Peer-to-Peer network.

In a peer-to-peer network computers communicate directly with other computers on a single

segment of cable and share each others’ data and devices, such as printers or CD-ROM drives. By
default, no computer in a peer-to-peer network has more authority than another, and every
computer can use resources from every other computer. Most computers in a peer-to-peer network
are general-purpose personal computers that are not designed to handle heavy processing loads.

A simple Peer-to-Peer Network

The peer-to-peer network is a very simple example of a local area network. As its name suggests, a
local area network (LAN) is a network of computers and other devices that is confined to a relatively
small space, such as one building or even one office.

LANs involving many computers are usually server-based. On a server-based network, special
computers, known as servers, process data for and facilitate communication between the other
computers on the network, which are known as clients. Clients usually take the form of desktop
computers, known as workstations.A network that uses a server to enable clients to share data, data
storage space, and devices, is known as a client/server network.

The server’s main job is to allow clients to share resources.To function as a server, a computer must
be running a network operating system, such as Microsoft Windows 2000 Server,Novell NetWare, or
UNIX. A network operating system (NOS)(Eg. Windows 2000 server , 2003 Server ,Novell,Linux) is
special software designed to manage data and other resources on a server for a number of clients.
Network operating systems also provide the ability to manage network security, network users and
groups, protocols, and networked applications.
 
Classification of computer networks

Geographical Distance: Computer networks may be classified according to the scale or extent of

reach of the network as Local Area Network (LAN), Metropolitan Area Network (MAN) and Wide Area
Network (WAN).

Local Area Network (LAN): A network that is limited to a relatively small spatial area such as a
room, a single building, a ship, or an aircraft is reffered as LAN. They are sometimes called a single
location network.eg. A small office network or two computers is a house connected using a cable.

   
Metropolitan Area Network (MAN): A network that connects two or more Local Area Networks
together but does not extend beyond the boundaries of the immediate town, city, or metropolitan
area is called as MAN. eg. A branch office connected to the main office in the same city.
Wide Area Network (WAN):  A WAN is a data communications network that covers a relatively
broad geographic area and that often uses transmission facilities provided by common carriers, such
as telephone companies etc. Eg. Internet or a branch office in India connected to its Corporate
office in United States.

Peer to peer network

 
Advantages
 
Low cost as expensive software and hardware are not required.
Easy to implement.
Resource sharing controlled by users.
No need of a dedicated network administator.
 
Disadvantages
 
Low level of security
 Heavy load on computers because of resource sharing.
Size of network limited to approximately 10 computers.

Client – Server network

Advantages
 
Strong central security.
Central file storage.
Resource sharing controlled by administrators.
Easy management of large number of users.
 
Disadvantages
 
Cost of server hardware and software.
Dedicated and well trained network administrator is needed to main this type of architecture.

LAN with a File Server

Client.

A computer on the network that requests resources or services from another computer on a
network. In some cases, a client could also act as a server. The term “client” may also refer to the
human user of a client workstation.

Server.

A computer on the network that manages shared resources. Servers usually have more processing
power, memory, and hard disk space than clients.They run network operating software that can
manage not only data, but also users, groups, security, and applications on the network.

Workstation.

A desktop computer, which may or may not be connected to a network. Most clients are workstation
computers.

Network operating system (NOS).

The software that runs on a server and enables the server to manage data, users, groups, security,
applications, and other networking functions.The most popular network operating systems are
Microsoft Windows NT,Windows 2000, Novell NetWare, and UNIX.

Host.

A server that manages shared resources.

Node.

A client, server, or other device that can communicate over a network and that is identified by a
unique identifying number, known as its network address.

Topology.

The physical layout of a computer network.Topologies vary according to the needs of the
organization and available hardware and expertise.

In data networking, the term transmission has two meanings. First, it can refer to the process of
issuing data signals on a medium. It can also refer to the progress of data signals over a medium
from one point to another. Long ago, people transmitted information across distances via smoke or
fire signals. Needless to say, many different types of data transmission have evolved since that time.
The transmission techniques in use on today’s networks are complex and varied.

Analog and Digital Signaling

One important characteristic of data transmission is the type of signaling involved. On a data
network, information can be transmitted via one of two signaling methods: analog or digital.

Both types of signals are generated by electrical current, the pressure of which is measured in volts.
The strength of an electrical signal is directly proportional to its voltage.Thus, when network
engineers talk about the strength of an analog or digital signal, they often refer to the signal’s
voltage.

The essential difference between analog and digital signals is the way voltage creates and sustains
the signal. In analog signals, voltage varies continuously. In digital signals, voltage turns off and on
repeatedly, pulsing from zero voltage to a specific positive voltage.

Example for Analog Signal

Digital signals are composed of pulses of precise, positivevoltages and zero voltages. A pulse of
positive voltage represents a 1. A pulse of zero voltage (in other words, the lack of any voltage)
represents a 0. As in any binary system, these 1s and 0s combine to encode information. Every
pulse in the digital signal is called a binary digit, or bit. A bit can have only one of two possible
values: 1 or 0. Eight bits together form a byte. In broad terms, one byte carries one piece of
information. For example, the byte “01111001” means “121” on a digital network.

Because digital transmission involves sending and receiving only a pattern of 1s and 0s, represented
by precise pulses, it is more reliable than analog transmission, which relies on variable waves. In
addition, noise, or any type of interference that may degrade a signal affects digital transmission
less severely. On the other hand, digital transmission requires many pulses to transmit the same
amount of information that an analog signal can transmit with a single wave. For example, you
might convey the word “one” with a few waves in analog format; in digital format, however, the
same message would require 8 bits (00000001), or eight separate pulses. Nevertheless, the high
reliability of digital transmission makes this extra signaling worthwhile. In the end, digital
transmission is more efficient than analog transmission, because it causes fewer errors and,
therefore, requires less overhead to compensate for errors.
Example for Digital Signal

Transmission Direction

Data transmission, whether analog or digital, may also be characterized by the direction in which the
signals travel over the media.

Simplex, Half-Duplex and Duplex

In cases where signals may travel in only one direction, the transmission is considered simplex. For
example, a football coach calling out orders to his team through a megaphone is using simplex
communication. In this example, the coach’s voice is the signal, and it travels in only one direction—
away from the megaphone’s mouthpiece and toward the team. Simplex is sometimes called one-
way, or unidirectional, communication.

