Energy Engineering

ChE-308

Fuels in Solid, Liquid

& Gaseous State
 Introduction
Solid Liquid Gaseous
Coals Gasoline Natural Gas
Cokes Kerosene LPG
Briquettes Diesel Blast furnace gas
Solid pitch Fuel oils Coke oven gas
Coal tar fuels Producer gas
Tar Coal gas
 Factors involve in the selection of
fuels
The main factors are
 The type of heating w.r.t. size or whether a continuous
or intermittent operation is involved.
 The availability and reliability of supply of fuels.
 The price of the fuel delivered to the place where it is
required, as some fuels need storage and feeding
equipment.
 The efficiency of the heating operation with selected
fuels.
 The ratio of the cost of heating operation to the cost
of the finished product. If the ratio is low then a high
grade expensive fuel need to be considered.
 The adverse effect of fuel on the quantity of finished
product.
 Adequate storage space for the fuels should be
available.
 The degree of closed technical control necessary to
ensure a high quality of finished product.
 The hygiene of working conditions.
 The fuel chosen should achieve smokeless
combustion.
Calorific Value/Heat of combustion
 The calorific value or heat of combustion of a
fuel is a measure of the amount of heat
released during complete combustion of a unit
mass of the fuel.
 Calorific value is usually determined by
a calorimeter.

 kcal/kg for the solid and liquid

 kcal/m3 for the gases

 Types of Calorific value
 Higher (gross) calorific value
 The amount of heat released by a specified quantity (initially at 25°C)
once it is combusted and the products have returned to a temperature of
25°C, which takes into account the latent heat of vaporization of water
in the combustion products.

 Lower (net) calorific value

 The amount of heat released by combusting a specified quantity
(initially at 25°C) and returning the temperature of the combustion
products to 150°C, which assumes the latent heat of vaporization of
water in the reaction products is not recovered.
 How to calculate the calorific
value???
 Bomb calorimeter, consists of an enclosure in which
the reaction takes place, surrounded by a liquid, such
as water, that absorbs the heat of the reaction and thus
increases in temperature.
 Measurement of this temperature rise and a
knowledge of the weight and heat characteristics of
the container and liquid permits the total amount of
heat generated to be calculated.
• The steel bomb is placed inside a bucket filled with water, which
is kept at a constant temperature relative to the entire calorimeter
by use of a heater and a stirrer.
• The temperature of the water is monitored with a thermometer
fitted with a magnifying eyepiece, which allows accurate
readings to be taken.
• Slots at the top of the steel bomb allow ignition wires and an
oxygen supply to enter the vessel, both of which are critical in
starting the chemical reaction.
• When an electric current passes through the ignition coil, a
combustion reaction occurs. The heat released from the sample
is largely absorbed by the water, which results in an increase in
temperature.
• Bomb calorimeters have been developed to the point where heat
of combustion of organic materials can be measured with results
reproducible within 0.01 percent.
 Calculation
Observation

 Wt. of the fuel taken in crucible = X kg

 Wt. of water in the calorimeter = Y kg
 Wt. of calorimeter, stirrer, thermometer and
bomb = Z kg
 Initial temperature of water in calorimeter = T1oC
 Final temperature of water in calorimeter = T2oC
Let the higher calorific value of fuel = C kcal/kg
 Heat gained by water = Y(T2 – T1) kcal
 Heat gained by calorimeter = Z(T2 – T1) kcal
 Total heat gained = Y(T2 – T1) + Z(T2 – T1) kcal
= (Y + Z) (T2 – T1) kcal
Heat liberated by fuel = X x C kcal
Now
Heat librated by fuel = Heat gained by water & CM
XxC = (Y + Z) (T2 – T1)

