Structural

Geology

Mindanao State University - Iligan Institute of Technology

College of Engineering and Technology
Iligan City, Philippines

Compiled by:

Engr. Seigfreid D. Kempis

4. Introduction to Geological Map
A geological map shows the distribution of various types of bedrock in an area. It usually consists of a
topographic map (map giving information about the form of the earth’s surface) which is shaded, or
colored to show where different rock units occur at or just below the ground surface (Lisle, 2004).

The geologist in the field firstly records the nature of rock where it is visible at the surface. Rock
outcrops are examined and characteristics such as rock composition, internal structure and fossil
content are recorded. By using these details, different units can be distinguished and shown separately
on the base map. Since rocks are not always exposed at the surface, deducing the rock unit underneath
the surface involves making use of additional data such as the type of soil, the land’s surface forms ,
formation from boreholes and other data from geophysical methods. This additional information is
taken into account when the geologist decides on the position of the boundaries of rock units to be
drawn on the map. Nevertheless, there are always parts of the map where more uncertainty exists
about the nature of the bedrock, and it is important for the reader of the map to realize that a good deal
of interpretation is used in the mapmaking process (Lisle, 2004).

TOPOGRAPHIC MAP

Topographic maps depict the shape of the ground usually by means of topographic contours, and
structure contours record the height of geological surfaces. Topographic contour patterns and structure
contour patterns are interpreted in similar ways (Lisle, 2004).

Contouring Point Data

Contour maps are approximations of the actual relief in represented by contour lines. These contour
lines are also approximations based on surveyed elevation data of the actual area. This task is easily
done through the aid of software for contouring. However by doing this by hand enhances our
understanding on the foundation of contouring.
 Figure __: Contour points (Marshak and Mitra, 1988)

There are three common techniques for contouring:

a. Objective or mechanical contouring. The basic assumption for this technique is that the slope
between two adjacent control points is constant. To determine the position of specific elevation
between two adjacent points, interpolation may be used (Marshak and Mitra, 1988).

Figure __: Objective Contouring of figure __ (Marshak and Mitra, 1988)

Here is the method in doing objective contouring based on Marshak and Mitra (1988) using contour
points of figure __:

Step 1: Draw lines between each pair of control points. Select an appropriate contour interval. In
this case, choose contour interval of 20 m.

Remember that these lines should not cross. This begs the question: Which point should be
connected? The rule of thumb is to connect points near each other. For instance, point at 199
elevation is more logical to be connected to points at 100 and 80 elevations that point at 20
elevation.

Step 2: Determine interpolated positions of the contours between each pair of the control
points. These positions are indicated by tick marks on the traverse lines.
 80
60
40

Since the contour interval is 20 m, so the tick in the line should correspond to numbers 40 (20 m
is the lowest elevation), 60, 80, 100, 120, 140, 160 and 180 (200 is the highest elevation). Take
the traverse line 20-100. The ticks should correspond to 40, 60 and 80. To locate these positions,
divide the 20-100 traverse line into 3.

Step 3: Draw contour lines that pass through the appropriate interpolated positions. Draw in
pencil first then pen if lines are final.

b. Parallel contouring. Contours are drawn so that adjacent contour lines are as parallel to one
another as possible. The spacing of contours between two control points need not be constant
(Marshak and Mitra, 1988).
 Figure __: Parallel contouring of figure __ (Marshak and Mitra, 1988)

Here is the step-by-step method in doing parallel contouring:

Step 1: Do an objective contouring. This is the easiest way to go.

Step 2: Modify objective contour map by adjusting contours to become parallel to one another.

c. Interpretive contouring. The technique recognizes that point data are merely a random sampling
of information and that there is no need for gradients to be constant between adjacent points or for
contours to be parallel to one another. The map is drawn freehand, taking care that contour lines
accommodate the control points (Marshak and Mitra, 1988).
 Figure __: Interpretive contouring of figure __ (Marshak and Mitra, 1988)

Here is the step-by-step method in doing interpretive contouring:

Step 1: With the given contour points, draw contour lines freehand according to own judgment
or interpretation. One only has to make sure that contour points and other map features are
accommodated.