In half-duplex transmission, signals may travel in both directions over a medium but in only one
direction at a time. Half-duplex systems contain only one channel for communication, and that
channel must be shared for multiple nodes to exchange information. For example, Walkie – Talkie
Half-Duplex Transmission

When signals are free to travel in both directions over a medium simultaneously, the transmission is
considered full-duplex. Full-duplex may also be called bidirectional transmission or sometimes,
simply duplex.

When you call a friend on the telephone, your connection is an example of a full-duplex
transmission, because your voice signals can be transmitted to your friend at the same time your
friend’s voice signals are transmitted in the opposite direction to you. In other words, both of you
can talk and hear each other simultaneously.

Full-Duplex Transmission
Throughput and Bandwidth

The data transmission characteristic most frequently discussed and analyzed by networking
professionals is throughput. Throughput is the measure of how much data is transmitted during a
given period of time. It may also be called capacity or bandwidth. Throughput is commonly
expressed as a quantity of bits transmitted per second, with prefixes used to designate different
throughput amounts. For example, the prefix “kilo” combined with the word “bit” (as in “kilobit”)
indicates a 1000 bits per second. Rather than talking about a transmission speed of 1000 bits per
second, you would typically say the speed was 1 kilobit per second.

Bandwidth and throughput are similar concepts, but strictly speaking, bandwidth is a measure of the
difference between the highest and lowest frequencies that a medium can transmit. This range of
frequencies, which is expressed in Hz, is directly related to throughput. The higher the bandwidth,
the higher the throughput.

Baseband and Broadband

Baseband

Baseband is a transmission form in which (typically) digital signals are sent through direct current
(DC) pulses applied to the wire.This direct current requires exclusive use of the wire’s capacity. As a
result, baseband systems can transmit only one signal, or one channel, at a time. Every device on a
baseband system shares the same channel.When one node is transmitting data on a baseband
system, all other nodes on the network must wait for that transmission to end before they can send
data. Baseband transmission supports bidirectional signal flow, which means that computers can
both send and receive information on the same length of wire.

Ethernet is an example of a baseband system found on many LANs.

Broadband

Broadband is a form of transmission in which signals are modulated as radiofrequency (RF) analog
pulses that use different frequency ranges. Unlike baseband, broadband technology does not involve
digital pulses. Nevertheless, the use of multiple frequencies enables a broadband system to access
several channels and, therefore, carry much more data than a baseband system.

As you may know, broadband transmission is used to bring cable TV to your home.Your cable TV
connection can carry at least 25 times as much data as a typical baseband system (like Ethernet)
carries, including many different broadcast frequencies (channels). In traditional broadband
systems, signals travel in only one direction.Therefore, broadband cabling must provide a separate
wire for the transmission and the receipt of data.

Broadband transmission is generally more expensive than baseband transmission because of the
extra hardware involved. On the other hand, broadband systems can span longer distances than
baseband.
Transmission Flaws

One of the most common transmission flaws affecting data signals is noise. Many different types of
noise may affect transmission. Most of these are caused by one of two electromagnetic
phenomenon: electromagnetic interference (EMI) or radiofrequency interference (RFI). Both EMI
and RFI are waves that emanate from electrical devices or cables carrying electricity. Motors, power
lines, televisions, copiers, fluorescent lights, and other sources of electrical activity (including a
severe thunderstorm) can cause both EMI and RFI.

An Analog Signal Distorted by Noice

A Digital Signal Distorted by Noice

The common type of physical media used for networking are:

 Coaxial
 Twisted-pair
 Fibre-optic - Bandwidth Upto 100s of Gbps

Coaxial cable

Coaxial cable consists of a central copper core surrounded by an insulator, a braided metal shielding,
called braiding, and an outer cover, called the sheath or jacket.
EG : Cable Tv network use the coaxial cable.

Coaxial Cable

Thinnet (10Base2)

Thinnet, also known as thin Ethernet, was the most popular medium for Ethernet LANs in the 1980s.
Like Thicknet, Thinnet is rarely used on modern networks, although you may encounter it on
networks installed in the 1980s or on newer small office or home office LANs.

IEEE has designated Thinnet as 10Base2 Ethernet, with the “10” representing its data transmission
rate of 10 Mbps, the “Base” representing the fact that it uses baseband transmission, and the “2”
representing its maximum segment length of 185 (or roughly 200) m.
Coaxial Cable Thinnet

Thicknet (10Base5)

Thicknet cabling, also called thickwire Ethernet, is a rigid coaxial cable approximately 1-cm thick
used for the original Ethernet networks. Because it is often covered with a yellow sheath,Thicknet is
sometimes called “yellow Ethernet” or “yellow garden hose.”

IEEE designates Thicknet as 10Base5 Ethernet.The “10” represents its throughput of 10 Mbps, the
“Base” stands for baseband transmission, and the “5” represents the maximum segment length of a
Thicknet cable, which is 500 m.You will almost never find Thicknet on new networks, but you may
find it on older networks.

Coaxial Cable Thicknet

Twisted-Pair Cable
 Twisted-pair (TP) cable is similar to telephone wiring and consists
of color-coded pairs of insulated copper wires. The more twists per
inch in a pair of wires, the more resistant the pair will be to all
forms of noise. Higher-quality, more expensive twisted-pair cable
contains more twists per foot.The number of twists per meter or
foot is known as the twist ratio.

Twisted-pair cable is the most common form of cabling

UTP CAT found on
LANs today. It is relatively inexpensive, flexible, and easy to install,
1/2/3/4/5/
and it can span a significant distance before requiring 6 a repeater
(though not as far as coax).Twisted-pair cable easily accommodates
several different topologies, although it Ca
is most often
Data implemented
Rate
in star or star-hybrid topologies. t1 upto 1 Mbps -
Telephone
One drawback to twisted-pair is that, becauseLine of its flexibility, it is
more prone to physical damage than coaxial cable.This problem is a
minor factor given its many advantagesCa over coax. All twisted-pair
Data Rate
cable falls into one of two categories: shielded
t2 twisted-pair
upto 4 Mbps -(STP) or
unshielded twisted-pair (UTP). Token Ring

Ca Data Rate
Shielded Twisted-Pair (STP) t3 upto 10 Mbps
- Token Ring
As the name implies, shielded twisted-pair (STP) cable consists of & 10 Base - T
twisted wire pairs that are not only individually insulated, but also
surrounded by a shielding made of a metallic substance such as foil. Ca Data Rate
Some STP use a braided metal shielding. The shielding acts as a t4 upto 16 Mbps
barrier to external electromagnetic forces, thus preventing them - Token Ring
from affecting the signals traveling over the wire inside the
shielding. The shielding may be grounded to enhance its protective Ca Data Rate
effect. t5 upto 100
Mbps Ethernet
- 16 for Token

Ca Data Rate
t upto 1000
5e Mbps Ethernet

Ca Data Rate
t6 upto 1000
Mbps Ethernet
Unshielded Twisted-Pair (UTP)

Unshielded twisted-pair (UTP) cabling consists of one

or more insulated wire pairs encased in a plastic
sheath. As its name implies, UTP does not contain
additional shielding for the twisted pairs.As a result,
UTP is both less expensive and less resistant to noise
than STP.

