Chapter 3 PDF

CHAPTER 3
Water treatment
Prepared by Dr. Ahmed H. Birima

Outlines
 Coagulation and flocculation
 Characteristics of particles
 Common coagulants
 Mixing and flocculation
 Sedimentation
 The Ideal Sedimentation Basin
 Horizontal – Flow Rectangular Sedimentation Basin Design
 Granular filtration
 Classification
 Theory of granular filtration
 Granular filtration practice

Coagulation and flocculation
 Characteristics of particles
• Charge is predominately negative
• Particles repel so suspension is considered stable
• Can be removed by physical means
Colloidal particles
Suspended particles

oA chemical coagulant with positive charge and high valence
is mixed into water.
oThe coagulant acts to destabilized the particles at neutral
pH.
oThe precipitates called “flocs” act as seed for forming larger particles.
+
+ +
+ +
+ +
+ +
++ ++
+ ++
+ +
+ +
+ + +
+ ++ +
+ ++
+
Colloidal particles +
+
(0.001 - 1 m)
+
floc
(1 - 100 m)
Coagulation/Flocculation/Physical Removal
o Designed to remove,
• Microorganisms.
• Toxic compounds that are sorted to particles.
• NOM
o Designed to make the water more palatable.

Coagulation and Flocculation
 Coagulation: Addition of chemicals to destabilize
particles for flocculation.
 Flocculation: Process of bringing the particles together
so that they aggregate into larger particles.
 Physical Removal: Process of removing the larger
particles from the clarified water (sedimentation,
flotation, filtration).

Common coagulants
.
 Alum: Al2(SO4)3 14H2O
 Aluminum chloride: AlCl3
 Ferric chloride: FeCl3
 Ferric sulfate: FeSO4
 Polyaluminum chloride (PACl):
Alw(OH)xCl3w-x
 Polyaluminum sulfate (PAS)
Alx(OH)y(SO4)z
 Polyelectrolytes
How does alum work?
 Al2(SO4)314H2O  2Al3++ 3SO42-+ 14H2O
 2Al3+ + colloids  neutralize surface charge
 If sufficient alkalinity is available:
2Al3+ + 6HCO3-  2Al(OH)3(s) + 6CO2
 If insufficient bicarbonate is available:
Al2(SO4)314H2O  2Al(OH)3(s) + 3H2SO4 + 14H2O
 Optimum pH: 5.5 to 6.5
 Operating pH: 5 to 8
pH and dose
Two important factors in coagulant
addition are pH and dose.
The optimum doe and pH must be

determine from laboratory test.
Jar test apparatus with turbid water

Example 3.1.
Six beakers are filled with the raw water, and then each is mixed and
flocculated uniformly by identical paddle stirrers driven by a single
motor. A typical test is conducted by first dosing each jar with the
same alum dose and varying the pH in each jar. The test is then
repeated in a second set of jars by holding the pH constant at the
optimum pH and varying the coagulant dose.
In the example set of data below, two sets of such jar tests were
conducted on a raw water containing 15 NTU.
The turbidity was measured after the mixture was allowed for 30
minutes.
Determine the optimal pH and dose.

Solution
 The results of the two jar tests are plotted in the Figure
below. In the first test, the optimal pH was chosen as
6.0, and this pH was used for the second jar test. From
the second jar test, the optimal alum dose was
estimated to be about 12.5 mg/L. In actual practice, the
laboratory technician would probably try to repeat the
test using a pH of 6.25 and varying the alum dose
between 10 and 15 to pinpoint the optimal conditions.
From Figure 3-11, the optimum pH was estimated to be
6.0 and the optimum dose was estimated to be 12.5
mg/l

Fig. 3.2 results of jar test (a) constant alum, ( b) constant pH

Mixing theory

……….3.1




……………..3.2

Flash mixing (rapid mixing) design criteria
 This equipment is design to provide a high G.

 The order of performance in selection of equipment
type is based on effectiveness, reliability maintenance
requirements and cost.
 Common alternatives for mixing when mechanisms of
coagulation is adsorption/destabilization are:
1. Diffusion mixing by pressured water jets.
2. In- line mechanical mixing.
3. In-line static mixing.

