outoft hesepower ful lobbi es
discour agespar ticipat ionbyt hei ndi vidual ci tizenandr aisesser i
ous
quest ions.
Thet erm‘ pr essur egr oup’ or i
gi nat edf rom t heUSA.Apr essur egr oupi sa
groupofpeopl ewhoar eor gani zedf oract i
vel ypr omot inganddef endi ng
thei rcommoni nter est s.Theyar eav ital linkbet weent hegov ernmentand
thegov ernedandt heykeepgov er nment smor er esponsi vet ot hewi shesof
thecommuni ty ,especi al lyi nbet weenel ect ions.
Apr essur egr oupi scommoni nt er estgr oupt hatt r iest osecur et hei r
i
nt er est sbyi nf l
uenci ngt hef or mul at ionandadmi ni st rat ionofpubl i
cpol icy.
Theyar er efer redt oasCi v i
l Soci et yOr gani zat i
ons( CSOs) .Theyar eanon-
par tisanor gani zat i
ont hatat tempt st oi nf l
uencesomephasesofpubl i
clif
e.
Ther oleofpr essur egr oupi si ndi r ect ,or dinar i
lyi nv isi bleandi nt ermi tt
ent,
yet ,av er yimpor tantpar toft headmi nist rativesy st em.Theemer genceof
trust sandmonopol i
esandt hest r uggl eov ert ariffsl edt ot hef or mat ionof
pressur egr oups.Pr essur eGr oupi sal ivingpubl i
cbehi ndt hepar t i
es.
Pr essur egr oup’ sr olei sasv ital ast hatofapol iti
cal par t yexi st ingi nany
count r y
Pr essur eGr oupi st hei nt erestgr oupswhi cht ryt osecur et heiri nter estsby
i
nfluencingthefor
mul ati
onandadmi ni
str
ationofpubl i
cpolicy.They
refer
redt oasCivi
lSocietyOrganizat i
on(CSO) .Theyareanon- partisan
organizati
onwhichattempt stoinf l
uencesomephasesofpubl iclif
e.The
rol
eofpr essuregroupisindirect
, ordi
nari
ly,i
nv i
si
bleandintermittenty et
veryimpor t
antpartoftheadmi nistrat
ivesystem.Theemer genceoft r
usts
andmonopol i
esandt hestruggleov ertar
if
fsledt otheformat i
onofa
pressuregroup.Anditsroleisasv i
talasthatofpoliti
calpartyexistingin
anycount ry
PressureGroupi nIndia
InIndiaPoli
ticalparti
esandpr essuregr oupst ogetherplayabi gr olei
nthe
struggleofpower .InI ndi
a,thepr essuregr ouparoseev endur i
ngt he
colonialper
iod.Al lI
ndi atr
adeuni oncongr esswast hefirstcount rywi
de
pressuregroupoft hewor kingclass.Indiawasadev el
opi ngcount ryhavi
ng
ascar ci
tyofr esourcesandacut epov ert
y ,resul
ti
ngi nt
hesi gni
ficantrol
eof
thepressuregr oup.Theai m oft hispressur egroupwast osecur e
economi candpol i
ti
cal concessionsf orthemsel ves.Pr
ov idingcr uci
al
componentoft hest ructur
al equil
ibri
um i.e.maintenancef uncti
on.
RoleofPr essureGr oupsinIndia
Thecapaci tyofpressur egroupsisdeterminedbyleader ship,
organi
zat i
onalabil
ities,massmedi a,economicpowerbase, and
mobili
zat i
ontechniques.Besi dethi
s,theyuselobbyingmet hod, stri
ke,
bandh, demonstration,fundingpoli
ti
calparti
es,part
ypl atf
orm, etc.Even
thought herol
eofpr essuregroupisindir
ect,i
tfaci
li
tatesmanyv ital
acti
vit
iesinadmi nistrat
ion.Thevariousrolesofpressur egroupsi sas
fol
lows-

1.Rol
einlegi
slat
ure–Pr essuregrouptr
iestoint
roducethei
rchosen
per
sonintothelegi
slat
ure.Theyhelppoli
ti
calpart
iesontheeveofan
el
ecti
onandpr epar
eselecti
onmani f
esto.

2.Roleinexecuti
ve–Pr essuregrouptri
estofi
llhi
ghexecut
ivepost
s
withmenoft hei
rownchoi cei.e.sel
ect
ionofcabi
net,
dist
ri
buti
onof
portf
oli
osandP. M sel
ecti
onduet ot
hepreval
enceofcoll
ati
on
government.Andhenceforthinfl
uencespol
icyimpl
ementati
on
process.

3.Rol
einBur eaucracy–Bureaucrat
sarepoli
tical
lyneutr
alandhence
pr
essuregr ouptri
estoobl
igethem byput
tinggoodr emarksthat
pr
otecttheirint
erest
s.Bur
eaucrat
shavelongt enureandsotheyare
 i
ncont
actwi
tht
hem t
oobl
i
ge.

4.Roleinjudi
ciary–appoi
ntmentofj
udgesinpoli
ti
calaff
air
sandhere
pressuregr
oupsplayimport
antrol
einthathi
ghjudi
cialof
fi
cesar
e
occupiedbyt hem.
Maj
orPr
essur
eGr
oupsi
nIndi
a

 Busi
nessGroups –FICCI
,CI
I,
ASSOCHAM,
AIMO,
FAI
FDAet
c.
(i
nst
it
uti
onalgroups)
.

 Tr
adeUni
ons–AI
TUC,
INTUC,
HMS,
CITU,
BMSet
c.

 Agr
ari
anGr
oups-Al
lIndi
aKi
san 
Sabha,
Bhar
ati
yaKi
sanUni
onet
c.

 St
udent
’sOr
gani
sat
ions-ABVP,
AISF,
NSUIet
c

 VHP,
Baj
rangDal
,Jamaat
-e-
Isl
ami
etc.

 Cast
eGr
oups–Har
ij
anSev
akSangh,
NadarCast
eAssoci
ati
onet
c

 Li
ngui
sti
cGr
oups–Tami
lSangh,
Andhr
aMahaSabhaet
c

 Tri
balGroups–NSCN,
TNU,
Uni
tedMi
zof
eder
alor
g,Tr
ibal
Leagueof
Assam etc.

 Pr
ofessi
onal
Groups– 
IMA,
BCI
,I
FWJ,
AIFUCTet
c

 I
deol
ogybasedGr
oups–Nar
madaBachaoAndol
an,Chi
pko
Movement
,WomenRight
sOr
gani
sat
ion,
Indi
aAgai
nstCorr
upt
ionet
c.

