events from the past until now.

Present perfect We've visited China many times.

I've been to France twice.
simple The phone has rung five times since lunchtime.

Form 7. We can use 'already' to say something

happened sooner than expected.
Affirmative: Subject+ have+ past participle
I've already seen Mission Impossible.
I have done
Negative: Subject+ have not+ past participle
8. We can use 'yet' to say that we expect
I have not done
something to happen.
Question: Have+ subject+ past participle
I haven't seen Mission Impossible yet.
Have I done?
Have you spoken to Dave yet?
Functions and examples
9. We use the present perfect simple to talk
1. We use the present perfect simple to show
about a period of time not finished at the time
that a finished action or event has a connection
of speaking.
with the present, or has a result in the present.
I have had three cups of coffee today. -- today is
I can't go out because I've lost my keys.
not finished
She's had an accident and she's in the hospital
I had three cups of coffee yesterday.
now.
Have you seen the news this week? -- this week is
I've had lunch so I'm not hungry.
not finished
Did you see the news yesterday?
2. We use the present perfect simple to give
I've been on holiday twice this year -- this year is
news or talk about recent events.
not finished
She's had a baby girl.
I went on holiday twice last year
There's been a big fire at the factory.
The value of the dollar has risen in recent weeks. Important points
Been and gone
3. We can use 'just' in these cases to express a
They've gone to Greece for a holiday. -- they are
very recent action.
in Greece now
She's just had a baby.
They've been to Greece. -- they went to Greece
I've just had lunch.
and they've come back
4. We use the present perfect simple to talk
about a period of time from the past until now.
I've lived in Spain for 10 years.
She hasn't spoken to him since April last year.
Present perfect
5. If we don't use for or since, we don't know
continuous
when the action or event happened, or it's not
important when it happened. Form
Have you ever eaten frogs' legs? -- at any time in Affirmative: Subject+ have been+ gerund
your life until now I have been doing
I've never had a computer. -- at any time in my Negative: Subject+ have not been+ gerund
life until now I have not been doing
She has read all the Harry Potter books. -- at Question: Have+ subject+ been+ gerund
some time in the past until now Have I been doing?
I've seen Shrek. -- only the action is important,
not when I did the action Functions and examples
I saw Shrek last week. 1. We use the present perfect continuous to talk
about an action or event that started in the past
6. We often talk about repeated actions or and is still happening now.
I've been waiting for over an hour. -- I'm still
waiting now
It's been snowing since 8am. -- It's still snowing
now
You've been playing a lot of tennis recently.
2. We often use "How long" in questions.
How long have you been learning English? -- You
started learning in the past and are still learning
now
3. We use the present perfect continuous to talk
about an activity or event that has recently
finished and has a result now.
She's tired because she's been working hard.
I have no money left because I've been shopping.
4. We use the present perfect continuous to
focus on the action and not on the completion
of the action.
She's been writing a book. -- focus on the action
She's written a book. -- present perfect simple -
focus on the result
They've been negotiating the contract. -- focus
on the action, it's not important if it's finished or
not
They've negotiated the contract. -- present
perfect simple - focus on the result, the
negotiation is finished
Important points
1. When the action or event is more temporary,
we often use the present perfect continuous,
and when it is more permanent, we often use
the present perfect simple.
They've lived in Italy for may years. -- Present
perfect simple
I've been living here for a month. -- Present
perfect continuous
2. Some verbs are not normally used in the
present perfect continuous tense. These verbs
include: believe, belong, depend, hate, know,
like, love, mean, need, prefer, realise, suppose,
want, understand.
I've known him for ten years.

I've been knowing him for ten years. x
I've belonged to the tennis club for 25 years.