Step 2: Keep map. your map may not be useful to others.

Characteristics of Contour Lines

The topographic relief of a landscape can be represented by a series of smoothly curved lines called
contour lines. The following are characteristics of contour lines:

1. A contour line connects points which are all at the same elevation (Weijemars, 1997).
 Figure __: Contour lines (Illustration from https://www.greenbelly.co/)

2. The contour interval on a map is constant (Marshak and Mitra, 1988). The difference in
elevation between any two adjacent contours is similar anywhere in the map.

However, areas with either very steep or very shallow gradients do not follow this rule in the
map. In areas with very steep gradients, rather than crowding contour lines in a small space, a
larger contour interval is used. In areas with very gentle slope, an intermediate contours (in
dashed line) can be added to provide greater resolution of features.

3. The spacing of the contour lines reflects the gradient of the slope (Weijemars, 1997).
 Figure __: Contour spacing reflecting slope gradient (Illustration from
http://www.offroadsafety.org)

3.1 Contour lines will be closer together when the slope (dip) is steep (Lisle, 2004).

3.2 Widely spaced contours imply gently inclined slopes (Weijemars, 1997).

3.3 A uniformly sloping (dipping) surface is represented by parallel, equally spaced contours
(Lisle, 2004)

4. Contour lines either close within the area of the map or truncated by the edge of the map or
the structure (Marshak and Mitra, 1988). Contour line closes in like a loop. Every contour line
can be followed around back to where it started, although this may be beyond your map's
borders.

5. Contour lines never cross or divide (Weijemars, 1997; Marshak and Mitra, 1988).

5.1. If contour lines are meeting in some portion, it shows existence of a vertical cliff.

5.2. If contour lines cross each other, it shows existence of overhanging cliffs or a cave

6. Contour lines drawn thicker than normal (normal lines are called intermediate lines) and
usually labeled with a number representing an elevation are called index lines. Dotted contour
lines that indicate flatter terrain are called supplementary lines.
 Figure __: Index, intermediate and supplementary lines.

7. Contour lines are sufficient to define the shape of a landscape (Weijemars, 1997).

8. The summit of a landscape can be separately indicated and marked by a dot or triangle
(Weijemars, 1997).

9. The local direction of slope (dip) at any point is at right angles to the trend of the contours
(Lisle, 2004)

10. Isolated hills (dome-shaped structures) will yield closed concentric arrangements of
contours and valleys and ridges give V-shaped contour patterns (Lisle, 2004).

11. Approximately concentric closed contours with decreasing values towards center indicate a
pond. Hash marks pointing inward from the edge indicate area inside is of lower elevation.

12. Approximately concentric closed contours with increasing values towards centre indicate
hills.
13. Contour lines with U-shape with convexity towards lower ground indicate ridge.

14. Contour lines with V-shaped with convexity towards higher ground indicate valley.
 15. Base elevation can be found in the map legend. Topographic maps of mountain ranges may
have a base elevation of 8,000 feet, so a topographic reading of 800 means the point of interest
is at 8,800 feet.

Various topographic features have its own unique sets of contour lines. Here some examples:
 Figure __: Contours of topographic features (Bose and Mukherjee, 2017)

OUTCROP PATTERNS

The outcrop pattern is produced from the intersection of an irregular topographic surface and the
lithological contact forming an outline on the ground surface. A simple geologic structure of a planar,
unfolded and continuous bed of sedimentary rock may either be horizontal or dipping which unlikely to
appear as straight line (an outcrop) on the ground surface (Weijermars, 1997).

The following are various positions of a planar structure on different ground surface and their
corresponding appearance on geologic map. These are shown in what we call, the Rules of Vs.