 AnomicGroups*–ULFA,
Maoi
sts,
 
JKLF,
All
-I
ndi
aSi
khSt
udent
’s
Feder
ati
onetc.
Characteri
sti
csofPr essureGroups
LevelofOper ation: 
Pressuregroupsmayoper at
eatl ocal
,regional
,nati
onal
oreveni nt
ernat i
onal l
evel
,dependingupont hecauseandnot ice.
Objecti
ve:Allinterestgroupsshareadesi r
et oaffectgovernmentpolicyto
benefi
tthemsel vesortheircauses.
TypeofOr ganizat i
on: 
Theyar eusuall
ynon-profi
tandv olunteer
organi
zat i
on
MethodofWor king:
 Theyseekt oinf
luencepolit
icalorcorporatedecisi
on
maker st oachiev eadecl ar edobj ective.
CommonGr ounds: Pressur egr oupsar ecol
lectionsofi ndi
vidualswhohol d
asimilarsetofv aluesandbel i
efsont hebasisofet hnicity
,reli
gion,poli
ti
cal
phil
osophy ,oracommongoal .
CommonDi ssat i
sfaction: Pressur egr oupsoftenr epresentv i
ewpointsof
peoplewhoar edissatisfiedwi tht hecur r
entcondi ti
onsi nsociety.
Format i
on: Thesear eanat uralout growthofthecommuni tiesofinterest
thatexistinall societi
es.
Focus: Pressur egroupsmaybebet t
erabletof ocusonspeci ali
zedissues,
whereaspol i
ti
cal partiest endtoaddr essawi der angeofi ssues.
RoleinDemocr acy: 
Pr essur egroupsar ewidelyr ecogni zedasani mpor tant
partoft hedemocr aticprocess.
TypesofPressur
eGroupsinI
ndia
Alargenumberofpr
essuregr
oupexist
sinIndi
abutunf or
tunatel
ytheyare
notdevel
opedascomparedtotheWester
nCount r
iesl
ikeEngland,France
andUSA.Itcanbecl
assif
iedi
ntofol
l
owingcategori
es.
BusinessGr oups
TheBusi nessgr oupi soneoft hemostimportant
,inf
luenti
alandor
ganised
pressuregr oupsi nIndia.Examplesofbusi
nessgroups-Confeder
ati
onof
Indi
anIndust r
y(CI I
),Federat
ionofIndi
anChamber sofCommer ceand
i
ndust r
y( FICCI),AssociatedChamberofCommer ce(ASSOCHAM)–maj or
consti
tuent saret heBengal ChamberofCommer ceCal cut
taandCentr
al
commer ci alorganisati
onofDel hi
.
TradeUnions
Tradeunionscatertothedemandofwor kersandlaboursoftheindustri
es.
Alter
nati
vel
y,t
heyar ealsoknownasl abourgroups.InIndi
a,di
f f
erenttr
ade
unionsrepr
esentdiff
erentpol
iti
calpart
ies.Examples-TheAllIndiaTrade
UnionCongress(AITUC) ,
AllI
ndiaTradeUnionCongr ess(Communi stParty
ofIndia)
Agrari
anGr oups
Thesegr oupsrepr
esentthefar
mercommuni t
yofI
ndi
aandwor ksf
orthei
r
well
-being.Example-Bhar
ti
yaKisanSangh,
HindKi
sanPanchay
at(cont
rol
ofsociali
st)
.
Professi
onalAssociati
on
Suchassociati
on,raisetheconcernofwor ki
ngprof
essionalinIndi
a
rangingf
rom lawyersanddoct ors,j
ournal
i
stsandteachers.Examples
i
ncludeAssociati
onofEngi neers,BarCounci
lofI
ndia(BCI),andDental
Counci
lofI
ndi
a.
StudentOrgani
sati
ons
Therearevari
ousorganisati
onspresentt
orepresentthecausesand
gri
evancesofstudentsinIndi
a.ExamplesareNationalSt
udentsUnionof
I
ndia(Congress)
,AllAssam StudentsUni
on(Asom GanPar ishad)
,Chhat
ra
YuvaSangharshSami ti
(Aam Admi Part
y).
Reli
giousOr ganisati
ons
Theor ganisati
onsbasedonr el
igionhavecomet oplayani
mportantr
olei
n
Indi
anPol it
ics.Theyrepresentthenar r
owper spect
iveandareof
tentermed
asant i
-secular.Exampl
esoft heseor ganisat
ionsareRasht
ri
yaSwy am
SevakSangh, VishwaHinduPar ishad,BrahmoSamaj .
CasteGroups
Castehasbeenoneoft hesali
entf eatur
esofI ndianSociety
.Howev er
,it
hasalwaysbeenoneoft heideologiesdiscouragingtheaspirati
onof
peopleandconstit
uti
onofIndia.Thecast efactorisalwayspr ev
alentin
el
ectionsofI
ndia.Examplesofcast egroupsar eMarwar iAssociati
on,
Hari
janSewakSangh.
Tri
balOr ganisati
on
Tri
bal i
nIndiaar eprominenti
nCent ralIndi
aandNort
hEastIndi
a,andar
e
al
soact iveinCent r
alI
ndianTri
bal beltandinnor
theastI
ndi
a.These
organisati
onsi ncl
udeNat i
onalSociali
stCounci
lofNagal
and,Al
l-
Indi
a
Jharkhand,andTr ibalSanghofAssam
Lingui
sti
cGroups
Thereare22schedul
edlanguagesinIndi
a.Howev er,t
herehav
ebeenmany
groupsandmov ementsworki
ngforthewelfareoflanguagesi
nIndi
a.For
example-Hi
ndiSahi
tyaSammel anandTamil Sanghetc.
I
deologyBasedGr oup
I
deologybasedgroupshavebeenr ecentl
yformed.Someexampl esof
thesegroupsi
ncludeEnvi
ronmentPr ot
ecti
onGr oupsli
keNarmadaBachao
AndolanandChipkomovement ,Democraticrightsorgani
sati
on,Gandhi
PeaceFoundati
on, Womanright
sor gani
sation,Civi
ll
ibert
iesassoci
ati
ons.
AnomicGroups
Anomicpressur
egroupsref
ertothosespontaneousgroupswhi char
e
for
medwi t
hacol l
ecti
ver
esponsethroughri
ots,demonstrat
ions,
assassi
nat
ions,
etc.TheI
ndiangovernmentandbureaucrati
celit
e
overwhel medbyt heproblem ofeconomi cdev el
opmentandscar cit
yof
resourcesav ai
labletothem, i
nevi
tablyacquir
esat echnocrat
icandant i
-
poli
ticalfr
ameofmi nd,parti
cular
ist
icdemandsofwhat everkindsare
deniedlegiti
macy .Asaconsequence, pr
essuregroupsar eal
ienatedfr
om
thepol i
ti
calsystem.Someoft heanomi cpressuregroupsare-Naxalit
e
groups, Uni
tedLiberati
onFr ontofAssam, AllAssam Student
’sUnion,
JammuandKashmi rLiberati
onFront.
Di
ff
erencebet
weenPol
i
tical
Par
tyandPr
essur
eGr
oup

Poli
ti
calpart
yandpr essuregroupbothver
yimpor t
antindecisi
onmaking
ofthevari
ouspolici
esandexistsalongwit
hpolit
icalpart
iesinever
ynati
on
butther
eisav astdi
fferencebetweenthetwo.Themaj ordif
fer
ence
betweenpoli
ti
calparti
esandpr essur
egroupareasf ol
lows-

 Pressuregroupi
sthepubl
icbodyacti
ngbehindthepoli
ti
cal
party
(outsi
depol
iti
cal
part
y)whereaspol
it
icalpart
iesconst
it
ute
government

 Pressuregroupacti sindir
ectaswellasi
ntermitt
ent.Theyt
ryto
i
nfluenceandpr essuri
zet hegover
nmenttogett hei
rdemandf ul
fi
ll
ed.
Theydonoti ntervenedirectl
ywhereasPol
iti
calpart
iesactdi
rect
ly,
theyarelegall
yent i
tl
edtof r
amepol i
ci
esandt akedecisi
on
concerni
ngt hecount r
y.

 Pr
essur
egr oupspr essuri
zeexecut
iveandlegi
slat
uretoachi
evei
ts
ai
m whereasPolit
icalparti
esbri
ngco-ordi
nati
onintheworki
ngof
ex
ecuti
veandl egi
slature.

 Pressuregroupusesbothconv
ent
ionalandnon-convent
ional
means
todemonst rat
ethei
rdemandswhereasPoli
ti
calpart
iesuseonly
consti
tuti
onalmeanstoexecut
eit
sdutiesandfuncti
ons

 Pressur
egroupworksforsel
f-
inter
est,t
heyemergeanddissolv
eas
pertheneedofcer
tai
ngroupswher easPoli
ti
calpartywor
ksfor
nati
onali
nter
est
sandnotmer elyforanycer
taingrouporobj
ecti
ve.

 Pressur
egroupemergesanddi
ssol
veswher
easpol
i
tical
par
ti
esar
e
recogni
zedbyel
ect
ioncommissi
on.

 Theynev
erf
orm gov
ernmentorcont
estel
ect
ionbuti
nfl
uencet
he
 decisi
onofGov ernmentorpubli
cpoli
cy,unli
kepoli
ti
calparti
es.They
attempttoinf
luencepoli
ti
calpar
tieswhereaspoli
ti
calpart
iesseekto
createchangebybeingelect
edtopublicoffi
ce.
Techni
quesUsedbyPr
essur
eGr
oups

1.El
ecti
oneeri
ng 
:Pl
aci
ngi
npubl
i
cof
fi
ceper
sonswhof
avourt
hei
r
i
nter
ests.

2.Lobbying 
:Persuadi
ngpubl
i
cof
fi
cer
stoadoptandenf
orcepol
i
ciesof
thei
rinter
est
.

