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Basic Maintenance Module 3 Electrical Fundamentals
Training Manual Contents
3.1 Electron Theory Voltage Produced by Chemical Action . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

Magnetism and Motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Composition of Matter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Elements and Compounds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Atoms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 3.5 DC Sources of Electricity
Electrons, Protons and Neutrons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Bohr Model of the Atom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 Cells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
The Difference between Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 Electrical Output of a Cell . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
The Balanced Atom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 Thermocouples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
The Ion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 Photocells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Freeing Electrons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 Lead Acid Cell. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Conductors Insulators Semiconductors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 Lead Acid Battery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Hydrometer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
3.2 Static Electricity and Conduction Alkaline Cells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Nickel Cadmium Cell Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Electrical Charge. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Thermal Runaway. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Laws of Electrical Charges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Nickel Cadmium Battery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Laws of Electrical Charges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Emergency Lighting Batteries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Capacity Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
3.3 Electrical Terminology Capacity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Potential Difference. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 Cross Contamination of Lead Acid and Ni/Cd Areas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Electromotive Force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 Hazards Associated With Industrial Batteries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Voltage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 Hydrogen Gas. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Current . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 Acid Hazards. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 Electrical Hazard. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Factors Affecting Resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 Electrical Safety Precautions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Conductance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 Fire and Explosion Precautions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Conventional Current Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 Handling Battery Acid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Electron Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 PROTECTIVE CLOTHING Requirements for Electrolyte Handling . . . . . 17
Safety Eye Wash & Shower Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
3.4 Generation of Electricity
Primary Methods of Generation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 3.13 AC Theory
Voltage Produced by Friction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 AC Theory Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Action of Electrostatic Charges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 The Elementary Generator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Voltage Produced by Pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 Period . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Voltage Produced by Heat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 The Cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Voltage Produced by Light . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 Frequency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Jan19/Technical Training
Copyright by SR Technics For training purposes only Cat: A 3. Contents - I
Training Manual Contents
Frequency Ranges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Max or Peak Value . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Peak to Peak Value . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Effective or RMS Value . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
AC Meters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Rectifiers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Average Value . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Types of AC Waveforms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
The Wattmeter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Three Phase Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Generation of a Three Phase Output . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Sum of the Instantaneous EMF's is Zero . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Star and Delta Connections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Line & Phase Voltages & Currents for Star Connected Systems . . . . . . . 16
Line & Phase Voltages & Currents for Delta Connected Systems . . . . . . 17
Summary of Relationships between Currents and Voltages in Star and Delta
'Balanced' Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Study Questions
3.01 Electron Theory. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
3.02 Static Electricity and Conduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
3.03 Electrical Terminology. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
3.04 Generation of Electricity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
3.05 DC Sources of Electricity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
3.13 AC Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Copyright by SR Technics For training purposes only Cat: A 3. Contents - II
Training Manual 3.1 Electron Theory
3.1 Electron Theory
Copyright by SR Technics For training purposes only Cat: A 3.1 - 1
Composition of Matter so small that it can not be divided further and still be water. This smallest particle
of water that still retains the characteristics of water is called a molecule.
Controlling the behaviour of electrons is what electronics is all about.Therefore, an The water molecule can be broken into still smaller pieces but the pieces will not
understanding of the electron is vitally important to an understanding of electronic be water. Thus, if you break up the water molecule, you find that the pieces are the
fundamentals. Electrons are tiny particles which carry the energy to light our elements hydrogen and oxygen.
homes, cook our food and do much of our work. To understand what an electron
is, we must investigate the make-up of matter.
Matter is generally described as anything which has weight and occupies space.
Thus, the earth and everything on it are classified as matter. Matter exists in three
different states - solid, liquid and gas.
Examples of solid matter are gold, sand and wood.
Some liquid examples are water, milk and gasoline.
Helium, hydrogen and oxygen are examples of gaseous forms of matter.
Elements and Compounds

Elements are the basic building materials from which all matter is constructed.
Some examples of elements are iron, carbon, hydrogen and gold. Just over one
hundred elements are presently known.
Of these, only 92 occur in nature. These are called natural elements.
Figure 1 on page 3 lists the names of the 92 natural elements. 
In addition, there are about a dozen man-made elements that are listed in Figure 1
on page 3.
As you look around, it becomes obvious that there are many more types of matter
than there are elements. For example, substances like salt, steel, water and pro-
tein do not appear in the list of elements.
The reason for this is that these substances are not elements but compounds. A
compound is composed of two or more elements. 
Just as the letters of the alphabet can be arranged in various combinations to form
millions of different words, the elements can be arranged in various combinations
to form millions of different compounds.
For example, water is a compound that is made up of the elements hydrogen and
oxygen. On the other hand, sugar is composed of hydrogen, carbon and oxygen
and salt is composed of sodium and chlorine.
To better understand how the compound is related to its elements, let us investi-
gate the structure of a compound with which you are familiar - water. Suppose -
you divide a drop of water into two parts. 
Next, suppose you divide each part again and again. After a few dozen divisions,
you have a drop so small that it can be seen only with a microscope. If you divide
it even further into smaller and smaller particles, you will eventually get a particle
Figure 1: Periodic Table of the Elements
NOTE: Atomic Number is equal to the amount of protons. EXAMPLE: AG = 47 Protons