The following are Rules of Vs with other outcrop patterns:

Downstream Dipping

In this case, the planar structure is dipping to the direction similar to that of the ground surface. The
planar structure is dipping more than the slope of the ground surface. In this case, the V points to
the down slope of the ground surface.

Figure __: Block and geologic map view of downstream dipping

geologic plane (Weijermars, 1997).

 Figure __: Inclined beds (

Bose
and Mukherjee, 2017)

Dipping on the same direction as the ground surface but an angle less than that of the ground
surface. In this setup, the V points to the direction of up-valley.

Figure __: Dipping structural plane is of the same inclination as the ground surface.
 Figure __:

Vertical Dip

The planar structure or bed is vertical.

If the bed is vertical, the contact is not deflected on crossing a valley. No V is formed.
 Figure __: Vertical beds (Weijermars, 1997; Bose and Mukherjee, 2017)

Upstream Dip
The structural plane is dipping on the direction opposite the dip direction of ground surface.

Figure __: (Weijermars, 1997)

Horizontal Dip

The structural plane is horizontal.

If bed is horizontal, the V points to the direction of the up-valley and is parallel to the contour.
Figure __: Horizontal beds (Weijermars, 1997; Bose and Mukherjee, 2017)
Figure __: Block and geographic map of terrain that comprises of horizontally stratified rock formations
incised by a dendritic pattern of deeply eroded channels (Weijermars, 1997)

Steeply Southward Dipping Rock Strata leaning against a Granitic Basement in the north
 Figure __: (Weijermars, 1997)

Subcircular Dome with Strata Dipping Outward from Center of the Dome

Figure __: (Weijermars, 1997)

Subcircular Basin with Strata Dipping Towards the Center of the Basin

Figure __: (Weijermars, 1997)

Cross Section and geologic map showing the relationship of the true thickness to their width of outcrop
Cross Section

A key goal of structural geologists is to understand the three dimensional geometry of the rock layers. A
geological map is a two dimensional representation of geological features on the Earth’s surface. In
order to provide a third dimension, one or more slices through the Earth are needed. (Houghton, n.d.).
This slice or vertical cut is imaginary rather than real, so the construction of such a cross-section usually
involves a certain amount of interpretation (Lisle, 2004).

Cross sections show thicknesses, dip directions, folds, faults, unconformities, sediment thickness
changes, igneous intrusions etc (Houghton, n.d.). The features displayed in the cross-section are the
lines of intersection of the section plane with topographical and geological surfaces (Lisle, 2004).

A cross-section drawing starts with transferal of the topography of the terrain to the section
(Weijermars, 1997).

Figure __: Topographic profile (Weijermars, 1997)

Once topographic section is complete, the geological contacts should be transferred to the surface of
the section (Weijermars, 1997).
 Figure __: Geological contacts on the section’s surface (Weijermars, 1997)

Complete the section by closing lines for the contacts. One should do Extrapolation of the surface data
downwards into the section based largely on personal style and experience (Weijermars, 1997).

Figure __: Extrapolation of surface data to depth (Weijermars, 1997)

Complete cross-section by clearly labeling the units and explaining symbols in a legend (Weijermars,
1997).

Figure __: Completed section (Weijermars, 1997).

Most cross sections are drawn to true scale, that is, where the horizontal scale is the same as the
vertical scale. This means the true dip of the rock units are shown. Vertical exaggeration, where the
vertical scale is increased relative to the horizontal, is sometimes used to make a cross section clearer.
However, it also increases the dips of the rock units exaggerating the geological structures (Houghton,
n.d.).

How to draw cross section (Houghton, n.d.).

Step 1. Determine the line along which to draw the section. The line of section (A-A’ in figure __) should
be representative of the study area, be perpendicular to the major structural feature of the area
(e.g. large scale folds or faults), cross as many structural features as possible and run through
areas with the most data readings.