I've been belonging to the tennis club for 25
years. x
Past perfect simple
Form
Affirmative: Subject+ had+ past participle
I had done
Negative: Subject+ had not+ past participle
I had not done
Question: Had+ subject+ past participle
Had I done?
Functions and examples
We use the past perfect to talk about finished
actions that happened before a certain time in
the past.
I had finished lunch before they arrived.
You had left by the time they arrived.
He didn't want to come with us because he had
already seen the film.
Past perfect
continuous
Form
Affirmative: Subject+ had been+ gerund
I had been doing
Negative: Subject+ had not been+ gerund
I had not been doing
Question: Had+ subject+ been+ gerund
Had I been doing?
Functions and examples
We use the past perfect continuous to talk
about longer actions or events that happened
before or up to another action or event in the
past.
He was tired because he had been playing
football all day.
They had been driving for three hours when the
accident happened.
When saw her I could see that she had been
crying.
Important points
1. When the action or event is more temporary,
we often use the past perfect continuous, and
when it is more permanent, we often use the
past perfect simple.
We found the house where my grandparents had
lived. -- Past perfect simple
We found a house where another family had
been living for a few months. -- Past perfect
continuous
2. Some verbs are not normally used in the past
perfect continuous tense. These verbs include:
believe, belong, depend, hate, know, like, love,
mean, need, prefer, realise, suppose, want,
understand.
I had known him for ten years when he got
married.
I had been knowing him for ten years when he
got married. x
I had belonged to the tennis club for 25 years
when I left.
I had been belonging to the tennis club for 25
years when I left. x
Wish
wishes about the present and future
1. We use 'wish' + past simple to express that we
want a situation in the present (or future) to be
different.
I wish I spoke Italian. (I don't speak Italian.)
I wish I had a big car. (I don't have a big car.)
I wish I was on a beach. (I'm in the office.)
Future: I wish it was the weekend tomorrow. (It's
only Thursday tomorrow.)
2. We use 'wish' + past continuous to express
that we want to be doing a different action in
the present (or future).
I wish I was lying on a beach now. (I'm sitting in
the office.)
I wish it wasn't raining. (It is raining.)
Future: I wish you weren't leaving tomorrow.
(You are leaving tomorrow.)
wishes about the past
We use 'wish' + past perfect to express a regret,
or that we want a situation in the past to be
different.
I wish I hadn't eaten so much. (I ate a lot.)
I wish they'd come on holiday with us. (They
didn't come on holiday with us.)
I wish I had studied harder at school. (I was lazy
at school.)
wish + would
We use 'wish' + would + bare infinitive to
express impatience, annoyance or
dissatisfaction with a present action.
I wish you would stop smoking. (You are smoking
at the moment and it is annoying me.)
I wish it would stop raining. (I'm impatient
because it is raining and I want to go outside.)
I wish she'd be quiet. (I am annoyed because she
is speaking.)
Important points
1. To simply express that you want something to
happen in the future (not talking about wanting
an action or situation to be different, and not
talking about impatience or annoyance) we use
'hope', not 'wish'.
I hope it's sunny tomorrow.
I wish it was sunny tomorrow. x
I hope she passes her exam next week.
I wish she were passing her exam next week. x
I hope the plane doesn't crash tomorrow.
I wish the plane wouldn't crash tomorrow. x
2. We can use 'wish' + infinitive or 'wish' + object
+ infinitive to mean 'want' in a formal situation.
I wish to leave now. (+ infinitive)
I wish to speak to your supervisor please. (+
infinitive)
I do not wish my name to appear on the list. (+
object + infinitive)
3. We can use '(I) wish you' in fixed expressions.
I wish you a happy birthday.
We wish you good luck in your new job.

Zero Conditional
Form
If + present + present
Functions and examples
We use the zero conditional to talk about facts
or situations which are always true.
If you heat water, it boils.
If people don't eat or drink, eventually they die.
First conditional
Form
If + present simple + will
Functions and examples
We use the first conditional to talk about actions
or events in the future which are likely to
happen or have a real possibility of happening.
If it rains tomorrow, I will stay at home.
-- I think there is a real possibility of rain
tomorrow. In this condition, I will stay at home
If my father doesn't buy me a bike for my
birthday, I will be very unhappy.
-- I think there is a real possibility that my father
won't buy me a bike. In this condition, I will be
unhappy
Important points
We can use other modal verbs in place of will.
If it is sunny tomorrow, I might go to the beach.
-- going to the beach is only a possibility
If you come early, you can see my mother before
she leaves.
-- It is possible for you to see my mother
Second conditional
Form
If + past simple/continuous + would
Functions and examples
We use the second conditional to talk about
situations or actions in the present or future,
which are not likely to happen or are imaginary,
hypothetical or impossible.
If I won the lottery, I would travel around the
world and buy a castle in Norway.
-- I think that it is very unlikely that I will win the
lottery. However, in this unlikely condition, I will
travel and buy a castle
If I wasn't watching TV now, I would be playing
football.
-- I am watching TV, and imagining what I would
do if I wasn't
If I were an alien, I would be able to travel
around the universe.
-- It is impossible for me to be an alien. However,
I am imagining what I would do in this situation
Important points
We can use other modal verbs in place of
'would'.
If I had more money, I could buy a car.
-- Buying a car would be possible
If I won the lottery, I might give all the money to
charity.
-- Giving the money to charity is only a possibility
Third conditional
Form
If + past perfect + would have + past participle
Functions and examples
We use the third conditional to imagine a
different past.
If I had done my homework, my teacher
wouldn't have shouted at me.
(In reality, I didn't do my homework, and my
teacher shouted at me. So we are imagining a
different past.)
She would have passed her exam if she had
studied more.
(In reality she didn't study enough, and so she
didn't pass her exam. So we are imagining a
different past.)
Important points
1. We can use other modal verbs in place of
'would'.
If they'd come earlier, they could have got a seat.
(In reality, they didn't come early, and they didn't
get a seat. In our different past, there was a
possibility of a seat.)
2. Mixed conditional: if + past perfect + would +
bare infinitive
Sometimes we want to say that the result of an
action is now.
If it hadn't rained, I would have gone to the
beach.
(In reality, it rained in the past, and I didn't go to
the beach in the past.)
If it hadn't rained, I would be at the beach /
would be sitting on the beach.
(In reality, it rained in the past, and I am not at
the beach now. This is a mixed conditional.)
Will and going to
"What would you like to eat?" "I'll have a pizza
please."
3. We use 'will' to predict the future.
I think it will rain tomorrow.
Al Pacino will win the award for Best Actor.
Do you think Brazil will win the World Cup?
4. We use 'will' to predict the present.
Don't phone her now, she'll be busy.
5. We use 'will' to offer to do something.
I'll take you to the airport tomorrow.
That suitcase looks heavy, I'll carry it for you.
6. We use 'will' to agree to do something.
Okay, I'll come with you
7. We use 'will' to promise to do something.
I promise I won't tell anyone you broke the
window
8. We use 'will' to make requests (or give
orders).
Will you open the door for me please?
Will you marry me?
Will you shut up please?