3.Propagandizi
ng 
: I
nfl
uenci
ngthepubli
copini
on.
Pressuregroupsmaysomet i
mesmakeuseofmedi afordi
spersi
ngt hei
r
vi
ewsi npublicandwinningsuppor
t.Theymay  
publ
ishstat
ist
icsi
nf avour
oftheircl
aims.Howev er,t
heymayevenresortt
oill
egit
imateandil
legal
met hodsli
kestri
kes,v
iolenceorev
enbr i
bes.
Medi aaspr essur egr oup
Massmedi apl aysav italrolei nrev eali
ngt hev arioushappeningofpol i
ti
cs
andl i
feofcommonpeopl eal laround.I ncount riessuchasI ndiathemass
medi a–t heradi o,TV, thecinemaandt hepr essar everypower f
ulmeansof
social changeandactasapr essuregr oupf ort heinterestofcommon
peopl eandr ev ealsalldeedsoft hegov ernment .Massmedi ainitsfull
swingofwor ki ngcanopenl ycr i
tici
zet hegov ernmentandhav etherightto
placet heirvi
ewonacer tainsi tuati
on.Fur t
hermassmedi ahelptogener ate
acommonpl atform whi cht r
iest of ocusoncor eissuesoft hesocietyand
i
tsneed.Somedi a’srolei sjustasi mpor tanti ni nfl
uencingactivi
ti
esoft he
polit
ical par
ti
es, ast hatofot herpr essur egr oupwor kingtostri
vef or
certainspecificgoal s.Inf act, i
nt hi
scont empor arywor ldmediaact sasan
agentofchangef ocusi ngont hesoci aldev elopmentofsoci etyandhence
medi ar oleofpr essurizinggov ernmentgi veni tnat ureofpressuregr oup
whichi sofv italimpor tance.
Conclusion
Despitemaj orcri
ti
cism,theexistenceofapr essuregr oupisnowan
i
ndispensabl eandhelpfulel
ementofademocr ati
cset up.Pressur
egroup
promot esnationalandparti
cularinter
ests,
constitut
eal i
nkof
communi cati
onbetweenci t
izenandt hegovernment .Theypr ovi
dethe
necessaryi nf
ormationandkeept henati
onpoliti
call
yal i
ve.Today
democr aticpoli
ti
cshast obepol i
ticsthr
oughconsul tati
on,negoti
ati
onand
someamountofbar gai ni ng.Thesecannothappenwi thoutpr essur egr oup.
Thesoci et yhasbecomehi ghl ycompl exandani ndi v i
dual cannotpur sue
theirint eresti ntheirown, theyneedpr essur egr oupf ort his.Pressur e
groupsar esov it
al thatt heyar enotconf inedt oneedofdev el
opedor
devel opi ngnat i
onoranyf orm ofgov er nment .
Whati st heFour thEst ate?
Thet ermr eferst othepr essandnewsmedi ai nit sexpl i
citandi mpl icit
abil
ityt of ramet hei ssuesoft heday .Al thoughnotdi rectlypar toft he
poli
t i
cal sy stem, asi tof t
enchal l
engesi t,itcanwi eldsi gni fi
cantpowerand
haveasoci al i
nfl
uenceandbr ingaboutchangesi npol icies.Thef our t
h
estatei sseenast heest abl i
shednewsmedi awhi chcont ainsaneducat ed
groupofpr ofessional j
our nal ists.
Somet i
messeenasabr anchoft hatormor eof tenast hef i
fthestat eis
whathasbecomeknownasCi tizenJour nal i
sm wher eany onecanupl oad
theirownt hought sori deasont ot hei nt ernett hroughbl ogsi teorwebsi t
es
suchasYouTube.
Wher east hef ourthest atewi llbeheav ilyr egulat edandmoni t
oredt hef if
th
estatewi l
l notbeboundbysi mi l
arst andar dsofr epor ting.
Whyi st hemedi acal l
edt hef our thest at e?
Thet erm hai lsfrom t heEur opeanconceptoft het hr eeest atesoft her eal m
-thecl ergy , thenobi li
tyandt hecommoner s.Poweri nmostdemocr ati
c
count r i
esi sdi vi
dedbet weent hel egisl at ure, execut iv eandj udiciary.Ithas
comet osy mbol i
set hemedi aorpr essasasegmentofsoci etythathasan
i
ndirectbutkeyr olei ni nf l
uenci ngt hepol i
tical sy stem.Nowaday st het erm
i
sof t enusedasacol l
ect iv enount or ef ert oal lj
our nalists.
Wher edoest het erm comef rom? -ThomasCar lyle attribut edtheor i
ginof
thet er mt o EdmundBur ke, whousedi tinapar l
i
ament arydebat ei n1787
ont heopeni ngupofpr essr epor tingoft he  HouseofCommonsofGr eat
Brit
ai n.
Earli
erwr itershav eappl iedt het er mt ol awy ers,t ot he  Briti
sh queens
consor t (act ingasaf r
eeagent , independentoft heki ng) ,andt o
the pr oletar iat.
Medi ahaspl ay edasi gni ficantr olei n
establ ishi ng  democr acy  
t hroughoutt hewor l
d.Si ncet he18t hcent ury,the
medi ahasbeeni nstrument al inr eachi ngt hemassesandequi ppingt hem
withknowl edge, especi allydur ingt heAmer i
canI ndependencemov ement
andFr enchRev oluti
on.Medi ai sconsi der edas“ Four thPi l
lar”indemocr ati
c
count r i
esal ongwi thLegi slat ure, Execut ive, andJudi ciar y,aswi thoutaf ree
medi ademocr aticsy st em cannotceaset oexi st.
Indi
anmedi ahast rav eledal ongway , from t heday sofnewspaperand
radiot opr esent -dayageofTel ev i
sionand  Soci al Medi a.  Thel iber ali
zat ion
ofIndi aneconomyi nt he1990ssawani nf luxofi nv est menti nt hemedi a
houses, asl argecor por atehouses, busi nesst ycoons, pol iti
cal el it
es, and
i
ndust ri
ali
st ssawt hisasanoppor t
uni tyt oi mpr ov et heirbr andi mage.The
newschannel swer enowi nv ol
v edi nt heshowbi zindust ry,asTRPsbecame
acauseofr i
v alryamongstnewshouses.
Newst hatwasseenasmedi um t oeducat et hepeopl eoni ssuest hatwer e
ofut mosti mpor tantf ort hesoci ety, becameasour ceofbi asedv i
ewpoi nts.
Ther ol eofmedi aist omaket hesoci et yawar eoft hei rdemocr at i
cright s
andf ightt het hr eei nstitut i
onsofdemocr acy .Itact sast hev oiceofmi llions
ofcitizens, whengov ernmenti nst it
ut ionsbecomecor ruptandaut hor itarian
orwhent heyt urnabl ind- eyet owar dst hei ssuesconcer ningt hesoci et y.In
today ’
sI ndia, medi ahasbecomeamout hpiecef orv ariouspol i
tical
organi zationsandbusi nessgr oups, theyactasamanuensi sf orsuch
i
nf l
uent ialfigur es, ast hei rbusi nessr eliesonsuppor tf rom such
organi zations.
Roleofmedi ai ncont empor aryIndi andemocr acy
Medi ai sthe“ four thest at e”ofdemocr acyandi tpl ay sapi vot alr olein
ensur ingjust iceandbenef itsoft hegov er nmentpol iciesr eacht hei nter i
or
sectionsoft hesoci et y
.Theyactasachai nbet weent hegov ernmentand
thecit i
zensoft hecount ry,peopl ehav ef aithi nmedi aasi thasani mpact
ont heaudi ence.Thechangi ngdy nami csofI ndi anpol iticshasi ncreased
peopl e’sexpect ati
onf rom medi aasi nt hi sphaseoft ransi tion, itispr et t
y
easyt obel i
ev ei napar ticularbel ief.
Theol dergener ati
onoft hecount ryi sst illfixatedont radi t
ionandcul t ure,
whilet hepr esent -
dayy out hi smor eint er est edi nt hef ast -mov i
ngwor ldof
technol ogyandsoci almedi a.Thus, itbecomesi mpor t
antf ormedi ato
ensur et hatt hei nfor mat iont hatt heyar ebr oadcast ingshoul dnotbea
biasedort amper edi nawayt oboostt hechannel sTRP.

Conf li
ctinNor theastI ndia:Issues, CausesandConcer n
TheNor theastr egi
onofI ndiacompr isi
ngofei ghtst ates– Assam,
Nagal and, Mani pur
, Arunachal Pr
adesh, Mi zoram, TripuraandSikkim.North
EastI ndiais aregionpoor lyconnect edtot heI ndianmai nl
andbyasmal l
corridor–Si lghuriCor ri
dor( alsoknownasChi ckenNeck–wi thanar r
ow
widthofonl y23ki l
omet ers.).
 NorthEasternI ndiahasbeenf aci
ngpr obl
ems
ofinsur gencyf ornear5decades, butthi
ngsar enowset tl
i
ngdownand
peacest art
edt opr evail
.
Whati sinsurgency ?
Ani nsurgencyi sanar medr ebell
ionagai nstaconst i
tutedauthori
tywhen
thoset akingpar tint her ebel l
i
onar enotr ecognizedasbell
igerents.Incase
ofIndianscenar i
oi tcanbeseenasar medr ebelli
onandviolentprotests
againstI ndianGov ernmentoraut hori
ty.
Insurgencyi nNor thEastI ndi a
Nagal and, Mani pur ,Assam andTr ipurahadbeenwi t
nessi
ngconf lictsince
1950- 60per iod, butsi nce1990, theintensityofconfl
ict
sstar t
edto
decrease.Nowt heonl yst atewher epromi nenti
nsurgencyexistisMani pur
.
Butint hisregi onsev eral armedf actionsoper at
e.Somegr oupscal lfora
separat estat e,other sf orr egi
onal autonomywhi l
esomeext remegr oups
demandcompl eteindependence.
Reasonsf orconf l
icti nNor thEastIndia:

 Hi
stor
ical
reasons–l
oosel
yadmi
nist
eredunderBr
it
ishI
ndi
a.

 Tensi
onsbet
weent
hesest
atesandt
hecent
ral
gov
ernment
.

 Tensionsbetweentr
ibal
people,
whoarenati
vesoft
hesest
ates,
and
migrantpeoplesf
rom ot
herpart
sof
 I
ndia.

 Geogr
aphi
cal
reasons–notwel
lconnect
edwi
thpr
esentI
ndi
an
mainl
and.

 Developmentalreasons–Poor
lydev
elopedduet
olackoff
undf
rom
Center/St
ates.

 Env
ironment
alr
easons.

 Mi
l
itar
yreasons– 
 AFSPA(
ArmedFor
cesSpeci
alPowerAct
).

 For
eignPol
i
cy–Lookeasypol
i
cyandmar
ketchangesbought
.

 Exter
nalsuppor t–Chi naandMy anmar .I
nsurgentGr
oupsinNorthEast
I
ndia
NAGALAND- NSCN- IM,NSCN- K
MANI PUR-PeoplesLi berat
ionAr my,PREPAK
ASSAM- ULFA,NDFB, KLNLF, UPDS
TRIPURA-NationalLiberati
onFr ontofTripura,
AllTri
puraTi
gerForce
MEGHALAYA- ANVC, HNLC
RecentObserv ati
onsaboutNor thEastIndia
I
nsurgency&Ceasef ire
1.Thebasi ci ngredientofinsurgencyi.
e.popularsupporti
sdry
ingupin
 t
heregi
on.I
nsur
gencyi
sact
iveonl
yinMani
pur
.Ther
ear
ear
ound50
i
nsur
gentgr
oupsinMani
pur
.

2.CeasefireandSuspensi
onofOperati
onswithmil
i
tantgr
oupsal
l
ows
them toindul
geinextort
ionandki
dnappi
ng,whi
chintur
nhelpt
hem i
n
maintainingt
hei
rcloutovert
hepeopleoft
heregi
on.