Networking Media
 UTP Straight Through Cable

Straight Through Cable

In a UTP implementation of a straight-through cable, the wires on both cable ends are
in the same order.
The diagram shows the pinouts of the straight-through cable.
You can determine that the wiring is a straight-through cable by holding both ends of
the UTP cable side by side and seeing that the order of the wires on both ends is identical.
You can use a straight-through cable for the following tasks:
Connecting a router to a hub or switch
Connecting a server to a hub or switch
Connecting workstations to a hub or switch

UTP Cross Over Cable

Cross Over cable

In the implementation of a crossover, the wires on each end of the cable are crossed.
Transmit to Receive and Receive to Transmit on each side, for both tip and ring.
Diagram shows the UTP crossover implementation.
Notice that pin 1 on one side connects to pin 3 on the other side, and pin 2 connects to
pin 6 on the opposite end.
You can use a crossover cable for the following tasks:
Connecting uplinks between switches
Connecting hubs to switches
Connecting a hub to another hub.
RJ45 Connector
 The RJ-45 connector is clear so you can see the eight colored wires that connect to the
connector’s pins.
 These wires are twisted into four pairs.
 Four wires (two pairs) carry the voltage and are considered tip.
 The other four wires are grounded and are called ring.
 The RJ-45 connector is crimped on to the end of the wire, and the pin locations of the
connector are numbered from the left, 8 to 1.

Fiber optics

 SPEED: Fiber optic networks operate at high speeds - up into the gigabits
 BANDWIDTH: large carrying capacity
 DISTANCE: Signals can be transmitted further without needing to be "refreshed" or
strengthened.
 RESISTANCE: Greater resistance to electromagnetic noise such as radios, motors or other
nearby cables.
 MAINTENANCE: Fiber optic cables costs much less to maintain.

A fiber-optic system is similar to the copper wire system that fiber-optics is replacing. The difference
is that fiber-optics use light pulses to transmit information down fiber lines instead of using
electronic pulses to transmit information down copper lines. Looking at the components in a fiber-
optic chain will give a better understanding of how the system works in conjunction with wire based
systems.At one end of the system is a transmitter. This is the place of origin for information coming
on to fiber-optic lines. The transmitter accepts coded electronic pulse information coming from
copper wire. It then processes and translates that information into equivalently coded light pulses. A
light-emitting diode (LED) or an injection-laser diode (ILD) can be used for generating the light
pulses. Using a lens, the light pulses are funneled into the fiber-optic medium where they transmit
themselves down the line.Think of a fiber cable in terms of very long cardboard roll (from the inside
roll of paper towel) that is coated with a mirror.

If you shine a flashlight in one you can see light at the far end - even if bent the roll around a
corner.Light pulses move easily down the fiber-optic line because of a principle known as total
internal reflection. "This principle of total internal reflection states that when the angle of incidence
exceeds a critical value, light cannot get out of the glass; instead, the light bounces back in. When
this principle is applied to the construction of the fiber-optic strand, it is possible to transmit
information down fiber lines in the form of light pulses.

Transparent glass or plastic fibers which allow light to be guided from one end to the other with
minimal loss.

Fiber optic cable functions as a "light guide," guiding the light introduced at one end of the cable
through to the other end. The light source can either be a light-emitting diode (LED)) or a laser.The
light source is pulsed on and off, and a light-sensitive receiver on the other end of the cable
converts the pulses back into the digital ones and zeros of the original signal.Even laser light shining
through a fiber optic cable is subject to loss of strength, primarily through dispersion and scattering
of the light, within the cable itself. The faster the laser fluctuates, the greater the risk of dispersion.
Light strengtheners, called repeaters, may be necessary to refresh the signal in certain
applications.While fiber optic cable itself has become cheaper over time - a equivalent length of
copper cable cost less per foot but not in capacity. Fiber optic cable connectors and the equipment
needed to install them are still more expensive than their copper counterparts.

There are three types of fiber optic cable commonly used: single mode, multimode and
plastic optical fiber (POF).

Single Mode Cable

 Single Mode cable is a single stand of glass fiber with a
diameter of 8.3 to 10 microns that has one mode of
transmission. Single Mode Fiber with a relatively narrow
diameter, through which only one mode will propagate
typically 1310 or 1550nm. Carries higher bandwidth than
multimode fiber, but requires a light source with a narrow
spectral width. Synonyms mono-mode optical fiber, single-
mode fiber, single-mode optical waveguide, uni-mode fiber.
Single-mode fiber gives you a higher transmission rate and
up to 50 times more distance than multimode, but it also
costs more. Single-mode fiber has a much smaller core
than multimode. The small core and single light-wave
virtually eliminate any distortion that could result from
overlapping light pulses, providing the least signal
attenuation and the highest transmission speeds of any
fiber cable type. Single-mode optical fiber is an optical fiber
in which only the lowest order bound mode can propagate
at the wavelength of interest typically 1300 to 1320nm.

Multi Mode Cable

Multimode cable is made of of glass fibers, with a common

diameters in the 50-to-100 micron range for the light carry
component (the most common size is 62.5). POF is a newer
plastic-based cable which promises performance similar to
glass cable on very short runs, but at a lower cost.
Multimode fiber gives you high bandwidth at high speeds
over medium distances. Light waves are dispersed into
numerous paths, or modes, as they travel through the
cable's core typically 850 or 1300nm. Typical multimode
fiber core diameters are 50, 62.5, and 100 micrometers.
However, in long cable runs (greater than 3000 feet [914.4
ml), multiple paths of light can cause signal distortion at
the receiving end, resulting in an unclear and incomplete
data transmission.

Plastic Optical Fiber

Plastic Optical Fiber, abbreviated POF, typically uses PMMA (acrylic), a general-purpose resin as the
core material, and fluorinated polymers for the clad material.In large-diameter fibers, 96% of the
cross section is the core that allows the transmission of light.