 Common alternatives for mixing when the mechanism
of coagulation is sweep coagulation are:
1. Mechanical mixing in stirred tanks.
2. Diffusion by pipe grid.
3. Hydraulic mixing.

Table 3.1

Fig 3.3 typical in-line blender
The design criteria used in the selection

of in- line mechanical mixers
Fig. 3.4 Dimension notation for in- line
1- G in range 3000 to 5000 s-1 blenders given in Table 3.1
2- Detention time t of about 0.5 s
3. Head loss of 0.3 to 0.9 m
Example 3.2
 Using Table 3.1 select an in-line blender for an alum

coagulant. The jar test data resemble that shown in Fig.
3.2. The design flow rate is 383 m3/h and design water
temperature is 17 0C.

Table 3.2

In-line static mixing
This mixer consist of pipe with in-line helical vanes.
That rotate and split the flow to increase turbulence.
These mixture have two advantages

Fig. 3.5 static mixer
1- There are no moving parts.
1- No external energy source is required.
Disadvantage
Degree of mixing and mixing time is a function of flow rate.

Mechanical mixing in stirred tank
 When the predominant coagulation mechanism is

sweep coagulation, a typical completely mixed flow
reactor (CMFR) or continuous flow- stirred tank
reactor (CSTR) as shown in Fig. 3.6 is used.
 Detention times of 1 to 7 s and G values in range of
600 to 1000 s-1 are recommended.
 The volume of rapid mix tank is seldom exceeds 8
m3 because of mixing equipment and geometry
constraints.

Fig. 3.6 Completely mixed flow reactor
(CMFR) or continuous-flow Stirred tank
(CSTR)
Fig. 3.6 Basic impeller style

Table 3.3

Example 3.3
Design a cylindrical flash mixing basin by determining the basin volume,
tank diameter, dimensions, required input power and impeller diameter
from manufacturer's data provided below, using the following parameters:
Design flow rate = 11.5 x 103 m3/d
Rapid mix time t = 5 s
Rapid mix G = 600 s-1
Water temperature = 5 0C
Place impeller at one-third the water depth

3.2
3.3

3.1
3.2
3.3

Flocculation mixing design criteria
 Flocculation basin
 Flocculation basin should be divided into at least three
compartments.
 G values decrease from the first compartment to the last
 Flow through velocity not less than 0.15 m/s nor greater
than 0.45 m/s.
 Water depth in the basin range from 3 to 5 m.
 Baffle wall
 It is used to separate the flocculation basin compartments.
 The top of the baffle is slightly submerged (1 to 2 cm), and
the bottom should have space of 2 to 3 cm above the floor
to allow for drainage and sludge removal.
3.7

Mixer alternatives
 Flocculation is normally accomplished with one of the
following:
 Vertical turbine mixing similar to that used in flash
mixing.
 Paddle flocculator (Fig. 3. 8).
 Baffled chamber (Fig. 3.9).

Fig. 3.8 paddle flocculator with paddle wheels arranged parallel to the flow
Fig. 3.9 baffled channel flocculation system

Example 3.4
 Design a flocculation basin by determine the basin volume, tank
dimensions, required input power and impeller diameter using the
following parameters and the manufacture’s data.
 Design flow rate = 11.5 x 103 m3/d
 Flocculation time = 30 minutes
 Three flocculator compartments with G = 70, 50, 30 s-1
 Water temperature = 5 0C
 Place impeller at one- third the water depth.
 From the manufacture’s data the following impellers are available.

3.2

Sedimentation
 The objectives of sedimentation process is to allow the settling
out of particulate material in a reasonable period of time.
 In the design of an ideal sedimentation tank, one of the
controlling parameters is the settling velocity (vs) of the particle
to be removed.
 Settling properties of particles are categorized into four classes:
1. Discrete particle settling
2. Flocculant settling
3. Hindered settling
4. Compression settling
5. These categories are labeled as type 1, type II, type III and type
IV.