3.Ther eexi stsdeepnexusbet weenal lt

heinsur
gentgroupsi nthe
Nor theast .TheCPI( Maoist)isalsointouchwiththeNor theast
insur gentspr imar i
lytosourceweapons.Ar msweregi venbyt he
Uni tedLiber ati
onFor ceofAsom ( ULFA)totheCPI(Maoi st)i
nWest
Bengal .
4.Thebi ggestchal lenget otheNor thEastisext
orti
oncar riedoutby
v ari
ousi nsur gentgr oups.Extorti
onhasbecomemet iculously
or ganisedact i
vi
tyi ntheregionandi soneofthemaj orsour cesof
fundsf orthemi l
i
t ants.
Pol
i
tical
1.Itisi mpor tanttounder standt hecult
ureandpsycheoft hepeopleof
Nor thEastwhi lef ramingpolicyalter
nati
ves.

2.Theper ceivedthr
eattothepoli
ti
cali
denti
tyoftheAssamesepeople
from theil
legalmigr
antsfrom Bangl
adeshli
esatthecoreoft
he
Assam pr oblem.Theindi
genouspeopleofAssam feelt
hati
nfutur
e
theil
legalmi gr
antswil
lbecomet hemajor
itypopul
ati
onandtheywil
l
l
osepol it
icalpower.

3.Theceasefi
reagreement
sandpeacenegot
iat
ionshaveresul
tedin
reduci
ngthevi
olencel
evel
sandgivent
hecivi
lsoci
eti
esoftheregi
on
spacetotal
k.

4.Oneoft heway stocont aininsurgencyint heregionist odelegate

powerst otheet hnicmi norit
iesthrought heAutonomousDi stri
ct
Councilssot hattheycanf ashiontheirowndev elopment .
5.Theimpl ement ati
onofSi xthSchedul einAssam hasnotbenef i
tedthe
tri
balcommuni ti
esoft hest ate.Foll
owingt he73rdand74t h
amendment s,theCent ralandst ategovernment sar eprovidinghuge
amount soff i
nanci al
r esour cestot hePanchay atiRajInsti
tutions(PRI
)
andmuni ci
pali
ties.Since, theschedul edar easdonotf allundert he
purvi
ewoft hePRIandmuni cipali
ti
es,theydonotr ecei
v eanyshar eof
thesefundsandasar esultt heyloseout.
Dev
elopment
1.Securitysi
tuationintheregionhasi mprovedconsiderabl
yinAssam
andMeghal ayainparti
cularfacil
it
ati
ngconduciveatmospher efor
investmentanddev el
opment .TheNor t
heastIndustr
ialPoli
cyini
ti
ated
byt heGover nmentofIndiafurthercontr
ibut
edinencour agi
ng
investmentandi ndustr
iesinther egi
on.

2.Howev er,theNor theastwi llnotattr

actbigi ndustri
esbecauset he
regi
oni sresour cedeficit,anddoesnothav eeconomi esofscal eto
match.Mor eov er
,thesecur i
tysit
uationinthewhol eoft her egi
onhas
notimpr ov eduni formly.
3.TheNor thEastCounci l (
NEC)andt heMi nistryfortheDev elopmentof
theNor t
hEastRegi on( DoNER)hav ebecomef unddisbursing
agenciesi nsteadofst rategicplanningagenci es.Atpresent
approximat el
yRs.11, 000cr oreisly
ingidlewi t
htheMi ni
stryofDoNER.
LookEastPol icy
1.TheNor thEastst i
llr
emai nsi nwardlookingf ocussingprimar i
lyon
i
nternalconf l
icts.Therei snodi scussionont hebenefit
sthatcoul d
accruetot her egionfrom t heLookEastPol icy.

2.IftheNor thEastRegi oni sopenedupt hereisafearofbei ngswamped

bycheapChi nesegoods, whichwoul dspell
disasterforthelocal
manuf act uringuni ts.
3.Appr ehensi onsexi stt hatthedev elopmentofcommuni cationli
nks
couldr esulti ndev elopingstrongl i
nksbet weenthepeopl eoftheNor t
h
eastwi tht hepeopl eofChi na,My anmarandASEANcount ri
es,which
woul dunder mi netheuni tyandi ntegri
tyofIndia.
Bor
derissues
1.Thei nternat i
onal bor dersintheNor t
heastar eextremelyporous.Thus,
crossbor deri nfi
lt
rationofmi li
tants,andsmuggl ingofar msar e
rampanti nt her egion.

2.Chinahasdif
feri
ngclaiminAr unachalPradesh.Al
ongt
he
westernmostcorner,
Chineseclaimlinelay20kmssouthandinthe
easter
nmostextr emeofAr unachalPradeshitl
ay30km sout
h.

3.Inter
nat
ionalboundari
esintheNor t
hEasthav enotcr
ystal
li
sedi
nto
l
i
nesseparati
ngsovereigncountr
iesontheground.
Recommendationstosolv
eNor thEastIndi
aProblems-I
nsurgency
1.Thoroughbackgroundcheckofal li
nsur
gentsgroupsshouldbe
 carr
iedoutbef
oret
hecentral
governmentent
ersintoanyCeasef
ir
eor
Suspensi
onofOperat
ionsAgreementswi
ththeinsurgent
s.
Pol
it
ical

1.Poli
ti
calsol
uti
onstotheAssam pr
oblem shouldbediscussedopenl
y
aswidelyaspossi
bletoav
oidbackl
ashfrom thetr
ibalandthe
minori
typopul
ati
onofthestat
e.

2.Asyst
em ofworkpermi
tshoul
dbeissuedsothatt
heil
legal
Bangl
adeshi
migrant
sdonotendupasI ndi
anci
ti
zens.

3.TheAut onomousDi str

ictCouncil
sshouldbeempower ed.
4.Governanceshouldbei mpr ovedinastepbystepmanner .Str
ict
supervi
sionbyseniorof f
icial
sshouldbeini
ti
atedtoi mprovethe
deli
verysystem oft
hegov ernment.
Dev
elopment
1.TheMi nist
ryoftheDev el
opmentoft heNorthEastr egi
on( DoNER)be
mergedwi ththeNorthEastCounci l(NEC)f
orbet t
erstrat
egicplanni
ng
andcoor di
nati
onofv ari
ousdev elopmental
projectsintheregion.

2.FocusoftheMini
str
yfDoNERandNECshouldbeoni
nvestmenti
n
mega-proj
ect
swhichwi
llmakebi
gdi
ff
erencetot
hedevel
opmentof
theregi
on.

3.I
nst
it
uti
onal
capaci
ti
esi
ntheNor
theastshoul
dbedev
elopedur
gent
ly.

4.Pragmati
clandusepolicyshouldbefor
mul
atedforatt
racti
ng
i
ndustr
iesintheregi
on.Micro,smal
landmedium ent
erpri
sesshoul
d
beencouraged.

5.Localtour
ism shoul
dbepromoted.Tour
istsresi
dingi
ntheei
ghtNor
th
Easter
nstatesshouldbeencour
agedtotravelwit
hint
heregi
on.

6.Nichet ouri
sm orhighendtourism shoul dbeencour aged.Medicaland
highereducat i
ontouri
sm shouldbeencour aged.
7.TheNor theastshoul
dbecomeasi ngleeconomi cunitwithout
disturbingthepoli
ti
calboundariesoft hestates.Nointernalt
raf
fi
c
barriersintheregi
on.Excl
usivef i
vey earplanfortheNor theast
focusingondev el
opmentofinfrastructur
e.
LookEastPol icy
 1.Greaterawarenessaboutt
heLookEastPol
i
cyandit
sbenef
it
stothe
NorthEastshouldbegenerat
edamonghepoli
cymaker
sandthe
i
ntell
igent
siaoftheregi
on.

2.TieswithMyanmarshoul
dbedeepenedbyexpl
oit
ingMyanmar’
s
anxiet
iesaboutChi
naaswel
lasexi
sti
ngdeepcivi
li
zat
ionandspi
ri
tual
ti
es.

3.TheNor t
hEastregi
onmustbei ncl
udedint
heIndi
a-ASEANVisi
onfor
tradeandcooperat
ion.Devel
opmentPl
anfort
heNor t
hEastshoul
d
factorI
ndi
a-ASEANst r
ategi
ccooper
ati
on.

4.Int
egratedandbottomsupapproachesar erequir
edforint
egrati
onof
theNor t
heastintheLookEastPoli
cy.TheNor thEastshould
for
mul ateplansastohowitcanengagewi ththeASEAN.Bet t
er
coordinati
onofeffor
tsbyal
ltheNortheasternst
atesshouldbe
ensured.

5.VisaofficesofBangladeshandMy anmarshoul
dbel ocatedinthe
Nor t
hEast .
6.Centres/Departmentsforthestudi
esofneighbouringcountri
esli
ke
My anmar ,Bangl
adesh,Tibet
,BhutanandNepal i
nUni ver
sit
iesshoul
d
besetupi nuniv
ersi
ti
estounder st
andIndi
a’sneighboursbetter
.
Bor
derissues
1.Specialeconomi czonesalongIndia-
Bangl
adeshbor der,
especial
lyi
n
Meghal ayaandAssam shoul dbesetup.

2.Statesshouldfocusmor
eont
hedev
elopmentandsecur
it
yoft
he
borderareas.

3.Senti
mentsoft hepeopleofArunachalPradeshshouldbetakeni
nto
consi
der
ationbyt hecentr
algovernmentwhi l
ediscussi
ngthe
fr
ameworksf orresol
uti
onofthebor derdisput
ewi t
hChina.