Although quartz fiber is widely used for infrastructures, POF has been called the "consumer" optical
fiber. This is due to the fact that costs of POF, associated optical links, connectors, and installation
costs are low. It is being focused on for the following fields in particular:
Digital home appliance interfaces
Home networks
Car networks
Transmission Media

The foundation of any network is the

transmission media or the circuitry used to
interconnect and carry network signals
between systems. Transmission media
provide the path for one computer to
transfer information to another. The
purpose of transmission media is to
transport a raw bit stream from one
machine to another.
 
We can classify transmission media into two
broad categories,
 
Wired Media.
Wireless Media.

Wired Media

The most commoly used wired media are

 
Copper cable, which carries electrical signals.
Fibre optic cable, which carries optic signals.

Copper Cable
 

Copper cables uses differences in voltage inorder to transmitt and receive data. The different types
of copper cables used in networking are
 
Co-axial cables
Twisted pair cables.
 
Coaxial cable uses BNC Connector
 
There are two types of co-axial cables thicknet and thinnet co-axial cables.

Connectors used for Twisted pair cables: RJ 11 and RJ 45 are the connectors used for twisted pair
cables.RJ, stands for Registerd Jack implying that the connector follows a standard borrowed from
the telephone industry. RJ 11 for four-wire telephone cable and RJ 45 for eight-wire network cables
 

 
Wireless Media
 
Wirless media makes use of the atmosphere, hence referred to as unbound medium- a circuit with
no formal boundaries. This types of medium doesnot use any physical connectors between the two
devices that are communicating. Transmissions of waves take place in the electromagnetic (EM)
spectrum. The carrier frequency of the data is expressed in cycles per second called hertz (Hz). The
three broad categories of wireless media are:
 
 Radio Waves - 10 KHz to 1 GHz. The Federal communications Commission (FCC)
regulates the assignment of these frequencies. Frequencies for unregulated use are:

902-928 MHz 
2.4 GHz 
5.72-5.85 GHz

Microwave - Used to link networks over long distances but the two microwave towers
must have a line of sight between them. The frequency is usually 4-6 GHz or 21 - 23 GHz. Speed is
often 1-10 Mbps. The signal is normally encrypted for privacy.

Infrared - Infrared is just below the visible range of light between 100 GHz and 1000
THz. A light emitting diode (LED) or laser is used to transmit the signal. The signal cannot travel
through objects and line of sight is a must. 
 

OSI Reference Model

The OSI reference model illustrates the networking process as being divided into seven layers. This
theoretical construct makes it easier to learn and understand the concepts involved. At the top of
the model is the application that requires access to a resource on the network, and at the bottom is
the network medium itself. As data moves down through the layers of the model, the various
protocols operating there prepare and package it for transmission over the network. Once the data
arrives at its destination, it moves up through the layers on the receiving system, where the same
protocols perform the same process in reverse.
 Network
Layer Function Protocols
Components

Application  used for applications specifically DNS; FTP; TFTP; Gateway

User written to run over the network BOOTP; SNMP;RLOGIN;
Interface  allows access to network SMTP; MIME; NFS;
services that support applications; FINGER; TELNET; NCP;
 directly represents the services APPC; AFP; SMB
that directly support user applications
 handles network access, flow
control and error recovery
 Example apps are file
transfer,e-mail, NetBIOS-based
applications

Presentation Translates from application to Gateway

Translation network format and vice-versa
 all different formats from all
sources are made into a common
uniform format that the rest of the OSI
model can understand
 responsible for protocol
conversion, character conversion,data
encryption / decryption, expanding
graphics commands, data compression
 sets standards for different
systems to provide seamless
communication from multiple protocol
stacks
 not always implemented in a
network protocol

Session  establishes, maintains and ends NetBIOS Gateway

"syncs and sessions across the network
sessions"  responsible for name Names Pipes
recognition (identification) so only the
designated parties can participate in Mail Slots
the session
 provides synchronization RPC
services by planning check points in the
data stream => if session fails, only
data after the most recent checkpoint
need be transmitted
 manages who can transmit data
at a certain time and for how long
 Examples are interactive login
and file transfer connections, the
session would connect and re-connect if
there was an interruption; recognize
 names in sessions and register names
in history

Transport  additional connection below the TCP, ARP, RARP; Gateway

packets; session layer
flow control  manages the flow control of SPX Brouter
& error- data between parties across the
handling network NWLink
 divides streams of data into
chunks or packets; the transport layer NetBIOS / NetBEUI
of the receiving computer reassembles
the message from packets ATP
 "train" is a good analogy =>
the data is divided into identical units
 provides error-checking to
guarantee error-free data delivery, with
on losses or duplications
 provides acknowledgment of
successful transmissions; requests
retransmission if some packets don’t
arrive error-free
 provides flow control and error-
handling

Network
Layer Function Protocols
Components

Network  translates logical network IP; ARP; RARP, ICMP; Bridge 

addressing; address and names to their physical RIP; OSPF; 
routing address (e.g. computername ==> Router
MAC address) IGMP;
ATM Switch
IPX
 responsible for
o addressing NWLink
o determining routes
for sending NetBEUI
o managing network
problems such as packet switching, OSI
data congestion and routing
DDP
 if router can't send data
DEC net
 frame as large as the source
computer sends, the network layer
compensates by breaking the data
into smaller units. At the receiving
end, the network layer reassembles
the data

 think of this layer stamping

the addresses on each train car

Data Link  turns packets into raw bits Logical Link Control Bridge 
data 100101 and at the receiving end
frames to turns bits into packets.  error correction Switch
bits and flow control
 manages link ISDN Router
 handles data frames between control and defines
the Network and Physical layers SAPs Intelligent
Hub
802.1 OSI Model
 the receiving end packages NIC
raw data from the Physical layer into 802.2 Logical Link
data frames for delivery to the Control
Network layer

Media Access Control

 responsible for error-free
transfer of frames to other computer  communicates
via the Physical Layer with the adapter card
 controls the
type of media being
 this layer defines the used:
methods used to transmit and
receive data on the network. It 802.3 CSMA/CD
consists of the wiring, the devices (Ethernet)
use to connect the NIC to the wiring,
the signaling involved to transmit / 802.4 Token Bus
receive data and the ability to detect (ARCnet)
signaling errors on the network
media 802.5 Token Ring

802.12 Demand Priority

Physical  transmits raw bit stream over IEEE 802 Repeater 

hardware; physical cable
raw bit  defines cables, cards, and IEEE 802.2 Multiplexer
stream physical aspects
 defines NIC attachments to ISO 2110 Hubs
hardware, how cable is attached to  Passiv
NIC ISDN e
  defines techniques to transfer  Active
bit stream to cable

IEEE Network Standards

802.2 (LLC):

The Logical Link Control Layer resides in the upper portion of the Data Link Layer. The LLC layer
performs these functions:

 Managing the data-link communication

 Link Addressing
 Defining Service Access Points (SAPs)
 Sequencing
The LLC provides a way for the upper layers to deal with any type of MAC layer (e.g. Ethernet - IEEE
802.3 CSMA/CD or Token Ring IEEE 802.5 Token Passing). 