9. We use 'will' to refuse to do something or talk

Form about refusals.
Affirmative No, I won't cook your dinner, you can cook it
I will play yourself.
Negative I've asked him but he won't do it.
I will not play
Question Functions and examples - going to
Will I play? 1. We use 'going to' for plans or decisions made
Affirmative
before speaking.
I am going to play
Negative Is John coming home soon? - Yes, I'm going to
I am not going to play meet him at the airport tomorrow.
Question I'm going to watch TV in a minute, because my
Am I going to play? favourite programme is on.

Functions and examples - will 2. We use 'going to' to predict the future based
1. We use 'will' to give or ask for information or on present evidence.
facts about the future.
Look at the sky. It's going to rain soon.
Her parents will be here in about an hour.
All her friends will come to her wedding. Germany have just scored. England are going to
lose again.
2. We use 'will' for plans or decisions made at
the time of speaking.
"We need some paper for the photocopier."
"Okay, I'll go and get some."
 2. We use the future perfect to predict the
Future continuous present.

Form Don't bother going to see him, he'll have left.

Affirmative
I will be doing

Negative
I will not be doing

Question
Will I be doing?

Functions and examples

We use the future continuous to say that an
action will be in progress at a specific time in the
future.

This time on Thursday I'll be flying to Thailand.

In two hours she'll be leaving work.
We use the future continuous to predict the
present.

Don't call him now, he'll be sleeping.

We use the future continuous to make polite
enquiries about someone's plans -- without
wishing to influence those plans.

Will you be watching TV this evening? -- you

simply want to know if the TV will be free

Future perfect
Form
Affirmative
I will have done
Negative
I will not have done
Question
Will I have done?

Functions and examples

1. We use the future perfect to say that an action
or event will be complete at a specific time in the
future.

I will have finished my project by the weekend.

(by = not later than)
This time next year I will have graduated.

Passive
Form
to be + past participle
Present simple Active: My mother washes my
clothes Passive: My clothes are washed by my
mother.
Present continuous Active: My mother is washing
my clothes Passive: My clothes are being washed
by my mother.
Present perfect Active: My mother has washed
my clothes Passive: My clothes have been
washed by my mother.
Past simple Active: My mother washed my
clothes Passive: My clothes were washed by my
mother.
Past continuous Active: My mother was washing
my clothes Passive: My clothes were being
washed by my mother.
Past perfect Active: My mother had washed my
clothes Passive: My clothes had been washed by
my mother.
Future "will" Active: My mother will wash my
clothes Passive: My clothes will be washed by my
mother.
Future "going to" Active: My mother is going to
wash my clothes Passive: My clothes are going to
be washed by my mother.
Future continuous Active: My mother will be
washing my clothes Passive: My clothes will be
being washed by my mother.
Future perfect Active: My mother will have
washed my clothes Passive: My clothes will have
been washed by my mother.
Modal verbs Active: My mother might wash my
clothes Passive: My clothes might be washed by
my mother. Active: My mother can wash my
clothes Passive: My clothes can be washed by my
mother.
Active: My mother must wash my clothes Passive:
My clothes must be washed by my mother.
Functions and examples
We use the passive when who or what causes the
action is not important or is not known, or when
we want to focus on the action.
The rubbish is taken out every day.
-- We don't know who takes the rubbish out, or
maybe it's not important
The Great Wall of China was built thousands of
years ago.
-- It's not important exactly who built it, we want
to focus on the action of building
The money has been stolen.
-- We don't know who stole it, and we want to
emphasise the action of stealing
My windows are cleaned once a month.
-- It's not important who cleans them. The action
of cleaning is more important
Important points
1. If there are two objects in the active sentence,
two passive sentences are possible.
Active: They gave me 50 dollars to do it.
Passive: I was given 50 dollars to do it / 50 dollars
was given to me to do it.
2. Get is often used instead of be in informal
spoken English.
I got offered the promotion.
The table got damaged in the fire.
I got asked to present the award.
3. The subject of the active verb (sometimes
called the agent) is not usually expressed in
passive sentences, because it is unknown or
unimportant. However, if it is used, it is usually
preceded with by.
The painting was done by Picasso.
4. When we talk about a tool used by an agent, it
can be preceded by with.
The painting was done with oils on canvas.
Causative "have"
Form
Have + object + past participle -- to have
something done
Have + object + bare infinitive -- to have someone
do something