4.Matchingi nfr
astructureandmi li
tarycapabi l
ityshouldbebui ldto
ensurepeaceandenabl enegot i
ati
onsf rom aposi ti
onofst rength.
Transgender peoplehav ea genderident i
ty 
or genderexpr ession that
diff
ersfr
om t heir
 assi
gnedsex.Tr ansgenderi sat ermthati ncludesthe
manyway st hatpeople’s genderidentit
ies canbedi ffer
entf rom thesex
theywereassi gnedatbi rt
h.Therear eal otofdifferenttermst ransgender
peopleusetodescr i
bet hemselves.Forex ampl e,somet imest hewor d
tr
ansgenderisshor tenedt ojusttrans, trans*, ort ransmal e/transfemal e.
It
’salwaysbestt ouset helanguageandl abelst hatt heper sonpr efers.
Transgenderpeopleexpr esst heirgenderi dent i
tiesi nmanydi ff
erentway s.
Somepeopl euset heirdress, behav ior
, andmanner ismst oli
veast he
genderthatfeelsri
ghtf orthem.Somepeopl et akehor monesandmay
havesurgerytochanget heirbodysoi tmat chest hei rgenderi dentit
y .Some
tr
ansgenderpeopl erejectthet raditi
onal under st andi ngofgenderas
divi
dedbetweenj ust“mal e”and“ f
emal e,
”sot heyi dent i
fyjustas
tr
ansgender,orgender queer ,
gender fl
uid, orsomet hingel se.
Transgenderpeoplear edi ver
sei nt heirgenderi dent ities(thewayy ouf eel
ontheinside),genderexpr essions( thewayy oudr essandact ),and sexual
ori
entati
ons (
thepeopl ey ou’r
eat tractedt o).
Whenpeopl e’sassignedsexandgenderi dent i
tyar et hesame, they'
re
call
edcisgender.
Whatchallengesdot r
ansgenderpeopl ef ace?
Whilet
hev i
sibi
l
ityoftr
ansgenderpeopleisi ncr
easinginpopularcult
ure
anddail
ylif
e,west il
lfaceseverediscriminati
on,sti
gmaandsy stemic
i
nequal
it
y.Someoft hespecif
icissuesfacingthetransgendercommunity
are:

Lack of l egal pr otection– Whi le the f ederal gov ernment 's Equal
Empl oymentOppor tunity Commi ssion (EEOC)and t he Depar tmentof
Educationhav er ecentl
yt akenst epst oincl udet r
ansgenderpeopl eunder
exist
ingnon-discriminati
onpr ot
ections,therei ssti
llnocompr ehensi venon
-di
scriminati
onl aw thatincl udesgenderi dent i
ty.Accordingt ot heHuman
Rights Campai gn’s 
2014 St at e Equali
tyI ndex ,onl y18 st ates and t he
Distr
ictofCol umbi a prohi bitempl oymentand housi ng di scriminati
on
based ongenderi dentit
y ;onl y17 st atesand t heDi st r
ictofCol umbia
prohibi
tdiscri
mi nati
onbasedongenderi dent i
tyinpublicaccommodat ions;
andonl y15st atesandt heDi stri
ctofCol umbi apr ohibitdiscriminati
on
basedongenderi denti
tyi neducat i
on.Mor eover,statelegisl
aturesacr oss
the countryar e debating – and i n some cases passi ng – l egi
slati
on
specifi
call
ydesignedt opr ohibittransgenderpeopl efrom accessi ngpubl i
c
bathrooms t hat cor respond wi th our gender i dent i
ty, or cr eati
ng
exempt i
onsbased on r eligiousbel iefst hatwoul d all
ow di scriminati
on
againstLGBTQpeopl e.

Pover
ty–Int
oomanycases,thi
slackoflegalpr
otecti
ontr
ansl
atesinto
unemploy
ment f
or t
ransgender peopl
e. 
The Nat i
onal Tr
ansgender
Discrimi nati
onSur vey  
(NTDS)f oundt hat15per centofrespondentswer e
l
ivingi nsev erepov er t
y( makinglesst han$10, 000/year)
.Fort r
ansgender
peopl eofcol or,thoser ateswereev enhi gher,
wi th34percentofBlackand
28per centofLat i
na/or espondentsr eporti
ngahousehol dincomeofl ess
than $10, 000 a y ear.As any one who has exper i
enced poverty or
unempl oymentunder stands,beingunablet oaffordbasicliv
ingnecessiti
es
can r esulti n homel essnessorl ead peoplet o engagein underground
economi esl i
kedr ugsal esorsur vi
valsexwor k,whichcanputpeopl eat
i
ncr easedr i
skforv i
olenceandar r
est.

Har assmentandst igma–TheLGBTQcommuni t yst i

llfacesconsi der able
stigmabasedonov eracent uryofbei ngchar act erizedasment allyi l
l
,
soci allydev i
antandsexual lypr edat or
y .Whi let hesef lawedv iewshav e
fadedi nrecenty ear sf orl esbi ansandgaymen,t ransgenderpeopl ear e
stillof tenmetwi thr idiculef r om asoci et ythatdoesnotunder st andus.
Thi sst igmapl ay
souti nav ar ietyofcont exts–l eav ingusv ulner abl et o
l
awmaker swho at temptt ol ev erageant i-
transgenderst i
gma t o scor e
cheap pol iti
calpoi nt s;t of ami l
y,f riends or cowor kers who r eject
transgenderpeopl euponl ear ningaboutourt ransgenderi dentiti
es;andt o
peopl ewhohar ass, bullyandcommi tser i
ousv iolenceagai nstt ransgender
peopl e.
Ant i-t
ransgenderv i
ol ence–Atl east13t ransgenderwomenwer emur der ed
i
n2014,and 2015i sont r
ackt oseeev enhi ghernumber s.Thesewomen
wer est abbed,shot ,st rangled,bur ned;ki l
ledv i
ol entlybyi ntimat epar t
ner s
orst ranger s.Accor dingt ot he2013  Nat ionalCoal itionofAnt i-
Vi olence
Pr ograms  (
NCAVP)r epor ton hat ev iolence agai nstl esbian,bi sexual,
transgender ,queerandHI V- aff ected( LGBTQH)communi ti
es,72per cent
oft hev ict
imsofLGBTQorHI V- mot i
v at
edhat ev iolencehomi cidesi n2013
wer et ransgenderwomen,and67per centwer et ransgenderwomenof
col or.Tr ansgenderpeopl ehav ef ewopt ionsf orpr otect i
ngour sel vesf rom
violence or seeki ng j usti
ce.The NTDS f ound t hat 22 per cent of
transgenderpeopl ewhohadi nt eractedwi thpol iceexper iencedbi as- based
har assmentf r
om pol ice,wi tht ransgenderpeopl eofcol orr epor tingmuch
higherr at
es.Si xper centr epor t
edphy sicalassaul t;2per centr epor ted
sexualassaul tbypol ice;and20per centr epor tedhav ingbeendeni ed
equalser vi
cebyl aw enf orcement .Near lyhal foft het r
ansgenderpeopl e
sur vey edint hestudysai dt hatt heywer euncomf ortablet urningt opol ice
forhel p.

Bar
ri
erst
oheal
thcar
e–Dat
acol
l
ect
iononheal
thdi
spar
it
iesamong
tr
ansgenderpeopl eisveryli
mited,butt
hedat awedohav er eveal a
heal
thcar esystem thatisnotmeet i
ngtheneedsoft het ransgender
communi t
y.Ina2012needsassessmentbyt heWashi ngt onD. C.Trans
Coalit
ion,44per centofthosewhoi dentif
iedhealt
hasoneoft heirtop
pri
orit
iessaidt hataccesstotransgender-sensi
ti
veheal thcarewast heir
mostsi gnif
icantneed.Bey ondfaci
ngbar ri
erstoobtainingmedi call
y -
necessaryheal thservi
cesandencount eri
ngmedi calprof essionalswho
l
ackedt ransgenderheal t
hcarecompet ency ,t
heNTDSf oundt hatalmost
20per centofrespondent shadbeenr efusedmedicalcar eout rightbecause
ofbias.

IdentityDocument s –Thewi despr eadl ackofaccur atei dentitydocument s

amongt ransgenderpeopl ecanhav eani mpactonev er yar eaoft heirli
v es,
i
ncl udingaccesst oemer gencyhousi ngorot herpubl i
cser vi
ces.Tobe
clear,wi thouti denti
ficat i
on, onecannott ravel, r
egisterf orschooloraccess
manyser vicest hatar eessent ialtof unct i
oni nsoci ety.Manyst at
esr equi re
ev i
denceofmedi calt ransi t
ion–whi chcanbepr ohibiti
v elyexpensi veand
i
snotsomet hingt hatal ltransgenderpeopl ewant–aswel lasf eesf or
processi ngnew i dent itydocument s,whi chmaymaket hem unaf fordabl e
forsomemember soft het ransgendercommuni ty.TheNTDSf oundt hat
amongt hoser espondent swhohav eal readyt ransiti
oned,33per centhad
notbeenabl et oupdat eanyoft hei ri dent itydocument st omat cht heir
affi
rmedgender .
Whi leadv ocat escont inuewor kingt or emedyt hesedi spar i
ti
es,change
cannotcome t oo soon f ort r
ansgenderpeopl e.Vi sibili
ty– especi ally
posi t
ivei mages oft ransgenderpeopl ei nt he medi a and soci ety–
cont i
nuest omakeacr i
ti
caldi f
fer encef orus;butv isibili
tyisnotenough
andcomeswi threalr iskst ooursaf ety ,especi allyfort hoseofuswhoar e
partofot hermar ginal i
zedcommuni ties.Thati swhyt heHumanRi ght s
Campai gni scommi ttedt ocont inui ngt osuppor tandadv ocatef ort he
transgendercommuni t
y ,sot hatt het ransgenderAmer icanswhoar eand
wi l
lbecomey ourf ri
ends,nei ghbor s,cowor ker sandf ami l
ymember shav e
anequal chancet osucceedandt hrive.
The t er ms third gender  
and  third sex  descr i
be i ndi viduals who ar e
categor ized( byt heirwi l
lorbysoci alconsensus)asnei thermal enor
femal e,aswel last hesoci alcat egor ypr esenti nt hosesoci etieswho
recogni zet hreeormor egender s.Thet er m" thir
d"isusual l
yunder stoodt o
mean" ot her";someant hropol ogistsandsoci ologistshav edescr i
bedf our th
andf ift
hgender s.
Evol
utionofNaxal ism i nIndi
a:
Thespr eadandgr owt hofNaxali
sm i nIndiacanbr oadlybedivi
dedi nt
o
thr
eephasesorst ages.
Thethr eest ageshav ebeendescr i
bedbel ow:
1.Fi
rstSt age:
TheNaxal itemovementbegani nMay1967i nt hethreepoli
cest at
ionareas,
Naxalbar i,Khori
bari andPhansidewa, ofDar j
eelingdist
ricti
nWestBengal .
I
nNov ember1967, l
ef twingext
remi stsfrom thewhol ecountr
yf ounded
the‘
All IndiaCoor dinationCommi ttee’i
nKol kata.InMay1968, the
Commi tteewasr enamedas‘ Al
lIndiaCoor di
nationCommi t
teeof
Communi stRevolutionaries’
(AI
CCCR) .