Type I Sedimentation
 In type I, sedimentation is characterized by particles that settle
discreetly at a constant velocity(vs) of the particle to be removed.
 They settle as individual particles and do not flocculate during
settling. Examples of these particles are sand and grit.
Type II Sedimentation
 Type II sedimentation is characterized by particles that
flocculate during sedimentation.
 These types of particles occur in alum or iron coagulation, in
wastewater primary sedimentation and in settling tanks in
trickling filtration.

Type II Sedimentation
 There is no adequate mathematical relationship
that can be used to describe Type II settling.
 Laboratory tests with settling columns serve as a
model of the behavior of flocculant settling.

Type III and type VI Sedimentation
 When the water contains a high concentration of
particles (for example, greater than 1,000 mg/L)
both Type III (hindered settling or zone settling)
and Type IV (compression settling) occur along
with discrete and flocculant settling.
 Zone settling occurs in lime-softening
sedimentation, activated sludge sedimentation,
and sludge thickeners
 ….Refer to CEEB 223 notes …

The Ideal Sedimentation Basin
o The ideal settling basin theory assumes the following:
 Type I settling.
 Four zones in the basin: inlet, outlet, sludge. and settling.
 Even distribution of flow (uniform horizontal velocity) entering
the settling zone.
 Even distribution of flow leaving the settling zone.
 Uniform distribution of particles through the depth of the inlet
zone to the end of the settling zone.
 Particles that enter the sludge zone are captured and remain in
the sludge zone.
 Particles that enter the outlet zone are not removed from the
water.

Figure 3.10 zones of sedimentation: (a) horizontal flow clarifier; (b)
upflow clarifier.
Source: water and wastewater engineering, design principles and practice.
Machenzie L. Davis.
 ln the upflow clarifier, particle-laden water enters the
bottom of the clarifier as shown in figure 3.10, at the
bottom of the clarifier the velocity of the rising water is
greater than the settling velocity of the particle.
 As the water rises, the area through which it passes is
increasing.
 From the continuity principle the velocity of the water
decreases as it rises:
 ………………..……………………………….3.3
 The velocity of the particle remains the same.

Where = velocity of water, m/s
= Flow rate of water, m3/s
= cross-sectional area through which the water flows, m2
 The upward water velocity that will enable the separation of the
water from the particle is called the overflow rate because it is the
rate at which water overflows the top of the tank into the weirs.
 The notation , is used to denote the overflow rate. It is also called

the hydraulic surface loading, or the surface loading, because it has
units of m3/d.m2.

 For an upflow clarifier, 100 percent of the particles having a
settling velocity greater than or equal to the overflow rate
will remain in the settling tank (that is, they will be
captured), and no particles with a settling velocity less than
the overflow rate will be captured.
 Particle removal in a horizontal flow settling tank is
likewise depend on the overflow rate.
 (which is the overflow rate ( ) …………….3.4

Figure 3.11 settling in an upflow clarifier.
Source: water and wastewater engineering, design principles and practice.
Machenzie L. Davis.
 In a similar fashion to an upflow clarifier, if the settling
velocity of a particle is equal to or greater than the overflow
rate, 100 percent of the particles will be captured in a
horizontal sedimentation tank. Unlike an upflow clarifier,
some percentage of the particles with less than will be
removed (Figure 3.5).
 The percentage of particles removed, P, with a settling
velocity of , in a horizontal flow sedimentation tank
designed with an overflow rate of ,is
 …………………………………………3.5

50 %
50 %
Figure 3.12 Partial particle removal in an ideal sedimentation tank

Example 3.5
 A horizontal-flow sedimentation tank with an overrate
of 17 m3/d.m2. What percentage removal should be
expected for each of the following particle settling
velocities in an ideal sedimentation tank: 0.1 mm/s,
0.2 mm/s, and 1 mm/s?