802.3 (Ethernet):

With CSMA/CD, a computer listens to the network to determine whether another computer is
transmitting a data frame. If no other computer is transmitting, the computer can then send its
data. While the computer is listening for a data signal, that would be the carrier sense part. Multiple
access means, there are multiple computers trying to access or send data on the network at the
same time. Collision detection indicates that the computers are also listening for collisions, if two
computers try to send data at the same time and a collision occurs, they must wait a random period
of time before transmitting again

802.3a: This Defines "thin" Ethernet, or 10Base2. It used a thinner, cheaper coaxial cable that
simplified the cabling of the network. It utilized a bus topology.

802.3i: This Defines 10Base-T standard. It permitted 10 Mb/s Ethernet to operate over simple
Category 3 Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP) cable.

802.3u: This Defines 100Base-T standard. This version of Ethernet is commonly known as "Fast
Ethernet". Three media types were supported: 1) 100Base-TX operates over two pair of category 5
twisted pair cable, 2) 100Base-T4 operates over four pair of category 3 twisted pair cable, and 3)
100Base-FX operates over two multi-mode fibers.

802.3x: This Defines "full-duplex" Ethernet operation. Full-Duplex Ethernet bypasses the normal
CSMA/CD protocol to allow two stations to communicate over a point to point link. It effectively
doubles the transfer rate by allowing each station to concurrently transmit and receive separate data
streams. For example, a 10 Mb/s full-duplex Ethernet station can transmit one 10 Mb/s stream at
the same time it receives a separate 10 Mb/s stream. This provides an overall data transfer rate of
20 Mb/s.

802.3z: This version of Ethernet is commonly known as "Gigabit Ethernet". Three media types are
supported: 1) 1000Base-SX operates with a 850nm laser over multi-mode fiber, 2) 1000Base-LX
operates with a 1300nm laser over single and multi-mode fiber, and 3) 1000Base-CX operates over
short haul copper "twinax" shielded twisted pair (STP) cable.

802.5: Token Ring

Token Ring standards define services for the OSI physical layer and the MAC sublayer of the data
link layer. Token Ring computers are situated on a continuous network loop. A Token Ring controls
access to the network by passing a token, from one computer to the next. Before they can transmit
data they must wait for a free token, thus token passing does not allow two or more computers to
begin transmitting at the same time. (token ring)

IEEE 802.11X Standards

802.11
 Operates in 2.4GHz range
 provides a data transmission rate of 1Mbps or 2Mbps
 uses spread spectrum technology.

802.11a

 operates in the 5GHz frequency range

 data transmission speed of up to 54Mbps.
 uses orthogonal frequency division multiplexing (OFDM) technology.

802.11b

 operates in the 2.4GHz frequency range

 data transmission speed of up to 11Mbps
 uses spread spectrum technology.

802.11g

 operates in the 2.4GHz frequency range.

 data transmission speed (over short distances) of up to 54Mbps
 uses orthogonal frequency division multiplexing (OFDM) technology.

LLC : Expand SAP

 

 
 

DOD reference Model

 The Department of Defence (DOD) popularly referred to as TCP/IP model is a condensed version of
the OSI model. It has of four layers instead of seven layers.
 
 Process/Application Layer
 Host-to-Host /Transport Layer
 Internet Layer
 Network Access Layer
 
The following shows a comparison of the four-layer DOD model and the seven-layer OSI reference
model. These two reference models are similar in concept, but have a different number of layers
with different names.

The Application Layer: The TCP/IP model’s corresponding layer to the OSI’s top three is know as
the Process/ Application layer. This layer defines the protocols for host-to-host application
communication. It also controls user interface specifications.
 
The Host-to-Host Layer parallels the function of OSI’s Transport layer, defining the protocols for
setting up the level of transmission service for applications. This layer handles issues like creating
reliable end-to-end communication and ensuring the error-free delivery of data. Packet sequencing
and maintaining data integrity are also taken care here.

The Internet Layer corresponds to the Network layer of the OSI model and is responsible for
delivering data across a series of different physical networks that interconnect a source and
destination machine. Routing protocols are closely associated with this layer, as is the IP Protocol,
the Internet's fundamental protocol.

The Network Access layer (also called the Network Interface layer) is responsible for
placing TCP/IP packets on the network medium and receiving TCP/IP packets off the network
 medium. This layer which is equivalent to the data link and physical layers of the OSI model
oversees hardware addressing and defines protocols for the physical transmission of data.

The physical topology of a network describes the layout of the cables and workstations and the
location of all network components.

Common topologies:

 Bus
 Ring
 Star
 Mesh

BUS TOPOLOGY

In a bus topology, all computers are attached to a single continuous cable that is terminated at both
ends, which is the simplest way to create a physical network.

RING TOPOLOGY

 In the ring topology, each computer is connected directly to two other computers in the
network. Data moves down a one-way path from one computer to another.

 The good news about laying out cable in a ring is that the cable design is simple. The bad
news is that, as with bus topology, any break, such as adding or removing a computer, disrupts the
entire network. Also, because you have to “break” the ring in order to add another station, it is very
difficult to reconfigure without bringing down the whole network. For this reason, the physical ring
topology is seldom used.
STAR TOPOLOGY

Unlike those in a bus topology, each computer in a star topology is connected to a central
point by a separate cable. The central point is a device known as a hub.

Although this setup uses more cable than a bus, a star topology is much more fault tolerant
than a bus topology. This means that if a failure occurs along one of the cables connecting to the
hub, only that portion of the network is affected, not the entire network. It also means that you can
add new stations just by running a single new cable.

MESH TOPOLOGY
 In a mesh topology, a path exists from each station to every other station in the network.
While not usually seen in LANs, a variation on this type of topology—the hybrid mesh—is used on
the Internet and other WANs in a limited fashion.

Hybrid mesh topology networks can have multiple connections between some locations, but
this is done only for redundancy.