Itdecl aredf ouri deol ogi

cal aims:
i
.Pr otract edpeopl e’swari naccor dancewi thMao’ st eachings
i
i.Adapt ingt oguer r
illawar faret actics
i
ii.Establ ishmentofr uralrev olutionarybasear eas
i
v .Enci rcli
ngt heci t
iesaswel lasabst ainingf r
om par li
ament ar yel ecti
ons
AICCCRf oundedt her evolutionar ypar tyCPIMar xist-Leni ni
st( ML)i n1969
thatwasbasedonMaoi stideol ogy .Soon, theNaxal itemov ementspr ead
tomanypar tsoft hecount ry ,especi all
yWestBengal ,Odi sha,Bi harand
Andhr aPr adesh.Thei rmai nf oll
ower swer epeasant sandadi vasi s,or
tri
bals, whoof tenexper ienceddi scr i
mi nationandexpl oi
tationf rom st ate
author iti
es.
Also, sev eraly oungunempl oy edpeopl eandst udent sgotat tract edt othe
Naxal ideology .Theper iod1970t omi d-1971wast hepeakper i
odofv iolent
activi
tiesbyNaxal it
es.Aj ointoper at i
onofpol iceandar myi n1971i nthe
wor staf fectedar easi nWestBengal ,Bi harandOdi shal edt ot hear r
estand
deat hofal mostal ltopleader soft hemov ement .Char uMazumdarwas
caughtanddi edi n1972i npol i
cecust ody .Themov ementf acedasev ere
blowdur i
ngemer gencywhenar ound40, 000cadr eswer eimpr isonedi n
1975.

2.SecondStage:
Themov ementaroseagaininamor eviol
entform aftertheEmer gency.It
conti
nuedtowidenitsbaseaspert hestr
ategyof‘protract
edwar ’.Thei
r
basegrewfrom WestBengal t
oBihartoOdishaandal sotoAndhr a
PradeshandChhatti
sgarh.CPI(
ML)wasconv ert
edintoPeopl e’
sWarGr oup
(PWG)in1980whi chhaditsbaseinAndhraPr adeshandst ruckheav y
causali
ti
esamongpol i
cepersonnel.
PWGwasbannedbyAndhr aGovernmentin1992buti tcont
inuedi t
s
acti
vit
ies.Simultaneously,
Maoi stCommuni stCentreofIndia(
MCCI )gr
ew
i
nst r
engt hinBiharandcar r
iedoutl argescaleattacksonlandl
ordsand
otheruppercast eoutfi
ts.Naxal mov ementcont i
nuedtogr owatasteady
paceacr ossmanypar t
soft hecount ry .
3.Thir
dSt age:
Inasignifi
cantdev el
opmenti n2004, thePeople’
sWarGr oup(PWG) ,
operati
ngi nAndhr aPradesh,andt heMaoi stCommuni stCentreofIndi
a
(MCCI),operati
ngi nBiharandadj oiningareas,mergedtoformt heCPI
(Maoist).Over13l ef
twingext r
emi st( LWE)groupsarecurrent
lyoperat
ing
i
nt hecount r
y.

TheCPI(Maoist)isthemaj orl
eftwingextr
emi stoutfitr
esponsiblefor
mostinci
dentsofv i
olenceandkill
i
ngofci v
il
iansandsecur i
tyforces,and
hasbeenincl
udedi ntheScheduleofTerrori
stOr ganizat
ionsalongwi thal
l
i
tsformati
onsandf rontorgani
zati
onsundert heUnl awfulActi
vit
ies
(Pr
eventi
on)Act,1967.

Aft ert hef or mat i

onofCPI( Maoi st),Naxal violencehasbeenont her ise
since2005, tot heext entt hati n2006, thePr imeMi nisterhadt odecl are
Naxal i
sm t hesi nglebi ggesti nter nalsecur it
ychal lengebei ngfacedbyI ndia.
Est imat edt obe40, 000st rong, theNaxal i
teshav ebeenast rai
nont he
count ry
’ssecur it
yfor cesandabar r
iertodev elopmenti nthev astmi neral
ri
chr egioni neast ernI ndi aknownast he‘RedCor ri
dor’.Itisanar rowbut
cont i
guousst rippassi ngt hr oughJhar khand, Chhat t
isgar handOdi sha.I n
fact ,att hepeakofMaoi stmov ementi nNepal , Naxal infl
uencewasseent o
bespr eadi ngf rom ‘Tirupat i toPashupat i
’.
Today ,theNaxal it
esi nfluenceat hirdoft hegeogr aphical spreadof
coun¬t ry.Ri ghtnow, themov ementhasexpandedi t
sact ivit
iescov er i
ng
ov er460pol i
cest ationsi n223di stri
ctsacr oss20st ates.Butt hewor st
affect edar easoft heMaoi sti nfluencei ncludeappr oximat el
y30di st ri
ctsof
7st at esnamel yChhat t
isgar h, Odi sha,Mahar asht r
a, Andhr aPradesh,
Jhar khand, BiharandWestBengal .
Mostoft hesear easf all i
nt heDandakar anyaRegi onwhi chincludesar eas
ofChhat tisgar h,Odisha, Mahar asht raandAndhr aPr adesh.CPI( Maoi st)
hasst ationedsomebat talionsi nt heDandakar any aregion.Local
panchay atl eader sareof tenf or cedt or esignandt heMaoi st
shol dr egul ar
JanAdal at .Theyhav ebeenr unni ngapar all
el gov ernmentandpar allel
j
udi ci aryi nt hesear eas.

Butv
iol
enceal
onecannotbet
heonl
yyar
dst
ickt
omeasur
eMaoi
st
expan¬sion.Maoistsareal
soexpandi
ngint
ermsofi ndoctr
inati
onand
consoli
dation.Theyareal
sotryi
ngtospr
eadthei
rideologyi
nt heBheeland
Gondtribesdomi nat
edarea,t
he‘Gol
denCorr
idor
’stret
chingfrom Puneto
Ahmedabad.

Theyar et r
yingt oexpl oitnewar eas, var i
oussoci algroupsand
mar ginal izedsect ionsl ikeDal itsandmi nor i
tiest hr oughact iveassoci ation
wi t
ht hei rgr iev ¬ancesagai nstt hest ate.Maoi stshav eal somadet heir
presencef elti nwest er nOdi sha, UpperAssam andLohi tinAr unachal
Pradeshwhi let heyf acedhugeset backsi nJangal mahal areaofWest
Bengal andKai murandRoht asdi st rictsofBi har .
Themov ement ’scapaci tyt ochal lenget hest atehasal soi ncreased
enor mousl yconsi der i
ngt hei nci dent sofv i
olenceandcasual t
iesr esulting
from t hem.Thebi ggesti ncidentwaswhent heyambushedawhol eCRPF
Companyi nApr il2010i nDant ewadaofChhat tisgar handki l
led76CRPF
armedper sonnel ,showi ngt heext entoft hei rst rategicpl anni ng,ski ll
sand
armament .
In2013, thel ef twi ngext r
emi stmov ementmadei nternat i
onal headl ines
whent heyki l
led27peopl e, incl udi ngsomehi gh- levelpol iti
cians,inSukma
DistrictofChhat ti
sgar h.
Par tySt ruct ur eofNaxal it
eGr oups:
CPI( Maoi st)i st hemai npar tynowaf t
ert hemer gerofv ar i
ousNaxal i
te
groupsi n2004.M LaxmanRao/ Ganpat i i
st heSecr etaryGener aloft he
party .
Theor gani zat i
onal str
uct ur eofCPI( Maoi st)isasf oll
ows:
Politbur o–Hi ghestdeci sionmaki ngbody→ Cent r
alcommi ttee→ St ate
commi ttees/ Speci al ar eacommi ttees→ Regi onal commi t
tees
→Di visional /Di st r
ictcommi ttees→ Sub- districtcommi t
tees→ Ar ea
commi ttee
Itoper at est hr oughPeopl esLi ber ationGuer rillaAr my( PLGA) .
PLGAhast hr eeki ndsoff orce:
1.Basi cf orce( Gat heringofi ntellect ual s)
2.Secondar yf or ce( Areacommi tteepl usguer ril
lasquads)
3.Mai nf orce( St ruct uredonbat talion/ plat oonf or matl i
ket hear medf or ces,
andani ntelligenceuni t)
Asondat e,t hest rengt hofPLGAi sar ound8, 000- 9,
000whi leJanMi l
it
iai s
around38, 000.Usual l
y40- 50%oft het otal cadr esconsi stoff emal es.
Fact orsResponsi bl eforRi se  ofNaxal ism:
Itisironi cal thatev enaf ter66y ear sofI ndependence, manyr emot ear eas
whi char eot her wiser i
chi nmi ner al resour cesar ey ettoseeanysi gnof
dev elopment .Thi ssituat i
on, combi nedwi thmanyot hersocio-economi c
probl ems, hascont r
ibut edt owar dsther i
seofnaxal ism i
nI ndi
a.
Thesef act orscanbebr oadlycat egorizedasf oll
ows:
a.Jal -Jangal -Jameen:
i
.Ev asi onofl andcei li
ngl aws,
i
i.Encr oachmentandoccupat ionofGov ernmentandcommuni tylands,
i
ii
.Non- regul ar i
zat i
onoft raditionallandr i
ghts,
i
v.Landacqui si
tionwi thoutappr opri
atecompensat ionandr ehabil
itat
ion,
v.Di srupt ionoft heageol dt r
ibal f
orestrelat
ionship.
b.Dev elopment alDef icit:
i
.Unempl oy ment ,
i
i.Pov erty ,
i
ii
.Inf rast ruct uredef i
cit,
i
v.Lackofeducat i
on,
v.Poorheal thf acilit
ies.
c.Soci al Excl usionandAl ienat ion:
i
.Vi olat i
onofhumanr i
ght s,
i
i.Abuseofdi gni tyofl ife,
i
ii
.Di sconnectwi thmai nstream soci ety,
i
v.Di scont entagai nstgov ernment .
d.Gov er nanceDef i
cit:
i
.Lackofr out ineadmi nistration,
i
i.Incompet ent ,il
l-t
rainedandpoor l
ymot i
vatedpubl i
cpersonnel ,
i
ii
.Mi smanagementandcor rupt i
oningov ernmentschemes,
i
v.Poori mpl ement ationofspeci all
aws,
v.Per v ersionofel ector alpol i
ticsandunsat i
sfactoryworkingofl ocal
gov ernment .