Step 2. Draw axes of an appropriate scale with the topographic values. Unless there is a reason to do
otherwise, draw a true-scale section.

Figure __:
Step 3. Transfer the topographic information from the map to the section. Project the height of each
topographic contour, where it crosses the line of section, on to the section and draw in the
topography.

Figure __:

Step 4. Transfer the lithological boundaries, faults etc. on to the cross section in the same way.

Step 5. Transfer bedding readings on to the section, correcting for apparent dip if necessary. Plot the
readings at the height at which they occur, so where a reading is extrapolated from a greater or
lesser height than the topography of the cross section plot it above or below the topography as
appropriate
Step 6. Using the bedding readings as a guide, draw in the lithological boundaries both above and below
the surface. Geology extended above the topography is shown by dashed lines. When drawing
the section always consider what is geologically reasonable behaviour for the layers e.g. sudden
changes in a unit’s thickness or dip should be justifiable. Use colors to dishtinguish rock units
separated by the contact markings.

Figure __:

When similar scale similar scale to the horizontal is used vertically we shall often find that the section is
difficult to draw and that it is very difficult to include the geological details (Bennison, 1990). Vertical
exaggeration is a scale used in maps to emphasize vertical features which are not recognizable in its
true scale due to the horizontal extent. However it might be helpful to map users, features such as
dipping angle of beds are changed with vertical exaggeration.

Figure __: Vertical exaggeration (Photo from https://wmblogs.wm.edu/)

Structure Contours

Structure contours connect points of equal elevation (i.e. height or depth) on a geological surface (e.g.
bedding) in the same way topographic contours connect points of equal height above sea level
(Houghton, n.d.) or on the surface. These contour lines represent elevations on structurally significant
surfaces (Marshak and Mitra, 1988).

Structure contours are also known as strike lines because they run parallel to strike. Structure contours
are commonly used to contour subsurface horizons of interest. They can be used in the field to predict
geological boundaries and used on maps with no bedding readings to aid cross section construction
(Houghton, n.d.).

Structure contour maps are most commonly constructed from drill-hole data. They are used extensively
in petroleum exploration to identify structural traps and in hydrology to characterize the subsurface
configuration of aquifers (Rowland et al., 2007).
 Figure __: Structure contours on a single bedding plane and the map view of the bedding plane
(Houghton, n.d.)

Figure __a shows a bedding plane and heights above sea level. Figure __b shows the structure contours
as projected on to the plane. Figure __c shows how these structure contours are projected on to the
map view and figure __d shows the map view.

A plane with a consistent strike and dip has evenly spaced straight structure contours (figure __), whilst
a folded plane or a plane with irregular dip will have folded or varyingly spaced structure contour
(Houghton, n.d.).

When structure contours intersects with the land surface or when geological surface is on the same
elevation as the ground surface, we have what we call as outcrop. Series of outcrop connected by a line
is the line of outcrop or basically, a geological boundary
 .

Figure __: The insertion of a geological boundary on a map with topographic contours and structure
contours (Bennison, 1990)

Buried geological structure may also be represented by contours called isobath.

How to draw outcrop pattern and isobath:

Figure __ shows a map with contour line (in pink) representing elevations of ground surface and
structure contours (straight black lines) in different elevations.
 Figure __: Map containing both contour lines and structure contours (Lisle, 2004)

Figure __: Locating outcrops

Step 1. Locate outcrops by locating intersections of contour line and structure contour of the same
elevations. Connect these outcrops.
 Figure __: Locate outcrop and connect them (Lisle, 2004)

Step 2. The loop created from line of outcrop divides map into two kinds of areas:

 Areas with height of geological surface (coal) > height of ground surface or topography. In
this area, the coal seam used to have cover but was eroded.

