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• Group 1a: Alkali Metals- Lithium, Sodium, Potassium, Rubidium, Cesium, Francium
• Group 2a: Alkaline Earth Metals- Beryllium, Magnesium, Calcium, Strontium. Barium, Radium
• Group 3-12: Transition Metals
• Group 18: Noble Gases/Inert Gas Group- Helium, Neon, Argon, Krypton, Xenon, Radon
• Concluded that physical and chemical properties of elements appear in regular intervals when listed by
increasing atomic mass.
• Not current classification
• He concluded that physical & chemical properties of elements were listed by increasing atomic number.
• Modern classification system
b. 1 kg=1,000g 1g=1,000 mg
c. Volume is represented by Length, Width and Height (V=LWH, for Regular Shape)
d. Vo=Vwto-Vw -Volume for irregular solid; Vw= Initial level of water, Vwto- Final level of water
• Temperature- Measures "hotness" or "coldness:
d. International Scale (SI) Temperature- Measured with Kelvin Scale (Based off of absolute zero)
- 0C= 273K, 0K=-273C
• Time - Measures duration
Significant Figures
A. All numbers that are actually read plus one estimated guess.
I. Initial zeros are never significant. 0.0203: Only 3 significant figures II. All whole
II. Zeros are significant if they are between whole numbers. 2004- 4 significant figures
IV. Zero is significant if it's to the right of the whole number and to the right of the decimal point. 0.09036- 4
significant figures
V. Final zeros are ambiguous
VI. For addition and subtraction, the answer can contain as many decimal places as the least accurate
value.
VII. For multiplication and division, the answer can only contain as many significant digits as the least
accurate value.
What is Chemistry?
I. It is the study of:
II. Matter
Substances
a. Fixed composition
• Cannot be decomposed
Compounds
bb. Distillation - A method used to separate parts of a homogenous mixture based on their
boiling points.
b. Heterogenous- Multiple components that are randomly distributed.
bb. Chromatography- Separates part of the mixture physically as they have a different rate
of moving up filter paper.
Properties
Physical Properties
I. A quality of a substance that can be observed or measured without changing the substance's composition.
II. Examples: Color, solubility, odor, hardness, density, melting point, boiling point, luster (senses).
Chemical Properties
I. The ability of a substance to undergo a chemical reaction & to form a new substance
II. A substance must undergo a chemical change to observe a chemical property III. Examples:
I. Luster, good conductors of heat & electricity, malleable (hammer into shapes), ductile (ability to be drawn
into wires), hard.
Non-Metallic Properties
I. Dull, brittle, soft (if solid), poor conductors of heat & electricity, no free electrons.
Metalloids/Semi-Metal Properties
I. A physical changes in form, but does not become something new II. Dissolving,
III. A chemical change forms a new substance, energy always accompanies a chemical changes
Matter-Continued
I. Solids
• Crystalline structure- crystals arranged in a repeated geometric pattern (Like ice, strong
intermolecular attraction)
IV. Psuedosolids
Phase Changes
• All phase changes are accompanied with either a loss or gain of energy
• Sublimation- Solid turns into gas directly (Substances that sublime have high vapor pressure and low
intermolecular forces of attraction)
II. Exothermic Reactions
A.Ke=1/2mv^2
IV.Heat Energy
Conservation of Energy
• Example: Gas burns in engine (Chemical to heat), Car moves (Mechanical to kinetic)
Thermometry
• Temperature- The measure of the average kinetic energy of the particles of a substance
• Temperature Scales
• Degree Celsius- Most commonly used, 2 fixed points (0 which is melting/freezing of water, and 100,
which is boiling/condensation point of water) Values increase by 1
• Kelvin- Contains theoretically the lowest possible temperature, has never been exactly reached,
absence of all kinetic energy
• K=C+273, C=K-273
--M=Mass of substance
• Q=MHf is used when calculating how much heat is absorbed when a substance melts
• Remember:
• Heat absorbed during melting goes into raising the potential energy of the Substance
• Kinetic energy is constant (constant temperature therefore you cannot use Q=MC T
Heat of Vaporization
• Q=MHv is used to calculate how much energy is absorbed when a substance vaporizes
• Mg (1)(24)=24g
• O (6)(16)=96g 24+28+96=148
• Atoms and molecules are too small to count, so we count them in liege quantities
• The mass of one mole of a substance can be found by determining its gram-formula mass
Gas-Mole Concept
and orientation (Sufficient amount of energy and proper angle & geometry)
Deviations from the Gas Laws
• The ideal gas model does not exactly represent real gases under all conditions
• Hydrogen and Helium are the two most ideal gases- no real gas follows the ideal model under all conditions
of temperature and pressure
• Deviations occur because model is not perfect
• This is because gas particles have volume and exert some attraction for each other
• These factors because significant under conditions of high temperature and low pressure and decreased
velocity due to increased molecular mass
• Conditions of high temperature and low pressure are ideal
Gas
• The space between molecules in a gaseous phase is about 1,000 times greater than in liquid or solid phase.