Functions and examples

1. We use causative have when arranging for
someone to do something for us.

They repaired their car. -- they did it themselves

They had their car repaired. -- they arranged for
someone to repair it
I cut my hair yesterday. -- I cut it myself
I had my hair cut yesterday. -- I went to the
hairdresser

2. We also use causative have when someone

does something to us.

Bill had his money stolen by a thief.

Important points
1. Get is possible instead of have, usually in
informal spoken English.

I'm going to get my car fixed tomorrow.

2. We can also use to have someone do

something to talk about giving instructions or
orders -- more common in American English.

I had my assistant type the report.

I'll have my lawyer look into it.
 Important points
Used to We can modify 'be used to' with adverbs.
I'm very used to his strange behaviour now.
Form She should be pretty used to living without
Affirmative I used to do electricity or running water by now.
Negative
I did not use to do
Question Get used to
Did I use to do?
Form
Functions and examples get used to + noun or gerund
We use 'used to' to talk about habitual or
regular actions or states in the past that are now Functions and examples
finished. We use 'get used to' to say that an action or
I used to have a dog when I was a child. situation becomes less strange or new.
I used to used to do football every weekend but I It took them a long time to get used to their new
don't have time now. boss.
Did you use to go swimming when you were at Have you got used to driving on the left yet?
school? She is getting used to waking up early for her
I didn't use to like action films, but I do now. new job.
I never used to like spinach, but I love it now.

Important points
We can also use 'would' to talk about habitual
actions in the past, but not to talk about past
states.
When I was young I used to go fishing with my
father every summer.
When I was young I would go fishing with my
father every summer.

She used to have a house in the country.

NOT: She would have a house in the country.

Be used to
Form
be used to + noun or gerund

Functions and examples

We use 'be used to' to say that a situation is not
new or strange, or is no longer new or strange.
I've lived here for ten years now so I'm used to
driving in the city.
He's not used to working at night so he
sometimes falls asleep.
Are you used to the climate?
I wasn't used to working such long hours when I
started my new job.
 "I don't feel well."
"I can't drive."
Reported speech "My parents have gone on holiday."
"I'm going out now so you will have to wait until I
Word order get back."
Direct speech
You tell your friend what Jim said...
"I play football"
Jim said (that) he didn't feel well.
"I am playing football"
He said (that) he couldn't drive.
"I have played football"
He said (that) his parents had gone on holiday.
"I played football"
He said (that) he was going out now so I would
"I was playing football"
have to wait until he got back.
"I had played football"
"I had been playing football"
Important points
"I will play football"
"I can play football" 1. If we report something which is still true, it is
Reported speech not necessary to change the verb.
He said (that) he played football DIRECT SPEECH: "My car is bigger than yours."
He said (that) he was playing football REPORTED SPEECH: He said his car is / was bigger
He said (that) he had played football than mine.
He said (that) he had played football
He said (that) he had been playing football
2. When we are reporting past tenses, and we
He said (that) he had played football
He said (that) he had been playing football see the events from the same viewpoint as the
He said (that) he would play football original speaker, it is not necessary to change
He said (that) he could play football the tense.
DIRECT SPEECH: "The earthquake happened at
1. In reported speech, we usually report what half past seven."
was said at a different time, and so we change REPORTED SPEECH: The radio said that the
the tense to reflect the time which we are
earthquake happened at half past seven.
reporting:
DIRECT SPEECH: "I'm not playing football."
REPORTED LATER: He said that he wasn't playing 3. Modal verbs could, might, would, should,
football. ought, had better usually do not change in
2. Sometimes we need to change the pronoun. reported speech.
DIRECT SPEECH: Jim: "I don't like living here." (Jim DIRECT SPEECH: "I should go to the dentist."
is referring to himself)
REPORTED SPEECH: He said that he should go to
REPORTED SPEECH: Jim said (that) he didn't like
living here. (the pronoun he refers to Jim) the dentist.
3. We may also need to change other words
about place and time.
DIRECT SPEECH: "I like this car."
REPORTED SPEECH: He said (that) he liked the
car.

