Methods of

Philosophy
HOW TO MAKE THINGS COMPLICATED
 Ang lahat ng sinasabi ay may
pinaghuhugutan ngunit hindi lahat
ng galing sa bibig ay totoo at
pwedeng paniwalaan.
 OPINION
Biases and openness

Discussion
FALLACY
Kinds of Fallacy

RATIONALISM AND EMPIRI CISM

a priori / a posteriori
TWO LIES
AND ONE
TRUTH
 It is a statement of judgment of a
person about something in the
world.
OPINION
It is a statement of judgment that
is in need of further justification.
 Opinion is the medium
between KNOWLEDGE and
IGNORANCE.
Right to an opinion does not
make the opinion right.
FALLACY Kind of error in reasoning.

Mistake in an argument that

arises from something other than
merely false premises.
 APPEAL TO
FORCE Someone in a position of power
(argumentum threatens to bring down unfortunate
ad baculum) consequences upon anyone who dares
to disagree with a proffered proposition.
If you do not agree with my political opinions, you will
receive a failing for this course.

I believe that Ferdinand Marcos was the greatest President

of the Philippines.

Therefore, Ferdinand Marcos was the greatest President of

the Philippines.
 It should be clear that even if all of the
APPEAL TO premises were true, the conclusion
FORCE could neverthelss be false. Since that is
possible, arguments of this form are
(argumentum plainly invalid. While this might be an
ad baculum) effective way to get you to agree (or at
least to pretend to agree) with my
position, it offers no grounds for
believing it to be true.
 APPEAL TO
PITY An appeal to pity tries to win acceptance
by pointing out the unfortunate
(argumentum consequences that will otherwise fall
ad upon the speaker and others, for whom
misericordiam) we would then feel sorry.
I am a single parent, solely responsible for the financial
support of my children.

If you give me this traffic ticket, I will lose my license and be

unable to drive to work.

If I cannot work, my children and I will become homeless

and may starve to death.

Therefore, you should not give me this traffic ticket.

 APPEAL TO
EMOTION The appeal to emotion relies upon
emotively charged language to arouse
(argumentum strong feelings that may lead an
ad populum) audience to accept its conclusion.
As all clear-thinking residents of our fine state have already
realized, the President's plan for the tax reform is nothing
but the bloody-fanged wolf of socialism cleverly disguised
in the harmless sheep’s clothing of concern for the poor.

Therefore, the President's plan is bad public policy.

 APPEAL TO
AUTHORITY
In an appeal to authority, the opinion of
(argumentum someone famous or accomplished in
ad another area of expertise is supposed to
verecundium) guarantee the truth of a conclusion.
Senator Bato Dela Rosa believes that students are activists.

Therefore, students are activists.

AD HOMINEM The mirror-image of the appeal to
authority is the ad hominem argument,
in which we are encouraged to reject a
proposition because it is the stated
opinion of someone regarded as
disreputable in some way.
I'm against Duterte's war on drugs

Therefore, I'm dilawan.

 APPEAL TO
IGNORANCE
An appeal to ignorance proposes that
(argumentum we accept the truth of a proposition
ad unless an opponent can prove
ignorantiam) otherwise.
No one has conclusively proven that China is invading the
Philippines.

Therefore, Chinese people here are just visitors.

 NON
SEQUITUR
This fallacy occurs when the
conclusion doesn’t necessarily
follow from the premise.
This man is a criminal.

Therefore, he must be a drug addict.

 FALSE
DICHOTOMY / False dichotomies or false dilemmas
occur when one makes it seem like
FALSE there are only two possible choices
DILEMMA when there are actually other choices
possible.
You keep defending the rights of drug pushers and
criminals.

That means you don't care about the rights of the victims!
STRAW MAN
This fallacy happens when one distorts,
reduces, or completely fabricates their
opponent’s position to make it easier to
refute, and to make their own claims
appear more reasonable. Essentially, it’s
like you’re attacking a straw man.
You keep defending the rights of drug pushers and
criminals.

That means you don't care about the rights of the victims!
SLIPPERY
SLOPE
The slippery slope fallacy happens when
one argues that one thing will lead to
another unlikely event, especially if
there is no direct causation between the
two.
If we tolerate homosexuality and legalize gay marriage,

eventually we’ll wind up normalizing pedophilia and

bestiality as well. 
RED HERRING This fallacy is named for an old practice
in which fox hunters would use red
herrings to throw their hounds off a
scent. Similarly, one commits this
fallacy when one brings up a tangential
issue to avoid actually addressing the
issue at hand.
Person A: Marcos is no hero—just look at all the atrocities
that occurred during martial law.

Person B: Well what about Hacienda Luisita, and all the

other killings that happened after Marcos was ousted?
Post Hoc Ergo
Propter Hoc
This fallacy happens when one assumes
a causal link between events that may
just have happened to follow each other.
I have a run of bad luck every time I see a black cat, so black
cats are unlucky.
Drug addicts are doing most crimes in the city.

Therefore, drug addicts should be penalized to death.

Drug addicts are doing most crimes in the city.

Therefore, drug addicts should be penalized to death.

FALSE DICHOTOMY
Panelo: Those who are against to Duterte are Yellowtards.

UP Students are Yellowtards.

Panelo: Those who are against to Duterte are Yellowtards.

UP Students are Yellowtards.

Appeal to force (ad baculum)

Sinasabihan niya lagi ako ng "Ingat"

May gusto siya sa akin.

Sinasabihan niya lagi ako ng "Ingat"

May gusto siya sa akin.

NON SEQUITUR
Hindi kayo babagsak sa Intro to Philo

Lahat kayo ay papasa.

Hindi kayo babagsak sa Intro to Philo

Lahat kayo ay papasa.

APPEAL TO AUTHORITY (ad verecundium)

AD POPULUM
Hindi kasi ako magaling magbasketball

Kaya hindi nya ko mahal.

Hindi kasi ako magaling magbasketball

Kaya hindi niya ko mahal.

POST HOC ERGO

 EMPIRICISM (a posteriori)
All knowledge, the
empiricist argues, arises
through, and is reducible
to, sense perception.
Thus, there is no
knowledge that arises
through reason alone.
RATIONALISM (a priori)
Knowledge that is
prior to experience and
that arises through
reason. Knowledge that
arises through reason
alone.
OPINION

Opinion is not worthy to share

unless it is critically oriented
statements.

FALLACY

Fallacies are the common errors on

Summary
making opinions

EMPIRICISM AND RATIONALISM

Empiricism and Rationalism made a

division in philosophy wherein they
both distinguishes different
methods of knowing.
 Analysing Opinion

Get a screenshot of an opinion

from Facebook comments on
Coursework GMA/ABS-CBN News page. Then,
analyze its content on how it
becomes a valid or invalid
opinion.
PRINTED: SHORT: SINGLE-SPACE: ARIAL:
12
 Quiz!
Coverage:
What is Philosophy?
Doing Philosophy
Methods of Philosophy