Also, it is not a true mesh because there is not a connection between each and every node,
just a few for backup purposes.

 
Bus Topology

With a bus topology, when a computer sends out a signal, the signal travels the cable length in both
directions from the sending computer. When the signal reaches the end of the cable length, it
bounces back and returns in the direction it came from(signal bounce). Signal bounce is a problem,
because if another signal is sent on the cable length as the same time, the two signals will collide
and be destroyed and then must be retransmitted. For this reason, at each end of the cable there is
a terminator. The terminator is designed to absorb the signal when the signal reaches the end,
preventing signal bounce.
 
Advantages
 
Easy to implement and extend.
Requires less cable length when compared to star topology.
Well suited for temporary or small networks not requiring high speeds (quick setup).
Cost effective that other topologies.
 
Disadvantages
 
Difficult to administer/troubleshoot.
Scalability is very low.
Problem with the backbone cable leads to entire network failure.
Performance degrades as additional computers are added or on heavy traffic.( If many
computers are attached, the amount of data flowing causes the network to slow down.)
 
Star Topology
 
Advantages
 
Scalable, easy to set up and to expand.
Failure of a single cable or a single computer doesnot affect the entire network.
Easy to a administer/troubleshoot.
Data packets are sent quickly as they do not have to travel through any unnecessary nodes.
 
Disadvantages
 
Extra hardware (Hub/Switch) required.
Failure of Hub/Switch leads to entire network failure.

Ring Topology
 
Advantages
 
Signal degeration is low because each workstation is responsible for regenerating or
boosting the signal.
 
Disadvantages
 
The biggest problem with ring topology is that if one computer fails or the cable link is
broken the entire network could go down.
When there is a cable change or when a workstation is moved in the network, brief
disconnection can interrupt or bring down the entire network.
 
Mesh Topology
 
Advantages
 
Fault Tolerance
Provides great deal of performance and reliability.
  
Disadvantages
 
Very hard to administer and manage because of numerous connections.
Costly because of the additional cabling and network interfaces to create multiple pathways
between each system.

Hybrid Topology: A hybrid topology is a combination of any two or more network topologies.For
Example, a popular hybrid topology is the star-bus topology, in 
which a number of star topologies are connected by a central bus topology.

Switching

Before you can understand specific network transport systems, such as Ethernet and Token Ring,
you must be familiar with the concept of switching. Switching is a component of a network’s logical
topology that determines how connections are created between nodes. . Every network transport
system relies on one of these switching mechanisms.

The three methods for switching are as follows:

 Circuit switching
 Message switching
 Packet switching

Circuit Switching

In circuit switching, a connection is established between two network nodes before they begin
transmitting data. Bandwidth is dedicated to this connection and remains available until the users
terminate communication between the two nodes. While the nodes remain connected, all data follow
the same path initially selected by the switch. When you place a telephone call, for example, your
call goes through a circuit-switched connection.

Because circuit switching monopolizes its piece of bandwidth while the two stations remain
connected (even when no actual communication is taking place), it is not an economical technology.
Some network applications that cannot tolerate the time delay it takes to reorganize data packets,
such as live audio or videoconferencing, benefit from such a dedicated path, however.When you
connect your home PC via modem to your Internet service provider’s access server, that connection
uses circuit switching. WAN technologies, such as ISDN and T1 service, which are discussed in
Chapter 7, also use circuit switching. Finally, ATM, which is discussed later in this chapter, uses
circuit switching as well.

Message Switching

Message switching establishes a connection between two devices, transfers the information to the
second device, and then breaks the connection.The information is stored and forwarded from the
second device once a connection between that device and a third device on the path is
established.This “store and forward” routine continues until the message reaches its destination.All
information follows the same physical path; unlike with circuit switching, however, the connection is
not continuously maintained. E-mail systems use message switching. Message switching requires
that each device in the data’s path have sufficient memory and processing power to accept and
store the information before passing it to the next node. None of the network transmission
technologies discussed in this chapter uses message switching.

Packet Switching

A third method for connecting nodes on a network is packet switching. Packet switching breaks data
into packets before they are transported. Packets can travel any path on the network to their
destinations, because each packet contains the destination address and sequencing information.
Consequently, packets can attempt to find the fastest circuit available at any instant.They need not
follow each other along the same path, nor must they arrive at their destination in the same
sequence as when they left the transmitting node.
 
Token Ring
 

ETHERNET

Ethernet is a logical topology originally developed by Xerox in the 1970s

and later improved by Xerox, Digital Equipment Corporation (DEC) and
Intel. This flexible technology can run on a variety of network media and
offers excellent throughput at a reasonable cost. Ethernet is, by far, the
most popular logical topology for LANs today, and its popularity continues
to grow.

Ethernet has evolved through many variations, and continues to

improve.As a result of this history, it supports many different versions—so
many, in fact, that you will probably find the many variations a little
confusing. Ethernet networks may differ at the Physical layer. Here we will
learn how Ethernet networks may differ at the Data Link layer. First,
however, you will learn about CSMA/CD, the network access method that
all Ethernet networks have in common.

Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detection

(CSMA/CD)

The defining characteristic of Ethernet is its access method, or its method

of controlling how network nodes access the communications channel.
The access method used in Ethernet is called Carrier Sense Multiple
Access with Collision Detection (CSMA/CD).All Ethernet networks,
independent of their speed or frame type, rely on CSMA/CD.To
understand Ethernet, you must first understand CSMA/CD.

Take a minute to think about the full name “Carrier Sense Multiple Access
with Collision Detection.” The term “Carrier Sense” refers to the fact that
Ethernet NICs listen on the network and wait until they detect (or sense)
that no other nodes are transmitting data over the signal (or carrier) on
the communications channel before they begin to transmit. The term
“Multiple Access” refers to the fact that several Ethernet nodes can be
connected to a network and can monitor traffic, or access the media,
simultaneously.