DIRECT SPEECH: "I went to Tokyo last week."

REPORTED SPEECH: She said (that) she'd been to
Tokyo the week before.

Functions and examples

We use reported speech to tell someone what
another person said.
Jim says to you...
Reported questions
Form
When we are reporting questions, the subject
comes before the verb.
DIRECT SPEECH: "Where are you going?"
REPORTED SPEECH: He asked me where I was
going.
DIRECT SPEECH: "Why is he shouting?"
REPORTED SPEECH: He asked me why he was
shouting.
DIRECT SPEECH: "What do you want?"
REPORTED SPEECH: She asked me what he
wanted.
Negative questions
We do not use the auxiliary verb 'do', except in
negative questions.
DIRECT SPEECH: "Who doesn't like cheese?"
REPORTED SPEECH: She asked me who didn't like
cheese.
Yes/no questions
We report yes / no questions with 'if' or
'whether'.
DIRECT SPEECH: "Do you want me to come?"
REPORTED SPEECH: I asked him if he wanted me
to come.
DIRECT SPEECH: "Have you fed the dog?"
REPORTED SPEECH: She asked me whether I had
fed the dog.
Who, what, which
When we report questions with 'who, what or
which' + to be + complement, the verb 'to be'
can come before or after the complement.
DIRECT SPEECH: "Who is the champion?"
REPORTED SPEECH: She asked me who the
champion was OR She asked me who was the
champion.
DIRECT SPEECH: "What is your favourite colour?"
REPORTED SPEECH: She asked me what my
favourite colour was OR She asked me what was
my favourite colour.
Reporting verbs
Form, functions and examples
We use reporting verbs to report what someone
said more accurately than using 'say' and 'tell'.
verb + infinitive
agree, decide, offer, promise, refuse, threaten
They agreed to meet on Friday.
He refused to take his coat off.
verb + object + infinitive
advise, encourage, invite, remind, warn
Tom advised me to go home early.
She reminded me to telephone my mother.
verb + gerund
deny, recommend, suggest
They recommended taking the bus.
She suggested meeting a little earlier.
verb + object + preposition (+ gerund)
accuse, blame, congratulate
He accused me of taking the money.
They congratulated me on passing all my exams.
verb + preposition + gerund
apologize, insist
They apologized for not coming.
He insisted on having dinner.
verb + (that)
admit, agree, decide, deny, explain, insist,
promise, recommend, suggest
Sarah decided (that) the house needed cleaning.
They recommended (that) we take the bus.
Say and tell
Direct and indirect speech
1. We use 'say' and 'tell' in both direct and
indirect speech.
DIRECT SPEECH: I said: "I'm hungry." / I told him:
"I'm hungry."
INDIRECT SPEECH: I said that I was hungry / I
told him that I was hungry.
2. We cannot use 'say' or 'tell' with indirect
questions.
Jim asked (me) if I wanted to play football.
NOT: Jim told/said me if I wanted to play football.

Using objects
1. With 'tell', we say who is told.
He told me that he liked playing tennis.
NOT: He said me that he liked playing tennis.
NOT: He told that he liked playing tennis.

2. With 'say', if we want to use a personal

object, we use to.
He said to them that he would be late.

3. With other objects, we don't usually use 'tell'.

He said a strange thing.
NOT: He told a strange thing.