 Areas with height of geological surface (coal) < height of ground surface or topography. In
this area, coal is still buried or is below the surface of the ground.
 Figure __: Buried and eroded parts of geological surface (Lisle, 2004)

Step 3. In areas with height of geological surface (coal) < height of ground surface or topography,
isobaths may be created. In this area, other intersections of ground surface and geological
surface of different elevation are equal to the depth of burial at that point in the map.

For instance, on the upper left part of the map, the intersection of contour line of 150 elevation
and the structure contour of 140 elevation is the point where depth of burial of geologic
structure is equal to 10.

This process may be repeated to other points of intersections. Connect points of similar depth of
burial.
 Figure __: Outcrop pattern and isobaths (Lisle, 2004)

How to determine outcrop pattern using structure contours (Rowland et al., 2007):

Given four know points A, B, C and D.

Step 1: Draw the structure contour map.

Step 2: Superimpose structure contour map on a topographic map. Connect intersections of contour
lines and structure contours sharing same elevation.
 Step 3: Connect dotted intersections to show outcrop pattern on a plane on a topographic map.

How to draw structure contours on cross-section from the map (Houghton, n.d.):
 Step 1: Locate the points (red dot) along the boundary (plane) of the beddings that intersect with
the contour line of an elevation. In figure __, we choose the boundary of the yellow and white
beddings that intersects with the contour line of 250 elevation.

Step 2: Connect the four points that the intersections made. The line connecting the points is the
structure contour or strike of the boundary. If the connection produces a straight line, it indicates that
the boundary of the beddings is flat and the strike does not change direction in any part of the plane.
Also, if the strike is perpendicular to the cross-section, the dip drawn in the cross section is the true dip.
Otherwise, it will only be an apparent dip.
Step 3: Repeat the process for other structure contours (of the same boundary). Assuming the
boundary has a constant dip then the structure contours will be evenly spaced, meaning the
structure contours can be drawn in even where the bed does not outcrop.
Step 4: Draw the cross section of the of A-A’. Project the strike lines or structure contour to the
cross section. When connecting points, only consider drawing the line below the surface terrain of
the cross section.
Step 5: Repeat the process for the other boundaries on the map.
Step 6: Complete the cross section.
References:

Bennison, G. M. (1990). An Introduction to Geological Structures and Maps (5th ed.). London: Routledge.

Bose, N., & Mukherjee, S. (2017). Map Interpretation for Structural Geologists (Vol. 1). Amsterdam,
Netherlands: Elsevier.
Houghton, J (n.d.).Introduction to Structural Geology, Workbook 3 Geological Maps, University of Leeds
School of Earth and Environment

Lisle, Richard J. (2004). Geological Structures and Maps A Practical Guide (3rd Edition). Elsevier
Butterworth-Heinemann, Massachusets, USA

Rowland, S. M., Duebendorfer, E. M., & Schiefelbein, I. M. (2007). Structural Analysis and Synthesis: A
Laboratory Course in Structural Geology (3rd ed.). Malden, MA: Blackwell Pub.

Weijermars, R. (1997). Structural Geology and Map Interpretation. Dhahran, Saudi Arabia: Alboran
Science Pub.
Three-Point Problem
How to determine attitude of plane using Three-point Problem (given point data)

Step 1: Locate on the map the three points, each with known elevation. Three points define a plane.
The given three points must have at least be on two different elevations. It means that two points
may have similar elevation than the third point.

Reminder: All figures are viewed in map view. A vertical line will appear as a point. Any lines with
inclination will appear in length equal to its horizontal component.

Step 2: Locate the points of highest and lowest elevation. The point with the highest elevation is the
one at 150-meter elevation. The point with the lowest is the one at 50-meter elevation. Connect
them with a line.
If two points are of the same elevation, connect these points. The line connecting them is the strike
line.

Step 3: Locate the position of the middle-elevation point (100 m) along the drawn line by
interpolation.