In CSMA/CD, when a node wants to transmit data it must first access the
transmission media and determine whether the channel is free. If the
channel is not free, it waits and checks again after a random (but very
brief) amount of time. If the channel is free, the node transmits its
data.Any node can transmit data once it determines that the channel is
free. But what if two nodes simultaneously check the channel, determine
that it’s free, and begin to transmit? When this happens, their two
transmissions will interfere with each other; this is known as a collision. In
this event, the network performs a series of steps known as the collision
detection routine. If a station’s NIC determines that its data has been
involved in a collision, it will immediately stop transmitting. Next, in a
process called jamming, it will issue a special 32-bit sequence that
indicates to the rest of the network nodes that the station’s previous
transmission was faulty and that they should not accept those data frames
as valid. After waiting, the node will determine if the line is again
available; if it is available, the line will retransmit its data.
 CSMA/CD process

On an Ethernet network, an individual segment is known as a collision

domain, or a portion of a network in which collisions will occur if two
nodes transmit data at the same time. When designing an Ethernet
network, it’s important to note that, since repeaters simply regenerate any
signal they receive, they repeat collisions just as they repeat data.Thus,
connecting multiple parts of a network with repeaters results in a larger
collision domain. Higher-layer connectivity devices, such as switches and
routers, however, can separate collision domains.

Collision domains play a role in the Ethernet cabling distance limitations.

For example, if the distance between two nodes on a segment connected
to the same 100BaseT network bus exceeds 100 meters, data propagation
delays will be too long for CSMA/CD to work. A data propagation delay is
 the length of time data take to travel from one point on the segment to
another point.When data takes a long time, CSMA/CD’s collision detection
routine cannot identify collisions accurately. In other words, one node on
the segment might begin its CSMA/CD routine and determine that the
channel is free even though a second node has begun transmitting,
because the second node’s data is taking so long to reach the first node.

In Fast Ethernet, data travel so quickly that NICs can’t always keep up
with the collision detection and retransmission routines. Because of the
speed employed on a 100BaseT network, the window of time for the NIC
to both detect and compensate for the error is much less than that of a
10BaseT, 10Base2, or 10Base5 network.To minimize undetected collisions,
100BaseT buses can support a maximum of three network segments
connected with two hubs, while 10BaseT buses can support a maximum
of five network segments connected with four hubs.This shorter path
reduces the highest potential propagation delay between nodes.

LOCALTALK

Now that you have learned about Ethernet, a very common logical topology, you will learn about
some less common logical topologies, including LocalTalk. LocalTalk is a logical topology designed
by Apple Computer, Inc. specifically for networking Macintosh computers. It has been included with
the Macintosh operating system since 1984, and it provided a simple, cost-effective way of
interconnecting Macintosh devices. However, LocalTalk is only capable of 230 Kbps maximum
throughput - much less than the 10-Mbps or 100-Mbps throughput of an Ethernet network. Also,
LocalTalk is not easily supported by non-Macintosh devices. And, since Macintosh computers are
capable of using Ethernet as a network access method, Ethernet is usually preferred over LocalTalk.
An instance in which LocalTalk might still be appropriate is for a home network that requires simple
configuration and does not require high throughput.Although you may never need to build a
LocalTalk network, the essential details of this logical topology are included here in case you must
modify or troubleshoot one.

LocalTalk uses a transmission method called Carrier Sense Multiple Access/Collision Avoidance
(CSMA/CA). It is similar to the CSMA/CD used in Ethernet networks, except that a node on a
LocalTalk network signals its intent to transmit before it actually does so. In this way, collisions and
the need for data retransmittals are (mostly) avoided.At the Physical layer, LocalTalk networks
require twisted-pair wiring and, in fact, use the same type of cabling used for telephone
connections.They may rely on a star or,more often, a bus physical topology.Their maximum
segment length is 1000 feet, or approximately 305 meters. Up to 32 nodes may be connected to any
single LocalTalk network before data errors begin to occur.(Notet:RTS-Request to Send,CTS-
Clear to Send,ACK-Acknowledge) 
Collision Avoidance

TOKEN RING

Token Ring networks are generally more expensive to implement than Ethernet networks.
Proponents of the Token Ring technology argue that, although some of its connectivity hardware is
more expensive, its reliability results in less downtime and lower network management costs than
Ethernet. On a practical level,Token Ring has probably lost the battle for superiority because its
developers were slower to develop a high-speed standard.Token Ring networks can run at either 4,
16, or 100 Mbps.The 100-Mbps Token Ring standard, finalized in 1999, is known as High-Speed
Token Ring (HSTR).

HSTR can use either twisted-pair or fiber-optic cable as its transmission medium.While it is as
reliable and efficient as Fast Ethernet, it is less common because of its more costly implementation.

Token Ring networks use the token-passing routine and a star-ring hybrid physical topology. Recall
from the discussion of the ring topology earlier in this chapter that a token designates which station
on the ring can transmit information on the wire. On a Token Ring network, one workstation, called
the active monitor, acts as the controller for token passing. Specifically, the active monitor maintains
the timing for ring passing, monitors token and frame transmission, detects lost tokens, and corrects
errors when a timing error or other disruption occurs. Only one workstation on the ring can act as
the active monitor at any given time.

In token passing, a 3-byte token circulates around the network.When a station has something to
send, it picks up the token, changes it to a frame, and then adds the header, information, and trailer
fields. The header includes the address of the destination node.

All nodes read the frame as it traverses the ring to determine whether they are the intended
recipient of the message. If they are, they pick up the data, then retransmit the frame to the next
station on the ring. When the frame finally reaches the originating station, the originating
workstation reissues a free token that can then be used by another station.The token passing
control scheme ensures high data reliability (no collisions) and an efficient use of bandwidth. It also
does not impose distance limitations on the length of a LAN segment, unlike CSMA/CD. On the other
hand, token ring passing generates extra network traffic.

Fiber Distributed Data Interface (FDDI)

Fiber Distributed Data Interface (FDDI) is a logical topology whose standard was originally specified
by ANSI in the mid-1980s and later refined by ISO. FDDI (pronounced “fiddy”) uses a double ring of
multimode or single mode fiber to transmit data at speeds of 100 Mbps. FDDI was developed in
response to the throughput limitations of Ethernet and Token Ring technologies used at the time. In
fact, FDDI was the first network transport system to reach the 100-Mbps threshold. For this reason,
you will frequently find it supporting network backbones that were installed in the late 1980s and
early 1990s. A popular implementation of FDDI involves connecting LANs located in multiple
buildings, such as those on college campuses. FDDI links can span distances as large as 62 miles.
Because Ethernet and Token Ring technologies have developed faster transmission speeds, FDDI is
no longer the much-coveted technology that it was in the 1980s.

Nevertheless, FDDI is a stable technology that offers numerous benefits. Its reliance on fiber-optic
cable ensures that FDDI is more reliable and more secure than transmission methods that depend
on copper wiring.Another advantage of FDDI is that it works well with Ethernet 100BaseTX
technology.