Orders and instructions

We can use 'tell' + object + infinitive to give
orders and instructions.
I told my son to stop shouting.
She told me to shut up.
Forming questions
Form
1. In questions, the first auxiliary verb comes
before the subject.
Have you ever been to Rome?
NOT: You have ever been to Rome?
What are you doing?
NOT: What you are doing?
Can you swim?
NOT: You can swim?
Who will you see tonight?
NOT: Who you will see tonight?
Are you going out?
NOT: You are going out?
2. If there is no auxiliary verb, we use do, does
and did.
Do you play golf?
NOT: You play golf?
Where does Tim live?
NOT: Where lives Tim?
Subject and object questions
1. If the question word (WHO, WHAT, WHICH,
WHOSE, HOW...) is the subject or part of the
subject, we do not use DO, DOES or DID.
Who (subject) saw Bob (object)?
Jim (subject) saw Bob (object)
What (subject) happened?
Nothing (subject) happened
2. If the question word is the object, we need
DO, DOES or DID if there is no auxiliary verb.
Who (object) did Jim (subject) see?
Jim (subject) saw Bob (object)
How many cakes (object) did you (subject) eat?
I (subject) ate 10 cakes (object)
Prepositions
If the question word is the object of the
preposition, we usually put the preposition at
the end.
Who did you eat with? -- FORMAL: With whom
did you eat?
I ate with Jim.
Where did you get that hat from? -- FORMAL:
From where did you get that hat?
I got it from the shop down the road.
Indirect questions
Form
If we do not begin a question directly, but begin it
with something like:
Can you tell me...? Do you know...? I wonder if...?
the word order is the same as in an affirmative
statement.
Direct question: What is he doing?
Indirect question: Do you know what he is doing?
Direct question: Where have they been?
Indirect question: I wonder where they have
been?
Do, does, did
If the direct question contains do, does or did, we
omit it in the indirect question.
Direct question: What do you want?
Indirect question: Can you tell me what you
want?
Direct question: When did she leave?
Indirect question: Do you know when she left?
Yes/no questions
In yes / no questions, we use if or whether (the
word order is the same as in reported questions).
Direct question: Have you seen my dog?
Indirect question: Could you tell me if you have
seen my dog?
Question tags
Form
auxiliary verb + subject
1. If the auxiliary verb in the sentence is
positive, the tag is negative.
You are Spanish, aren't you?
2. If the auxiliary verb in the sentence is
negative, the tag is positive.
You're not Spanish, are you?
3. If there is no auxiliary verb in the sentence,
we use do.
You live in Spain, don't you?
Functions and examples
1. We use tag questions to confirm information. 8. With used to, we use 'didn't' in the tag
This meal is horrible, isn't it? question.
That film was fantastic, wasn't it? You used to work here, didn't you?

2. We use tag questions when we are already

9. We can use positive question tags after
sure of the answer and just want confirmation
(falling intonation with the tag question). positive sentences to express a reaction such as
surprise or interest.
3. We use tag questions to check information. You're moving to Brazil, are you?
You haven't got a piece of paper, have you?
You don't know where the boss is, do you?
The meeting's tomorrow at 9am, isn't it?

4. If we do not know the answer, these are real

questions, and we use a rising intonation with
the tag question.
Important points
1. In the present tense, if the subject is 'I', the
auxiliary changes to 'are' or 'aren't'.
I'm sitting next to you, aren't I?

2. With 'let's', the tag question is 'shall we'.

Let's go to the beach, shall we?

3. With an imperative, the tag question is 'will

you'.
Close the window, will you?

4. We use a positive tag question after a

sentence containing a negative word such as
never, hardly, nobody.
Nobody lives in this house, do they?
You've never liked me, have you?

5. When the subject is nothing, we use 'it' in the

tag question.
Nothing bad happened, did it?

6. When the subject is nobody, somebody,

everybody, no one, someone, or everyone, we
use 'they' in the tag question.
Nobody asked for me, did they?

7. If the main verb in the sentence is 'have' (not

an auxiliary verb), it is more common to use 'do'
in the question tag.
You have a Ferrari, don't you?
 NOT: I took my mother with myself
Reflexive pronouns (The only possible meaning is reflexive so we
don't use a reflexive pronoun.)
Form
myself 3. We can use by + reflexive pronoun to mean
yourself alone.
himself / herself / itself
She likes to go on holiday by herself.
ourselves
yourselves (plural)
themselves 4. We cannot use a reflexive possessive
pronoun: we use my / your... own.
Functions and examples They all did their own work.
1. We use reflexive pronouns when the subject NOT: They all did themselves work.
and object are the same.
I burnt myself on the stove this morning.
NOT: I burnt me on the stove this morning.

You can help yourselves to drinks.

NOT: You can help you to drinks.

He blames himself for the accident.

NOT: He blames him for the accident.

2. We use reflexive pronouns to emphasize the

subject, meaning "that person or thing and
nobody/nothing else".
"Did someone paint your house?" "No, I painted
it myself."
He was planning to ask his assistant to go, but in
the end he went himself.

Important points
1. We do not use reflexive pronouns after feel,
meet, concentrate and relax, and we do not
normally use them after wash, shave and dress,
unless it is necessary to make it clear who does
the action.
He finds it difficult to relax.
NOT: He finds it difficult to relax himself.
When I got up, I washed.
NOT: When I got up, I washed myself.

2. If it is clear that the meaning is reflexive, it is

not necessary to use a reflexive pronoun.
He gave the present to him.
He gave the present to himself.
(We need a reflexive pronoun to clarify who the
present is for.)