Horizontal – Flow Rectangular Sedimentation
Basin Design
•Horizontal flow velocities must be controlled to avoid undue turbulence,
back mixing and scour of the particles from the sludge. Velocity not
exceed 0.15 m/min is recommended.
•Reynolds and Froude numbers can be used to check on turbulence and

back mixing.
•A large Reynolds number indicates a high degree of turbulence
•A low Froude number indicates that water flow is not dominated by
horizontal flow, and backmixing may occur.
The Reynolds number is determined as:
…………………………………..3.6
Where R = Reynolds number, dimensionless

Horizontal – Flow Rectangular Sedimentation
Basin Design
= average horizontal fluid velocity in tank, m/s
= hydraulic radius, m =
= wetted perimeter, m
= kinematic viscosity,m2/s
= dynamic viscosity, Pa.s
= density of fluid, kg/m3

Froude number
The Froude number is determined as:
= …………………………………..3.7
Where Fr = Froude number, dimensionless

g = acceleration due to gravity, 9.81 m/s2

Figure 3.13 Typical sedimentation tanks:
(a) rectangular horizontal flow tank; (b)
circular, radial-flow tank; (c) hopper-
bottomed, upward flow tank

Chain – and flight sludge collector

Traveling bridge sludge collector

Traveling bridge sludge collector

Table 3.4

Example 3.6:
 Design the settling tank (s) for the city of Stillwater’s

water treatment plant using the design overflow rate
(v0) of 32.5 m3/d.m2. The maximum day design flow is
0.5 m3/s. Assume a water temperature of 100 C.

Granular filtration
 The objective of filtration process is to remove non-
settelable particles and microorganisms.
 Granular filters are called depth filters because the
particulate matter in the water penetrates into the
filter as well as being caught on the surface.
 The bottom of the filter consists of a support media
and water collection system (fig 3.7). The support
media is designed to keep the filtration media (sand,
coal, etc.) in the filter and prevent it from leaving with
the filtered water.

Figure 3.14 Typical gravity filter box
Source: water and wastewater engineering, design principles and
practice.Machenzie L. Davis

Granular filtration
 Layers of graded gravel (large on bottom,small on top)
traditionally have been used for the support. The under
drain blocks collect the filtered water.
 In newer designs, integrated media support that combines
a synthetic layer with a synthetic underdrain block is being
used.
 As material accumulates in the interstices of the granular
medium, the headloss through the filter increases.
 When either the headloss or the effluent turbidity reaches
a predetermined limit, filtration is terminated and the
filter is cleaned

Classification
 Filters are classified based on hydraulic rate as:
 Slow sand filters, rapid sand filters, or high-rate filters.
o Slow sand filters
 Slow sand filters were first introduced in the 1800s. The
water is applied to the sand at loading rate of 3 to 8
m3/d.m2.
 As the suspended or colloidal material is applied to the
sand the particles begin to collect in the top 75 mm and to
clog the pore spaces.
 As the pores clogged, water will no longer pass through the
sand. At this point the top layer of sand is scraped off,
cleaned, and replaced.
Classification
o Rapid sand filters
 These filters have graded (layered) sand in a bed. The
sand grain size distribution is selected to optimize the
passage of water while minimizing the passage of
particulate matter.
 Rapid sand filters are cleaned in place by backwashing.
 Rapid sand filters are the most common type of filters
in service in water treatment plants today.
 Rapid sand filters have been designed to operate at 120
m3/d.m2.
Classification
o Deep-bed (high rate filters)
 They have been introduce in mid- 1980s.
 They are designed to achieve higher loading rates and
producing lower turbidity.
 They operated at loading rate up to 600 m3/d.m2.

Theory of granular filtration
o The hydraulic issues to be considered in the design of
filter system include:
 Head loss through a clean filter bed
 Head loss resulting from the accumulation of particles
in the bed.
 The fluidization depth of the bed during backwashing,
and head loss in expanding the filter bed.

Clean filter headloss
 The headloss through a clean filter with uniform
porosity can be determined as:

Terminal headloss
 Terminal headloss is the headloss after which the filter
should be cleaned.
 Terminal headloss selected based on experience and
the hydraulic profile of the entire treatment plant.

Backwashing hydraulics
 The expansion of filter bed during backwash is
calculated to provide the starting point in determining
the placement of the backwash troughs above the filter
bed.