• Molecules possess greater kinetic energy and have overcome the attractive forces that hold them together.
• The density of a gas is lower as compared to solid or liquid
• *In the gas phase, molecules vibrate, rotate and translate. This allows them to fill the volume of the container
in which they are held
• High Temperature/Lower Volume= Increased collision, smaller particles move faster.
• High Temperature/Low Pressure= ideal
• High Pressure/Low Temperature=real
Gas Laws
I. Boyle’s Law
• Temperature=Constant
• P1V1=P2V2
Electron Configuration
• An electron configuration tells you how many electrons there are in each energy level
Metallic Bonding
• Can be described as a sea of electrons
• The valence electrons are mobile and can drift freely from one part of the metal to another
• Metallic bonds consist of the attraction of the free-floating valence electrons for the positively charged metal
ions. These bonds are the forces of attraction that hold metals together (Cu would be considered a metallic
bond)
• Sea of electrons explains physical properties of metals:
• Excellent conductors of heat and electricity
• Malleable (Can be hammered and shaped)
• Ductile (Can be made into wires)
• Metal atoms are arranged in very compact and orderly patterns
Hydrogen Bonding
• Attractive forces in which a hydrogen covalently bonded to a very electronegative element (Fluorine is
most electronegative, oxygen is second most electronegative) is also weakly bonded to an unshared
electron pair of an electronegative atom.
• Like OH, HF, NH (Hydrogen with Oxygen, Fluorine or Nitrogen)
• For a Hydrogen bond to form, there must be a covalent bond present
• Strongest of intermolecular forces
• Extremely important of determining the properties of water and biological molecules, such as proteins
Van der Waals Forces
• The two weakest attractions between molecules- named after Dutch chemist Johannes van der Waals (1837-
1923).
• Van der Waals forces consist of dipole interactions and dispersion forces
• Dipole interactions occur when polar molecules are attracted to one another-The electrical attraction involved
decrease in temperature
Exothermic Reactions
• Since energy is released in an exothermic reaction, the surrounding environment will increase in
temperature
Law of Conservation of Mass
• Matter (mass) is neither created nor destroyed
• In a chemical equation, both sides of the arrow must have the same amount of each type of atom
• Example: H2 + O2 Yields to H2O
• This equation is not balanced since there are 2 H and 2 O on the left but only 2 H and 1 O on the right
• To balance: Coefficients will be added
• Must be whole #s
• They will apply to all elements within the formula
• And can only be but before the entire formula, not in between
• Subscripts may never be changed
• All diatomic (HOFBrINCL) elements must be written as diatomic when they are not combined with any other
element
• If polyatomic ion is present on both sides of the equation, you may treat it as one thing or separate out
the elements within it.
