Math in the Modern World

Statistics – a science that deals with the collection, organization, presentation, analysis, interpretation and reporting of
data.
Descriptive statistics – Methods of organizing, summarizing, and presenting data in an informative way
Inferential statistics – The methods used to determine something about a population on the basis of a sample
Population –The entire set of individuals or objects of interest or the measurements obtained from all individuals or
objects of interest. A parameter is a numerical measure that describes a characteristic of a population.
Sample – A portion, or part, of the population of interest. A statistic is a numerical measure that describes a
characteristic of a sample.
Sampling – the process of selecting sample units from the population.
Sampling frame – the list of the members of the population where sample units are drawn.
Sampling methods can be:
A. Probability Sampling
 Simple random sampling (each sample of the same size has an equal chance of being selected)
 Stratified sampling(divides the population into groups called strata and then take a sample from each stratum)
 Cluster sampling (divides the population into strata and then randomly select some of the strata. All the
members from these strata are in the cluster sample.)
 Systematic sampling (randomly select a starting point and take every n-th piece of data from a listing of the
population)
B. Non probability Sampling
 Purposive Sampling – based on certain criteria that are set
 Quota Sampling
 Convenience Sampling
 Snow ball

Data – information
Classification:
Qualitative – categorical; classification according to attributes
Quantitative – numerical
Discrete – countable Continuous – measurable
Scales of Measurement
1. Nominal – classifies elements into two or more categories or classes Ex. Civil status
2. Ordinal –ranked data Ex. Rank in the honor rolls
3. Interval – uniform unit of scale; no absolute zero Ex. Temperature
4. Ratio – with absolute zero in the scale.

Data Collection Methods Presentation of Data

1. Interview 1. Textual – paragraph form
2. Questionnaire or Survey 2. Tabular – rows and columns
3. Observation 3. Graphical – in visual form
4. Experiment
5. Registration
6. Test
7. Mechanical Devices

Types of Graphs
1. Bar graphs – vertical or horizontal – magnitudes are compared
2. Line graphs – relationship between two or more quantities
3. Circle Graphs of Pie Chart – quantities are presented that make up a whole
4. Pictographs – pictures
5. Map Graphs
Frequency distribution – shows the frequency, or number of occurences, in each of several categories. Frequency
distributions are used to summarize large volumes of data values.
Measures of Central Tendency or Location or Position
- a single figure which is representative of the general level of magnitude or values of the items in a set of data.
- any measure indicating the center of a set of data

1. Mean - arithmetic average

Notation : Let x1 , x2, ...xn are n observatio ns of a variable

x. Then the mean of this variable,
n

x  x2  ...  xn x i
x 1  i 1
n n
2. Median – middle score in the distribution
3. Mode – most frequent score.
Characteristics of the Measures of Central Tendency
CHARACTERISTICS WHEN TO USE
A. MEAN
1. An interval statistic 1. An interval interpretations is appropriate
2. A calculated average 2. The value of each score is desired
3. Value is determined by every case in the distribution 3. Further statistical computation is expected.
4. Affected by extreme values
5. Sum of deviations about the mean is zero
6. Can be subjected to numerous mathematical computations.
7. Most widely used
8. Represents average quantity
B. MEDIAN
1. An ordinal statistic 1. An ordinal representation needed
2. A rank or position average 2 The middle score is desired
3. Value is determined by scores near the middle of the distribution 3. We want to avoid influence of extreme values.
4. Not affected by extreme values
5. Can be subjected to only few mathematical computations
6. Less widely used than mean
7. Represents typical score

C. MODE
1. A nominal statistic 1. A nominal interpretation is needed.
2. An inspection average 2. A quick approximation of central tendency is
3. The most frequently occurring value desired.
4. Usually occurs near the center of a distribution 3. The most frequently occurring score is needed.
5. Cannot be manipulated mathematically
6. Some distributions have more than one mode.
7. Rarely used
8. Most “popular score.”

Measures of Variability or Spread or Dispersion

-measure the amount of scatter in a dataset. the closeness or apartness of the scores)
1. Range – simplest R = highest score – lowest score
2. Quartile Deviation – amount of spread between the first quartile and the median and the Median and the third
quartile. QD = ( Q3 – Q1)/2
3. Mean Absolute Deviation - a measure determined by the amount by which each score varies from the mean of
the distribution.
4. Standard deviation – most reliable measure of spread

Variance-the variance of a set of observations is the average of the squares of the deviations of the observations from
their mean
Standard Deviation: Square root of the variance
Analysis of Variance (ANOVA)
- is a technique in inferential statistics designed to test whether or not more than two samples or groups are
significantly different from each other.

Correlation Analysis
Correlation – a measure of relationship between two variables
Pearson Product-Moment Correlation Coefficient - Pearson r – linear relationship
Spearman’s Rank Correlation Coefficient (p) – Spearman’s rho – for correlation of ranked data

Regression Analysis – is used when predicting the behavior of a variable.

Chi-Square (X2) – is used when treating ordinal data in the form of frequencies or proportions.
1. Test of Independence
2. Goodness of Fit