Granular filtration practice
oNumber of filters
 For smaller plants (< 800 m3/d), the minimum number of
filters is two.
 For plants > 800 m3/d, the minimum number of filters is
four.
 A rule-of-thumb estimate for larger plants may be made
using
 ………………………………….3.7

Filtration rate
 When a plant has a small number of filters, the
filtration rate in the remaining filters increases
dramatically when one filter is taken off-line for
backwashing or maintenance.
 A sudden increase in the filtration rate in those filters
in service may result in particle detachment and an
increase in the turbidity in the effluent. This condition
must be analyzed when the filtration rate is selected.

Dimensions
 The area of a filter bed may be estimated as
 ………………………………………3.8

 In general, filter area range from 25 to 100 m2 with an
average of about 50 m2.
 Filters generally composed of two cells per filter box to
form a bed.
 The width of a filter cell should be less than 6 m.
 Length to width ratio of a cell is in the range of 2:1 to
4:1.
 The filter box depth is in the range of 4 to 8m. Due to
construction cost, filters rarely provide more than 2 to
3m.

Example 3.7
 A sand filter is to be designed for Putrajaya new
water treatment plant. If the maximum day design
flow rate is 18,400 m3/d, and the filtration rate is 216
m3/d.m2. Determine the area of each individual filter
and the plan (horizontal) dimensions of a filter box.

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CHAPTER 3

Prepared by Dr. Ahmed H. Birima

Prepared by Dr. Ahmed H. Birima

Prepared by Dr. Ahmed H. Birima

Prepared by Dr. Ahmed H. Birima

Prepared by Dr. Ahmed H. Birima

The optimum doe and pH must be

Jar test apparatus with turbid water

Prepared by Dr. Ahmed H. Birima

Prepared by Dr. Ahmed H. Birima

Prepared by Dr. Ahmed H. Birima

Prepared by Dr. Ahmed H. Birima

Prepared by Dr. Ahmed H. Birima

Prepared by Dr. Ahmed H. Birima

Prepared by Dr. Ahmed H. Birima

 This equipment is design to provide a high G.

Prepared by Dr. Ahmed H. Birima

1. Mechanical mixing in stirred tanks.

2. Diffusion by pipe grid.

Prepared by Dr. Ahmed H. Birima

Prepared by Dr. Ahmed H. Birima

The design criteria used in the selection

 Using Table 3.1 select an in-line blender for an alum

Prepared by Dr. Ahmed H. Birima

Prepared by Dr. Ahmed H. Birima

This mixer consist of pipe with in-line helical vanes.

That rotate and split the flow to increase turbulence.

These mixture have two advantages

Prepared by Dr. Ahmed H. Birima

 When the predominant coagulation mechanism is

Prepared by Dr. Ahmed H. Birima

Fig. 3.6 Basic impeller style

Prepared by Dr. Ahmed H. Birima

Prepared by Dr. Ahmed H. Birima

Prepared by Dr. Ahmed H. Birima

Prepared by Dr. Ahmed H. Birima

Prepared by Dr. Ahmed H. Birima

Prepared by Dr. Ahmed H. Birima

Prepared by Dr. Ahmed H. Birima

Fig. 3.9 baffled channel flocculation system

Prepared by Dr. Ahmed H. Birima

Prepared by Dr. Ahmed H. Birima

Prepared by Dr. Ahmed H. Birima

Prepared by Dr. Ahmed H. Birima

Prepared by Dr. Ahmed H. Birima

Prepared by Dr. Ahmed H. Birima

Prepared by Dr. Ahmed H. Birima

Prepared by Dr. Ahmed H. Birima

 The velocity of the particle remains the same.

Prepared by Dr. Ahmed H. Birima

 The notation , is used to denote the overflow rate. It is also called

Prepared by Dr. Ahmed H. Birima

 (which is the overflow rate ( ) …………….3.4

Prepared by Dr. Ahmed H. Birima

Prepared by Dr. Ahmed H. Birima

Figure 3.12 Partial particle removal in an ideal sedimentation tank

Prepared by Dr. Ahmed H. Birima

Prepared by Dr. Ahmed H. Birima

•Reynolds and Froude numbers can be used to check on turbulence and

The Reynolds number is determined as:

Where R = Reynolds number, dimensionless

= average horizontal fluid velocity in tank, m/s

Prepared by Dr. Ahmed H. Birima