C = (Y + Z) (T2 – T1)
X
 Solid Fuels
Coal
 It is a readily combustible black or brownish-black sedimentary
rock.
 It is composed primarily of carbon along with variable quantities
of other elements, chiefly sulfur, hydrogen, oxygen and
nitrogen.
 Coal was formed from plant remains that were protected by
water and mud against oxidization and biodegradation, thus
trapping atmospheric carbon in the ground.
 Over time, the chemical and physical properties of the remains
were changed by geological action to create a solid material.
 Coal, a fossil fuel, is the largest source of energy for the
generation of electricity worldwide, as well as one of the largest
worldwide source of carbon dioxide emissions.
 Types of Coal
 Peat, considered to be a precursor of coal, has industrial
importance as a fuel in some regions, for example, Ireland and
Finland.
 Lignite, also referred to as brown coal, is the lowest rank of
coal and used almost exclusively as fuel for electric power
generation.
 Sub-bituminous coal, whose properties range from those of
lignite to those of bituminous coal and are used primarily as
fuel for steam-electric power generation.
 Bituminous coal, dense mineral, black or sometimes dark
brown, used primarily as fuel in steam-electric power
generation, with substantial quantities also used for heat and
power applications in manufacturing and to make coke.
 Anthracite, the highest rank; a harder, glossy, black coal used
primarily for residential and commercial space heating.
 Graphite, technically the highest rank, but difficult to ignite
and is not so commonly used as fuel. it is mostly used in
pencils and, when powdered, as a lubricant.
Solid Fuels
 Solid Fuels
Coke
 Coke is a solid carbonaceous residue derived from
low-ash, low-sulfur bituminous coal from which the
volatile constituents are driven off by baking in an
oven without oxygen at temperatures as high as 1,000
°C (1,832 °F) so that the fixed carbon and residual
ash are fused together.
 Metallurgical coke is used as a fuel and as a reducing
agent in smelting iron ore in a blast furnace. The
product is too rich in dissolved carbon, and must be
treated further to make steel.
Briquettes
 A briquette (or briquet) is a block of flammable matter
which is used as fuel to start and maintain a fire.
 Common types of briquettes are charcoal briquettes and
biomass briquettes.
 Some briquettes are compressed and dried brown coal
extruded into hard blocks. This is a common technique
for low rank coals.
 They are typically dried to 12-18% moisture, and are
primarily used in household and industry.
Solid pitch

 Pitch is the name for any of a number of highly viscous

liquids which appear solid. Pitch can be made from
petroleum products.
 Pitch was traditionally used to help caulk the seams of
wooden sailing vessels.
 Pitch was also used to waterproof wooden containers,
and is sometimes still used in the making of torches.
 It is black in color, hence the adjectival phrase, "pitch-
black".
 Properties and testing of Coal
 Proximate analysis of Coal
 Ultimate analysis of Coal
 PROXIMATE ANALYSIS
 Moisture content
 Volatile matter
 Ash content
 Fixed carbon.
 Determination of moisture
content in coal

Loss in weight of coal

% Moisture in Coal  100
weightof coal initially taken
 Significance of Moisture
1. Reduces the calorific value of coal.
2. Increases the consumption of coal for
heating purpose.
3. Lengthens the time of heating.
 Determination of volatile matter
in coal
It is the loss in weight of moisture free powdered coal
when heated in a crucible fitted with cover in a muffle
furnace at 950 0C for seven minutes

Loss in weight of moisture free coal

% of volatile matter in coal  100
Weight of coal taken
Significance of volatile matter
During burning of coal, gases like CO, CO2,
CH4, N2, O2, hydrocarbons etc. that come out are
called volatile matter of the coal.
 Coal with higher volatile matter content ignites
easily
 Coal having lower calorific value burns with
long yellow smoky flame will evolve more
coal gas when heated in the absence of air.
 Determination of ash in coal
It is the weight of residue obtained after burning a
weighed quantity of coal in open crucible (i.e. in
presence of air) at 750 0C in a muffle furnace.

Weight of residue ash formed

% Ash in Coal  100
Weight of coal initially taken
 Significance of ash content
1. Ash is the combination product of mineral matter in
the coal. It consists mainly SiO2, Al2O3 and Fe2O3
with varying amount of other oxides such as Na2O,
CaO, MgO etc.
2. Ash containing the oxides of Na, Ca and Mg melt
easily.
3. High ash content in coal is undesirable because it
i. increases transporting, handling and storage costs
ii. is harder and stronger
iii. has lower calorific value
 Determination of fixed carbon
It is determined indirectly by deducting the sum
total of moisture, volatile matter and ash
percentage from 100.

% of fixed carbon in coal  100 - % (moisture + volatile matter + ash)

Significance of Fixed carbon
• It is the pure carbon present in coal.
• Higher the fixed carbon content of the coal,
higher will be the calorific value of the
sample.
 Ultimate Analysis
 Ultimate analysis refers the determination of weight
percentage of carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen
and sulphur of pure, dry coal.
 This analysis gives the elementary, and ultimate
constituents of coal.
 This analysis is essential for calculating heat balances
in any process for which coal is employed as a fuel.
 It is useful to the designing of coal burning
equipment and auxiliaries.