Measured length of line (using a ruler) = 80 mm ,

 Difference in elevation between highest and lowest points = 150 - 50 = 100 m

Length of lowest to middle point = x

Difference in elevation between lowest and middle points = 100 - 50 = 50 mm

(80 mm / 100 m) = (x / 50)

x = 40 mm

Using a ruler, measure 40 mm from lowest-elevation point up in the line. The point is of elevation
100 meters.

Step 4: Connect middle-elevation point to the point on the line. This new line has all points on it of
elevation 100 meters. This is the strike line.

Strike line

Reminder: A strike line is horizontal in front view or side view. On a map view, a horizontal line does
not mean it has to appear horizontal.

Step 5: Draw a line perpendicular to the horizontal line which also intersects with either the lowest
or highest points. You may use either lines, or both to check one another.
 Reminder: This line perpendicular to the strike line represents the plane. Thus the orientation of the
line is the orientation of the plane.

Step 6: Determine the orientation of the plane. Let’s choose the line above the horizontal line for this
problem. Measure its orientation against a given reference.
The line is 8 degrees to the west from the north. The general agreement for dipping geologic structure is
to use the side where angle measured downward from horizontal plane.

S8E is the orientation of the plane and its direction is on the downhill.

Step 7: Taking the line above the strike line (the consensus is still to use the one below but using the
one above will yield the same answer), we look at it from the side view. The line below can also be
used.

Reminder: These lines are inclined at the side view.

 On the side view, complete the line to make a right triangle.

Step 8: Solve for the the inclination of the plane. We call this inclination, dip.

Length y is the horizontal component of hypotenuse of the right triangle. This length is equal to the
length as measured in map view. Use the scale to determine length.

Using ratio to determine length y:

Length y ; Measured length of y (using ruler) = 39 mm

 Length in scale = 2000 m ; Measured length of scale (using ruler) = 50 mm

(y / 39 mm) = (2000 m / 50 mm)

y = 1560 m

1560 meters

Let inclination of plane

tan = ( 50 meters / 1560 meters)

= 1.84 degrees

Step 9: Write answer in suggested form: S8ᵒE, 1.84ᵒS

How to determine attitude of plane using Three-point Problem given a map (Marshak and Mitra, 1988)

If a map is given instead of point data, a slightly different approach will be used. To determine the
attitude of a contact (an example of a plane) between two formation (figure __), follow the following
steps.

Step 1. Locate the trace of the contact on the map.

Figure __: Map showing contact between two formation (modified from illustration of Marshak and
Mitra, 1988)

Step 2: Locate the intersection of the trace and contour lines of known elevation. Label those
intersections.
 Figure __: Map with trace-contour intersection (Marshak and Mitra, 1988)

Now that 3 points from the intersection are known, solving for attitude given point data may
proceed.

How to draw outcrop pattern using Three-Point Problems (Houghton, n.d.):

Step 1: In any three-point problem, three elevations are always known. Also, two points on the
boundary are necessary to create a contour structure.

The problem in figure __ shows three locations of outcrops A, B and C on elevations 150m, 200m
and 250m respectively.

Step 2: Notice that there is only one intersection between same contour line and a boundary, when
there is the need of two to define a strike line. The idea is to create another point of intersection to
be paired to one of the given three points to create a strike line.
To locate for the second point for the strike line is to locate the mid-point elevation (200m) between
the lowest elevation (150m) and the highest (250m). Connect the highest and lowest point through
a line. A line is an assumption that the boundary, as represented by a plane, is flat and dipping is
constant.

By interpolation, locate the 200m point along the 150m-250m line. When the 200m point is located,
we connect the two 200m points on the map. The connecting like is the strike line of the boundary.

Step 3: Draw the strike lines or structure contour (parallel lines) with intersecting given line 150m
and 250m. The spacing for structure contours can replicated to the rest of the map.
Step 4: The outcrop pattern for the bedding can be constructed by finding where the structure
contours and topographic contours of the same value cross. The bedding can then be drawn in and a
cross section drawn in the usual way.