I took my mother with me


Comparatives and
superlatives
Form
1. One syllable adjectives: cheap
Comparative: add --er (cheaper)
Superlative: add --est (the cheapest)
2. One syllable adjectives ending in 'e': nice
Comparative: add --r (nicer)
Superlative: add --st (the nicest)
3. One syllable adjectives ending in consonant -
vowel - consonant: hot
Comparative: add consonant + er (hotter)
Superlative: add consonant + est (the hottest)
4. Two syllable adjectives ending in 'y': happy
Comparative: replace y with --ier (happier)
Superlative: replace y with --iest (the happiest)
5. Two or more syllable adjectives: beautiful
Comparative: add more / less (more / less
beautiful)
Superlative: add the most / the least (the most /
least beautiful)
6. Irregular adjectives
good - better - the best
bad - worse - the worst
far - further - the furthest
Functions and examples
1. We use comparatives to compare two things.
John is thinner than Bob.
It's more expensive to travel by train than by bus.
My house is smaller than my friend's house.
2. We use superlatives to compare one thing with
the rest of the group it belongs to.
John is the tallest in the class.
He's the best football player in the team.
This is the most expensive hotel I've ever stayed
in.
Important points
1. We do not use the with the superlative if there
is a possessive.
His strongest point is his ambition.
2. We use as + adjective + as to say that two
things are equal in some way.
He's as tall as me.
Jim's car is as fast as mine.
3. We use not as to say that two things are not
equal in some way.
He's not as tall as me.
Jim's car is not as fast as mine.
4. We can modify comparatives with much, a lot,
far, a little, a bit, slightly.
Bob is much richer than I am.
My mother's hair is slightly longer than mine.
5. We can modify superlative with by far, easily
and nearly.
Mario's is by far the best restaurant in town.
I'm nearly the oldest in the class.
6. If the second part of a comparative or
superlative sentence is clear from what comes
before or from the context, we can omit it.
Going by bus is very fast, but the train is more
comfortable.
7. We can repeat comparatives to say that
something is changing.
These exams are getting worse and worse every
year.
She gets more and more beautiful every time I
see her.
 more common in British English, and 'little' is
Few and little more common in American English.
That's the smallest phone I've ever seen. -- British
Form English
That's the littlest phone I've ever seen. --
(a) few + plural countable noun
American English
(a) little + uncountable noun

Functions and examples

1. (a) few and (a) little mean a small quantity or a
Lend and borrow
small number.
Without 'a' there is often a negative meaning. Form
to borrow something (from someone)
I have a few friends. -- a small number, but I am to lend something to someone
happy to lend someone something
I have few friends. -- a small number, and I wish I
had more Functions and examples
I have a little money. -- a small amount, but I am 1. We use borrow to say that we take something
happy temporarily with the intention of returning it.
I have little money. -- a small amount, and I wish I Can I borrow your car?
had more She borrowed $100 from her father.

2. Few and little without 'a' are quite formal.

In spoken English, it is more common to say only
a few / little, or not much/many.
Only a few people came to the meeting.
Not many people came to the meeting.
Few people came to the meeting. -- more formal
2. We use lend to say that we give something
temporarily with the intention of having it
returned.
Can you lend me your car?
Her father lent her $100.
Her father lent $100 to his daughter.