One drawback to FDDI technology is its high cost relative to Fast Ethernet (costing up to 10 times
more per switch port than Fast Ethernet). If an organization has FDDI installed, however, it can use
the same cabling to upgrade to Fast Ethernet or Gigabit Ethernet, with only minor differences to
consider, such as Ethernet’s lower maximum segment length.

FDDI is based on a ring physical topology similar to a Token Ring network, use.However, unlike
Token Ring technology, FDDI runs on two complete rings. During normal operation, the primary
FDDI ring carries data, while the secondary ring is idle.The secondary ring will assume data
transmission responsibilities should the primary ring experience Physical layer problems. This
redundancy makes FDDI networks extremely reliable.
A FDDI network

Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM)

Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM) is a logical topology that relies on a fixed packet size to achieve
data transfer rates up to 9953 Mbps. It was first conceived by researchers at Bell Labs in 1983 as a
higher-bandwidth alternative to FDDI It is typically used on WANs, particularly by large data carriers
such as telephone companies and Internet service providers.

Like Token Ring and Ethernet, ATM specifies Data Link layer data packaging and Physical layer
signaling techniques. But what sets ATM apart from Token Ring and Ethernet is its fixed packet
size.The fixed packet in ATM, which is called a cell, consists of 48 bytes of data plus a 5-byte
header. This fixed packet size allows ATM to provide predictable traffic patterns and better control
over bandwidth utilization. However, recall that a smaller packet size requires more overhead. In
fact,ATM’s smaller packet size does decrease its potential throughput, but the efficiency of using
cells compensates for that loss. Compare ATM’s maximum throughput of 9953 Mbps with Fast
Ethernet’s maximum throughput of 100 Mbps. Even though an ATM cell is a fraction of the size of an
Ethernet frame,ATM’s throughput is significantly faster.

Another unique aspect of ATM technology is that it relies on virtual circuits. Virtual circuits are
connections between network nodes that, while based on potentially disparate physical links,
logically appear to be direct, dedicated links between those nodes.

The significant benefit to using circuit switching is that it allows ATM to guarantee a specific quality
of service (QoS). QoS is a standard that specifies that data will be delivered within a certain period
of time after their transmission. ATM networks can supply four QoS levels, from a “best effort”
attempt for noncritical data to a guaranteed, real-time transmission for time-sensitive data. This is
important for organizations using networks for time-sensitive applications such as video and audio
transmissions. For example, a company that wants to use its physical connection between two
offices located at opposite sides of a state to carry its voice phone calls might choose the ATM
logical topology with the highest possible QoS to carry that data.Without QoS guarantees, data may
arrive in the wrong order or too slowly to be properly interpreted by the receiving node.

An ATM Network Comprises ATM Switches and Endpoints

Case Studies - Networking Basics

These case studies are based on real time scenarios. Solving them will help you to understand
how various technologies and devices are implemented and used.

Case 1

You have been asked by, a local charity retail organization, to install a network in its
downtown office. It currently has four PCs running Windows 98, with the following
specifications:

486/66 MHz processor, 200 MB hard drive, 16 MB RAM

486/233 MHz processor, 500 MB hard drive, 32 MB RAM
Pentium 233 MHz processor, 2.5 GB hard drive, 64 MB RAM
Pentium II 533 MHz processor, 16 GB hard drive, 128 MB RAM

Thrift Towne’s owners are not very concerned about security, because the network will share
only inventory information (customers remain anonymous and are not tracked). Thrift Towne
uses volunteers to run its stores, and the volunteers are not technical experts. In addition,
Thrift Towne doesn’t have much money to spend on this project. The owners have asked for a
simple, inexpensive solution.

What type of network would you recommend and why?

What role (or roles) would you assign to each of the four workstations and any other
equipment you recommend?
What type of upgrades might the workstations require to make your solution work?

Case 2

You have been asked to design the entire cabling system for a medical instrument
manufacturer’s new central warehouse. The company already has three buildings on two city
blocks, and the warehouse will be its fourth building. Currently, the buildings run on separate
networks, but the company would like to be able to exchange data among them. In addition,
the Marketing Department would like to hold videoconferences with the Sales Department in
the next building. In the warehouse, 50 shipping and packing personnel will be riding up and
down the aisles on forklifts pulling inventory off the shelves on a daily basis.

What kind of transmission media would you recommend for the different departments of the
medical instrument company and why?

Case 3

As a consultant for the  National Bank of India, you have been asked to solve a problem on the
bank’s network that began on Monday. According to the bank manager, at the beginning of
each day two of the 16 tellers have been unable to log on to the network.Two other tellers
occasionally experience problems at the beginning of the day, but not if they get to work
before everyone else.They receive an error that says something like “another machine is using
that name.”When you arrive at the bank, the college intern who has been setting up the
machines tells you that he is using a program called Ghost to clone all PCs from a single disk
image. In other words, an exact copy of one machine’s software, operating system, and its
properties has been copied to all of the computers. All of the PCs are brand new, are running
Windows 98, and use the same hardware and software. National Bank’s network consists of
two Windows 2000 servers and runs both TCP/IP and NetBIOS/NetBEUI protocols. It uses
DHCP to allocate TCP/IP addresses.

What might be preventing the two tellers from logging on to the network in the morning?

Case 4

You have been asked to design a LAN for a very successful CPA firm with five departments in
one building and a total of 560 employees. Currently, the firm has no networked computers,
and it is open to any suggestions you can offer.The firm does have a few requirements,
however. It wants to make sure that it can easily expand its LAN in the future without
exorbitant costs and moving a lot of equipment. The firm also wants to make sure that every
department has very fast access to the LAN, and, of course, it wants the LAN to remain up at
all times. It has already decided to use the Windows 2000 network operating system.

What kind of LAN will you design for this company?

Case 5

AstroTech Components, a company that manufactures parts for the aeronautics industry, is
having trouble with a network segment in one of its plants and has asked you for help.
According to the network administrator, the plant was incorporated into the existing Ethernet
10BaseT network two weeks ago. Since then, the users have been complaining of intermittent
lockups, software errors, and disconnections. During your visit, she shows you the very
organized telecommunications closet.Then, the network administrator escorts you to the
production floor, where she points out the 20 Windows 98 machines that the supervisors use
to enter numbers into a database from their desks in the production area. The supervisors try
to explain their problems in detail, but you and the network administrator can barely hear
above the roar of stamping machines.You begin to walk away when you notice that the
network cabling is strung along the outside of support posts between stamping machines.

When you reach her office, what suggestions do you make to the network administrator to fix
the problem?