AimsandObj ect
ivesandModusOper andi oftheNaxalit
es:
Theai m ofthenaxali
tesistodest r
oythelegiti
macyoft heSt at
eandt o
createamassbase, withacertaindegreeofaccept abi
li
ty.Theultimat
e
objecti
veistoattainpoli
ti
calpowerbyv i
olentmeansandest abl
ishwhat
theyenvisageas‘TheI ndi
aPeopl e’
sDemocr at
icFederalRepublic’
.The
naxali
tespredomi nantl
yatt
ackt hepoli
ceandt hei
restabl
ishment s.

Theyalsoatt
ackcertaintypesofinfr
astr
uct ur
e,li
kerailandr oadt r
ansport
andpowert r
ansmission,andalsoforci
blyopposeexecut ionof
devel
opmentwor ks,l
ikecrit
icalr
oadconstruction.Naxali
teact ivi
tyisal
so
manif
estingit
sel
fthroughv ari
ouscivi
lsocietyandf r
ontor ganizati
onson
i
ssuessuchasSEZpol icy,
landrefor
ms, l
andacqui si
tion,displ
acement ,
etc.,wi tht heobj ect i
v eofexpandi ngt hei rmassbaseandacqui ri
ngsuppor t
ofsomei ntellect ual elite.
Whi lei mpedi ngdev elopmentwor ksandchal l
engi ngSt ateaut hor ¬ity, t
he
nax alitessi mul t
aneousl yt rytoder iv ebenef itfrom t heov erall
under ¬dev elopmentandsub- nor mal f
unct ioni ngoff i
eldinst itutionsl i
ke
policest a¬t i
ons, tehsi ls, dev elopmentbl ocks, school s,pr i
mar yheal th
cent resandanganwadi cent res, whi chadmi nisterandpr ov ideser vicesat
thegr oundl ev elandal sor eflectt heSt atepr esenceandwr it.
1.Fr ont al Organi zationsofLWE( Lef tWi ngExt remi sts):
TheMaoi stsuset hei rf rontor gani zat i
ons, l
iket heRev olut i
onar y
Democr at i
cFr ont ,Peopl esDemocr ati
cFr ontofI ndia,Democr at i
cSt udent
Uni onandot herst udentgr oupsf rom l ef twi ngi nst it
uti
onsl iket he
Jawahar lalNehr uUni v er sity(JNU)ofDel hi,togener atepeopl e’ssy mpat hy
throughper si stentpur suanceofpr opagandaoni ssuesofhumanr ights
violationsbyt hesecur i
t yf orces.
Maoi st st akehel pf r
om l ef tleani ngci vilsoci etygr oups, humanr ight s
groups, nat ional andi nt er national medi aandot herst udent sgr oupsf or
massmobi li
zat ion.Theyexpl oitt hesl uggi shj udi cialsyst em t ogetaway
from l egal conv ictionandpuni shment .
2.Guer ril
laWar fare:
TheMaoi stsuseguer ri
llawar f
ar et act ics.Guer rillawar far eisaf or m of
i
rregu¬l arwar far einwhi chasmal l groupofcombat ants, suchasar med
civil
iansori rregul ars, usemi lit
ar yt act i
csi ncl udi ngambushes, sabot age,
raids, pet tywar fare, hit-and- r
unt act ics, andext raor dinarymobi l
itytof i
ghta
l
ar gerandl essmobi let radi ti
onal ar my .
3.Power ful Pr opagandaMachi ner y :
Naxal iteshav ev er ypower fulpr opagandamachi ner ywhi chi sact ivei nall
maj ort ownsaswel lasi nt henat ional capi tal.Theyev enhav et heir
suppor tersi nt hemedi a.TheseNGOsandact i
v istswageanon- st op
propagandawaragai nstanygov er nmentst ept hatai mst ocheckt he
nax alitemov ement .
Asamat terofst rategy ,naxal itest r ytobeont her ightsi deoft hemedi aall
thet ime.Theyhav ethei rsy mpat hi zersev ery wher ewhor aiseahueandcr y
i
nt henameofhumanr ight sagai nstpol iceact ionont heMaoi sts.These
medi agr oupsar econv eni ent lysi l
entwhennaxal it
eski l
l i
nnocentpeopl e.
4.Tact ical Count erOf fensi v eCampai gn( TCOC) :
Maoi st scar ryoutv i
olentact iviti
escal l
ed“ Tact ical Count erOf fensi ve
Campai gn”( TCOC)whi chr unsf rom Mar cht oear l
yMonsooni nJul y .
Maoi st susual l
yr esor tt oTCOCev er yy eart oputt hesecur ityf orcesi n
disarr aysot hatt heycangoonar ecr uitmentdr ive.Theai m of“ TCOC”i sto
exhibitandconsol idatet heir(Maoi sts)strengt h,bycar ryingoutv i
olent
oper ati
ons.Goi ngbyt hepastexper i
ence, ther ebel shav elauncheda
numberofdeadl yat t
acksagai nstsecur i
tyf orcesdur ingt heTCOCper i
od.
5.Fr eshSt rategyofMaoi st
s:
Freshst rategyofMaoi stsistoexpandout si def orestsi ntour banarea, win
overnon- peasantcl assesandot hersoci al gr oups, seizel eadershi
pof
ongoi nglocal str
uggl es, i
ntensifymi newar far e, milit
ar i
set heJanMi lit
ia,
forcet hedisper sal ofpoliceresour cesbyl aunchi ngat tacksout si
dei ts
stronghol ds, establ i
shor ganisational basesi nt ownsadj oiningguerrill
a
zonesandhar deni tsst ancedownt roddenonabduct i
ons.
Languagei scl osel yrelatedt ocultureandt her ef oret ot hecust omsof
peopl e.Besi des, themassi vespr eadofeducat ionandgr owt hofmass
l
iteracycanonl yoccurt hrought hemedi um oft hemot hert ongue.
Democr acycanbecomer ealtothecommonpeopl eonl ywhenpol i
ticsand
admi nistrati
onar econduct edt hrought hel anguaget heycanunder st and.
Hencel anguagepl aysani mpor t
antr oleint hesoci alandeconomi c
dev elopmentoft her egion.
Sinceindependencei n1947, lingui st i
caf finityhasser vedasabasi sfor
organizingi nterestgr oups; the" languagequest i
on"i t
selfhasbecomean
i
ncr easingl ysensi ti
vepol iti
cal issue.Ef f
or tst oreachaconsensusona
singlenat i
onal languaget hatt ranscendst hemy ri
adl inguist i
cr egionsand
i
saccept ablet odi v
er sel anguagecommuni ti
eshav ebeenl argel y
unsuccessf ul
.
Thel anguagepol i
cyofI ndiaisbasi cal l
yembodi edi npar tXVI Ioft heIndian
Const i
tut ional ongwi t ht he8t h schedul einr ef erencet oarticles344and
351( whi chspeci fythel anguagesofI ndiaf orpur posesment ionedi nthese
2ar ti
cles) ,andt hear ticlesconcer ni ngFundament al Rightsr egar ding
l
anguage, educat ion,andcul tur eet c.
Thel anguagepol i
cygi vesf ullf reedom t ot hest atest ochooseany
l
anguageorl anguagesspokeni nr egi onsast heirr egionallanguagesandt o
hav eoneormor eoft hem asof f i
cial languagesbydi ffer
entst ates.
Howev er, fortheUni on, theConst itutionpr escr i
besHi ndi i
nDev anagari
scriptforof fi
cialpurposesal ongwi thEngl ishasanassoci ateof fi
cial
l
anguage.TheLanguagePol icyofI ndi arelat i
ngt ot heuseofl anguagesi n
admi nistrat i
on, educat ion, j
udici ary ,legislatur e,masscommuni cation,etc.
,
i
spl uralisticini tsscope.I tisbot hl anguage- dev elopmentor i
ent edand
l
anguage- survivalorient ed.Thepol icyisint endedt oencour aget heciti
zens
touset hei rmot hertonguei ncer taindel i
neat edl ev elsanddomai ns
throughsomegr adual pr ocesses, butt hest atedgoal ofthepol icyistohelp
alllanguagest odev el op.
Lingui sm i nI ndi a
Att het imeofachi ev ementofI ndependencef rom t heBr itishr ulei n1947,
ther ewer emanypr incel yst ates.Sar darVal l
abhBhai Pat el, thet henhome
mi nister ,pl ay edast el l
arr olei namal gamat i
ngt hesest at esi ntot heuni on
ofI ndia.TheConst i
tut ionofI ndi awasadopt edon20t hNov ember1949