• Example: Ca(NO3)2 : you have either 2 nitrates or 2 nitrogen atoms and 6 oxygen atoms
Types of Chemical Reactions
• Synthesis: 2 or more reactants making only 1 product
• A+BAB
2H + O 2H O
• 2 2 2
• This type of bond is always exothermic due to the bond formation
• Decomposition/Analysis Reaction: 1 Reactant making 2 or more products
• Opposite of synthesis
• ABA+B
2H O 2H + O
• 2 2 2
compound
• Always 2 reactants (one single element + one compound) and always 2 products (one single
element + one compound)
• A+BCB+AC
• Mg + 2HCl H2 + MgCl2
• Activated Complex- Transition state where reactants either become products or reform reactants
• A catalyst increases the reaction rate by lowering activation energy
• Causes the activated complex and activation energies to be lower, but does not change the head of the
reaction
• If the potential energy diagram is endothermic, the products will be higher than the reactants and have
more energy
• If the potential energy diagram is exothermic, the products will be lower than the reactants and will have less
energy
Entropy S
Nuclear Chemistry
I. Stability of Nuclei
• Ratio of protons and neutrons that determines stability
• Atomic numbers greater than 83 are radioactive (Unstable isotope=radioisotope)
• When an unstable nucleus decays, it emits radiation in the form of alpha/beta particles,
positrons/gamma radiation.
st
• K-Capture Process- When nucleus captures an electron from 1 energy level, nucleus will be unstable:
there is spontaneous decay.
• Alpha Particle- Helium nucleus, 2p, 2n, (+), low penetrating power
• Beta Particle- Electron whose source is an atomic nucleus (-), moderate penetrating power
• Positron- Identical to electron, but with positive charge
• Gamma- Similar to X rays, but greater energy - not deflected by electric field, high penetrating
power
II. Alpha Decay
• Unstable nucleus emits alpha particle- nucleus is alpha emitter
• Characteristic of heavy nuclei
• As nucleus emits alpha particle, atomic # decreases by 2, and mass # decreases by 4 III. Beta
Decay
• Nuclear disintegration from electron- undergoes beta decay and is a beta emitter
• Emission of electron during conversion of neutron to proton (1/0 n -> 1/1 p + 0/-1 e)
• When a nucleus emits an electron, the charge of the nucleus increases by 1, atomic number increases by 1
• Mass and charge MUST balance on both sides (14/7N + 4/2He -> 17/8O + 1/1H)
• Σ of charge of reactants= 9
• Σ of mass#=18
• Concept of conservation of charge and mass number is used to identify particle VI.
Transmutation
• When the nucleus of one element is changed into the nucleus of another
• Can be either natural or artificial
• Natural: One reactant only
• Artificial: Two reactants and occurs by bombarding the nucleus with high energy particles or by
colliding a nucleus with a neutron
• Fission: Reaction that splits a heavy nucleus to produce lighter ones (Captures a neutron and becomes
unstable)
• Fusion: Occurs on sun, combines with light nuclei to form heavier ones (Hydrogen nuclei react in a series to
produce helium nuclei). Does not occur on Earth because of the extremely high temperatures and pressures
needed
Organic Chemistry
I. Bonding of Carbon Atoms
• The ability of C to form many different compounds is based on the tendency to covalently bond with
other C atoms
• One single bone = Saturated
• Sharing two e- : double covalent bond - Unsaturated
• Aliphatic Hydrocarbons: hard carbon atoms linked in chain
• Aromatic Hydrocarbon: Contains one or more benzene rings
III. Hydrocarbons
• Homologous- group of related compounds in which each member differs from the one before it by the same
unit
• Alkane- Release energy when burned (CH4, C2H6, C4H10) (as # of C increases, so does the boiling point
because of the amount of bonds)
• Alkenes- 1 Double bond- provide chemists to make other materials- most important is ethane, ethylene
(forms plastic)
• Alkyne- Unsaturated hydrocarbon that contains triple bond (Ethyne, acetylene, fuels welding torches)
V. Alkane- Paraffins
• CNH2N
• Methane, Ethane, Propane, Butane, Pentane
• Ends in ANE
• Single Bond
• Additions: Reactions in which one bond of a double bond is broken so that atoms may be added to the
hydrocarbon (Will also occur with one or two bonds breaking in a triple bond) (second class alkenes)
• Combustion: Alkanes burn in air to produce carbon dioxide and water vapor
• Cracking: Process by which complex organic molecules are broken into simpler molecules; involves heat
or heat and a catalyst
• Polymerization: Many single units (called monomers) join together to make a polymer (breaking
double and triple bonds)
• Saponification: The process of making a soap by hydrolysis of a fat with a strong hydroxide (3 OH group)