3. If we use (a)few or (a)little before a pronoun or

determiner, we use of. Too and enough
A few of them went to the cinema. Form
He only kept a little of his money with him.
too + adjective or adverb
too much/many + noun
Small and little adjective or adverb + enough
enough + noun
Functions and examples
1. 'Small' and 'little' are both adjectives. We use Functions and examples
'small' to talk about the size of something. 1. We use 'too' to mean more than sufficient or
Your cat is very small. more than necessary.
Can I have two small pizzas please? It's too late to stop him.
Jerry was too young to watch the movie.
2. We can use 'little' to refer to size, but we There are too many people on this train, there's
usually use it with another adjective to express nowhere to sit.
an emotion. You have too much money, give some to me.
You're a silly little boy.
Nobody's looking after that poor little dog. 2. We use 'enough' to mean sufficient and in a
negative sentence to mean less than sufficient
3. In comparative and superlative form, 'small' is or less than necessary.
You're not working fast enough, you won't finish
on time.
Your clothes are big enough to fit me.
Have you got enough money to buy me a drink?
Sorry, I haven't got enough food for everyone.
Important points
1. We can use 'enough' without a noun if the
meaning is clear.
There's a lot of food but not enough for
everyone.
2. We use 'enough of' or 'too much/many of'
before pronouns and determiners.
Not enough of my friends are coming to the
party.
You've eaten too many of those cakes.
3. We can replace 'enough' with 'the' before a
noun.
I don't have the money to go on holiday.
His company doesn't have the resources to do
the job.
4. We can use 'time' or 'room' alone to mean
'enough time' or 'enough room'.
Is there room in your car for one more person?
Do we have time for a coffee?
So and such
Form
so + adjective or adverb
such + noun (with or without adjective)
Functions and examples
We use 'so' and 'such' to add emphasis.
It's cold today.
It's so cold today.
She's a nice person.
She's such a nice person.
Have got / Have
Form
I have got a cat / I have a cat.
I haven't got a cat / I don't have a cat.
Have you got a cat? / Do you have a cat?
"Have you a cat?" and "I haven't a cat" are
possible but not common
Have got is more common and sounds more
natural in informal language. It is a present tense
of 'have', not the present perfect of get.
Functions and examples
1. We use 'have got' and 'have' to talk about
possession.
I've got a new house / I have a new house.
Has she got a car? / Does she have a car?
2. We use 'have got' and 'have' to talk about
relationships.
Have you got a girlfriend? / Do you have a
girlfriend?
He's got three brothers / He has three brothers.
3. We use have got and have to talk about
illnesses.
I've got a bad cold / I have a bad cold.
4. We use have got and have to talk about
characteristics.
Her office has got a nice view / Her office has a
nice view.
Why has he got a tattoo? / Why does he have a
tattoo?
Important points
1. With the functions above, have got and have
cannot be used in continuous form.
I have got / have a headache.
I'm having a headache. x
2. In the past, 'have' is more common than 'have
got'
She had a pink guitar when she was young.
She had got a pink guitar when she was young. x
Did you have a headache yesterday?
Had you got a headache yesterday? x
 The church on our street was built in the 17th
Century. (a particular church)
Articles I go to church every Sunday (the idea of church,
not a particular building)
Functions and examples My friend works at the prison outside the city
centre.
1. We use a / an when we are talking about
My husband is in prison.
something for the first time.
The work isn't finished yet.
He is wearing a suit and a tie.
I was feeling sick yesterday so I didn't go to work.
They have a cat.
The new bed is bigger than the old one.
I put my children to bed a 8pm.
2. We use the when we are talking about a
specific person or thing, or if there is only one,
6. We use the with singular countable nouns to
or if it is clear which one we are talking about.
talk about a type of thing.
She took a glass of water and started to drink.
The computer was invented in the 20th Century.
(one of many glasses of water)
(not a particular computer)
She took the glass of water nearest to her. (a
The computer in my office is broken. (a particular
specific glass)
one)
She took the glass of water and started to drink.
The crocodile is very dangerous. (this type of
(there is only one glass of water)
animal)
Can you turn on the TV? (it's clear we are talking
The crocodile in the river is very big. (a particular
about the TV in this room)
one)
I have to see the doctor tomorrow. (it's clear I am
She plays the piano. (not a particular piano but
talking about my usual doctor)
this type of instrument)
I need to see a doctor. (not any specific doctor)
The piano she is playing is very old. (a particular
How many people have walked on the moon?
one)
(there is only one moon)
The best film I've ever seen is Top Gun. (there can
7. We use the + adjective to talk about a group
only be one best film)
of people (including nationalities).
I always give money to the homeless.
3. We use no article when we are talking about
The unemployed receive money from the
people or things in general.
government.
Carrots are good for you. (carrots in general)
The French produce good wine.
The carrots growing in my garden are almost
ready to eat. (specific carrots)
8. We use a / an to talk about someone's job.
English people drink a lot of tea. (English people
My wife is an optician.
in general)
She works as a mechanic.
The English people in this hotel are very nice.
(specific English people)
9. We use no article with continents, countries,
regions, cities, streets, mountains, lakes and
4. We use a / an to say what kind of person or
parks.
thing someone or something is (often with an
Asia, Italy, California, Bristol, Main St., Mount
adjective, or to say it belongs to a particular
Everest, Lake Superior, Central Park
group.
We use the if the country contains Kingdom,
You have a nice house.
Republic, State, Union
That's a very expensive car!
A cat is an animal a bus is a vehicle.
10. We use the with plural names of people and
places.
5. With school, university, prison, hospital,
The Smiths, The Netherlands, The United States,
church, bed, work and home we use the when
The Bahamas, The Alps (also The Caribbean)
we are talking about a particular one, and no
article when we are talking about the idea of
11. We use the with oceans, seas, rivers and
school, university...
canals.
The Atlantic Ocean, The Red Sea, The Nile, The
Panama Canal

12. We use the with north, south, east and west

to talk about the location of a place within
another place, but no article to compare the
location of two places.
Greece is in the south of Europe.
Spain is south of France.
We use no article with northern, southern,
eastern and western:
Greece is in southern Europe.

13. We normally use the with buildings, except if

the first word is the name of a place.
The White House, The Sheraton Hotel.
Oxford University, Buckingham Palace.