andcamei nt oef fecton26t hJanuar y1950, whi chdef i
nedt heUni onof
India, compr i
si ngofdi fferentst ates, anduni ont er ri
tories.I n1950, the
stat eswer er eor gani zedonl i
ngui sticbasi s.
Asar esul t, thedomi cilesofapar ticularst at espeakapar ticul arl anguage.
Ther efor eI ndi ahasbecomeal andofmanyt onguesandhasbeencal l
ed
“asat owerofv erit
abl el anguages”ora“ Museum ofl anguages”ora
“li
ngui st icmadhouse” .Accor di ngt ot he1961censusofI ndi at her ewer e
1018di ffer entl anguages.The1971censusr eveal sthat1952l anguages
anddi al ect sar espokenbyt hepeopl eofI ndia.TheConst i
t utionofI ndia
hasappr ov edof18l anguagessuchasAssamese, Bengal i, Guaj ar ati,Hindi ,
Kannada, Kashmi ri
, Mal ayalam, Mar at hi, Oriya, Punj abi, Sanskr it,Sindhi ,
Tami l,Tel ugu, Urdu, Mani puri,Nepal i andKonkani .
Ithasbeenr i
ght l
ypoi nt edoutbyA. R.Desai thatI ndiapr esent saspect acl e
ofmuseum oft ongues.I ndiahasal sobeencal ledat owerofBabel .”This
mul t i
li
ngual nat ureoft hecount ryaf fect sev er yaspectofhernat ional li
fe.
Atpr esentt hel anguagepr oblem hasbecomesoacut et hati thasposeda
maj ort hreatt onat ional i
ntegr ation.Mostof tenl inguistict ensi onsar e
beingmani fest edi nt hebor der swhi char ebi lingual .TheGoansar edi vi
ded
ont hebasi sofMar at hi andKonkani languages.I nBel gaum t her ei sat ug
ofwarbet weenMar at hi andKannadspeaki ngpeopl e.
Assam i sconf rontedwi thBengal iandAssamese.Bi harandUt terPr adesh
arenotf reef r om t hel inguisticpr obl emst oo.Ther econf lictt endst oper si st
amongt heUr du, Hindi andOr iyal ingui st icgr oupsandUr duandHi ndi
speaki ngpeopl erespect ivel
y.I thasal sobeendemandedt oi ncludeEngl ish
i
nt heEi ght hSchedul eoft heConst itut i
on.Ofcour seEngl i
shi sagr eat
l
anguage, butt hepr obl em i sthat ,nonat ioncangr owgr eatwi tht hehel pof
af or eignl anguage, simpl ybecauseaf orei gnl anguagef ailst or epr esent
thei ndi genouscul tur e.
Indiai snott heonl ycount ryfacedwi tht hepr obl em ofdi v er sityof
l
anguagesandmul tiplicityofscr ipts.Er st whi leU. S.S.R.andSwi tzer l
and, for
i
nst ance, doal sopossessanumberofl anguages.But“ Unl ikeI ndi ai n
almostal l ther epubl icoft heSov ietUni on, Cy ril
licscr i
ptsol v edt hepr oblem
ofscr i
pt .”
Int hepast , I
ndi adidnothav et hepr obl em ofl anguages, becauseSanskr it
andPr akr itser vedasl inkl anguage.I nt hel at erper iod, t
her olewasbei ng
play edbyPer si anandEngl ishl anguage.Theyal lweref oundsui tableas
l
inkl anguagesatl eastf ort hei nt el li
gent siaoft hecount r
y .Atpr esent ,
althoughHi ndi hasbeenr ecogni zedast henat i
onal l
anguage, thishas
promot edbi tterhost il
ities, par ticul arlyi nt heSout h.
Event heConst i
tuentAssembl yaccept edHi ndi ast heof fici al l
anguage
afterbi tterandpr olongedcont rov ersy .”Ev ent houghNehr usuppor tedHi ndi
asal i
nkl anguage, nev er thel ess, het houghti ttobeunwi set oimposeHi ndi
onnon- Hindi speaki ngpeopl e.“ Languagei st hemostdel icat epar toft he
bodyofcommuni ty.I tshoul dnotor di nar il
ybedi sturbedi nt hepr ocessof
nat i
onal dev elopmentorsoci alr egener at ion. ”
7ConsequenceofLi ngui sm i nI ndi a
Per secut i
onoft heLi ngui sticMi nor i
ties:
1.Thr oughl i
ngui sm, cer tai ncompl icat i
onsanddi sturbingt rendshav e
dev el opedwhi chappeart ohav et hreat enedt heuni t
yandst abilityoft he
count ry .TheSt ateRe- organi sat i
onCommi ssi onhadpr ov idedf or
saf eguar dofl ingui st icmi nor iti
esi nst ates.Buti nrealityt hel i
ngui stic
mi nor itieshav ebeenhar assedi ndi fferentst at es.ThecaseofMahar asht r
a
maybet akenasanexampl ewher et hesonoft hesoi ltheor yhasbeen
propounded, leadi ngt oper secut ionofpeopl e, whohadmi gr atedf rom
otherst ates, buthadset tl
edi nt hest at ef orbusi nessorj ob.
2.Incr easi ngRegi onal i
sm andPar ochi alism:
Thepeopl eofdi ffer entl ingui st i
cgr oups, whoar econcent ratedi nast ateor
geogr aphi cal local i
ty ,seem t ot hi nkonl yi nt er msoft hei nt erest soft hei r
ownst ates.Eachst at ei si nt er est edi nwangl ingbi gpr oject sorl ooki ng
aftert heneedsofi tsownpeopl e.I tunder mi nest heconsi der ati
onof
nat i
onal issuesandcausesnar rowandpar ochi alfeeli
ngs.
3.For mat ionofRegi onal Pol iti
cal Par ties:
Lingui sm causesr egi onal ism whi chul t
imat elyl eadst ot hef ormat ionof
regional pol i
ti
cal par ti
esi nsomeoft hest at es.Att imes, suchpol iti
cal
par tiesf ormt hegov er nment .Thest atesl ike, Tami lNadu, WestBengal ,
Andhr aPr adesh, Assam, Mi zor am andJammu&Kashmi rmaybeci tedas
exampl esi nt hi sr egar d.I thasbeenexper iencedt hatsuchpol i
tical par ti
es
i
npowerof tencompl i
cat et heCent rest at er elat i
onship.
4.Ant i-Cent r
ePr opaganda:
Thel ingui sm ul ti
mat elyl eadst oant i-cent repr opagandat hr oughr egional
political par tiesi nsomest ates.Theycr i
t i
ci zet hecent r eandder ivet hei r
political st rengt houtoft hat .Ther egi onal par tiesal socl ai mt hepr ogressi n
stat est ohav ebeenpossi bleduet ot heirendeav orandanyki ndoff ailureis
i
nt er pret edi nt ermsoft heapat het icat ti
t udeoft hecent re.
5.Er osionofNat i
onal Feeling:
Duet olinguisticandr egional l
oy al t
iesthenat i
onal f
eelinggr adual l
yerodes.
Peopl ebecomesof anat i
ct hatt heydonotmi ndsuppi ngwi ththedev i
lfor
regional gains, evenatt hecostofnat i
onal pr est i
ge.Thust hesov erei
gnty
ofthecount ryisatst ake.
6.Demandf orsepar at estat es:
Thesecessi onistel ement shav er ai
sedt hei rugl yheadsduet oexcessi ve
l
ingui sm.Behi ndt hel inguist i
cconf li
ctsunder l
iet hesel fi
shmot i
veofsome
poli
ticianswhoi nst igat ethel ingui sticmi nor it
ysect ionofpeopl et o
demandpar ti
ti
onoft hest at esal ongl i
ngui sticlines.Thedemandf ora
separ ateGor khalandhascr eat edanawkwar dpr oblem t otheconcer ned
stateaswel last ot hecent r e.
7.Inter-St at
ebor derdi spute:
Thel anguagepr obl emshav ebecomesoacut et hatlinguisti
ct ensionsar e
mani fest edint hebor derwhi char ebili
ngual .TheGoansar edi vi
dedont he
basisofKonkani andMar athi languages.Li ngui sticconf l
icttendst oper si
st
amongt heMar athi andKannadaspeaki ngpeopl ei nBelgaum.Ther eise
tugofwarbet weent heBengal iandAssamesei nAssam.Bi harandUt tar
Pradeshar enotf reef rom t hel ingui sti
cpr obl em t oo.Ther econf licttends
toper sistamongt heHi ndi andOr iy
al i
ngui st i
cgr oupsandHi ndi andUr du
speaki ngpeopl er espect i
vel y.