Mass = 107 - 47 = 60 Neutrons
Atoms The center of the atom, which is composed of protons and neutrons, is called the
nucleus. Depending on the type of atom, the nucleus will contain from one to about
The smallest particle to which an element can be reduced is called an atom. Mol- 100 protons. Also, in all atoms except hydrogen, the nucleus contains neutrons.
ecules are made up of atoms that are bound together. The neutrons and protons have approximately the same weight and size. Because
The water molecule is shown in figure below as three atoms. 
they are much heavier than electrons, the overall weight of the atom is determined
The two smaller atoms represent hydrogen while the larger one represents oxy- primarily by the number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus. Rotating around
gen. Therefore, a molecule of water consists of two atoms of hydrogen (H) and one the nucleus are the electrons.
atom of oxygen (O). 
Notice that the helium atom has two electrons. The electrons are extremely light
This is why the chemical formula for water is H2O. and they travel at fantastic speeds.
Figure 2: H2O The atom can be compared to the solar system with the nucleus representing the
sun and the electrons representing the planets.
The electrons orbit the nucleus in much the same way that the planets orbit the
sun.
The figure below is a very simple model of the atom based on these assumptions.
Today, much more complex models of the atom have been proposed. However,
all these models have several things in common.
They all assume that the basic structure is that of electrons orbiting a nucleus that
is composed largely of protons and neutrons.
This model of the atom is called the Bohr model after the man who proposed it.
Figure 3: Bohr Model
Electrons, Protons and Neutrons

As small as the atom is, it can be broken up into even smaller particles.
If you investigate the structure of the atom, you will find that it contains three dis-
tinct types of particles; electrons, protons and neutrons. These are the three basic
building blocks that make up all atoms and, therefore, all matter. Electrons, pro-
tons and neutrons have very different characteristics. However, as far as is known,
all electrons are exactly alike. By the same token, all protons are exactly alike and,
in the same manner all neutrons are identical.
BOHR Model of the Atom

The Figure below shows how electrons, protons and neutrons are combined to
form an atom. This particular one is a helium atom. 
Two protons and two neutrons are bunched together near the center of the atom.
The Difference between Elements Figure 5: Carbon

At present there are 104 known elements although only 92 of these commonly oc-
cur in nature. The difference between these elements is their atomic structure.
Each is made up of atoms that contain a unique number of protons, electrons and,
with the exception of hydrogen, neutrons. Look at the figure below to see exactly
what we mean.
The simplest of all elements, hydrogen, is shown in figure below.
It consists of a single electron orbiting a single proton. This is the only atom that
contains no neutrons. Because it is made up of the fewest number of particles, hy-
drogen is the lightest element.
See figure which represents the carbon atom. Notice, this atom is made up of 6
electrons that orbit a nucleus of 6 protons and 6 neutrons.
The heaviest element shown in figure below is copper.
It consists of 29 electrons, 29 protons and 35 neutrons.
However, the most complex atom commonly found in nature is the uranium atom.
It has 92 electrons, 92 protons and 146 neutrons. Figure 6: Copper
Figure 4: Hydrogen
The Balanced Atom

In the examples shown, you may have noticed that the number of electrons is al-
ways equal to the number of protons. This normally true of any atom. When this is
the case, the atom is said to be in its normal balanced, or neutral state. As you will
see later, this state can be upset by an external force. However, normally the atom
is considered to contain equal numbers of electrons and protons.
The Ion
Atoms are affected by many outside forces such as heat, light electrostatic fields
and magnetic fields. The balanced state of the atom can be upset by one of these
forces. As a result an atom can lose or gain one or more electrons. When this hap-
pens, the number of negative charges is no longer exactly offset by the number of
positive charges.
Thus the atom ends up with a net charge. An atom that is no longer in its neutral
state is called an ion. The process of changing an atom to an ion is called ionisa-
tion.
Figure 7: The Ion
Freeing Electrons The first four shells are illustrated in figure below. Although not shown, there are
also additional shells in the heavier atoms.
Electrons revolve around the atom’s nucleus at very high speeds. Two forces hold
the electrons in a precarious balance. Of particular importance in the study electronics is the outer electron shell of atom.
The centrifugal force of the electron that thrusts it away from the nucleus is exactly Hydrogen has one electron in its outer shell while helium has two. In this case, the
offset by the attraction of the protons in the nucleus. This balance condition can be outer shell is the first and only shell.
upset very easily so that the electron is dislodged from its orbit.
Not all electrons can be freed from the atom with the same ease. Some are dis- For atoms that have three to ten electrons, outer shell is the second shell.
lodged more easily than others. To see why, you must study the concept of orbital Regardless of which shell it happens to be, the outer shell is called the valence
shells. It has been proven that electrons orbit the atoms nucleus according to a shell and electrons in this shell are called valence electrons.
certain pattern. 
Electrons are arranged in such a way that the valence shell never has more than
For example, in all atoms that have two or more electrons, two of the electrons or-
eight electrons.
bit relatively close to the nucleus. The area in which these electrons travel is called
shell. The valence electrons are extremely important in electronics. 
These are the electrons that can be easily freed and used to perform work. To un-
The shell closest to the nucleus contains two electrons. This area can support only
derstand why the valence electrons are easy to free, consider the structure of an
two electrons and all other electrons must orbit in shells further from the nucleus.
atom of copper. 
A second shell somewhat further from the nucleus can hold up to eight electrons. The figure below shows how the electrons are distributed in the various shells in
There is a third shell that can contain up to 18 electrons and a fourth shell that can the copper atom. Notice that the valence shell contains only one electron. This
hold up to 32 electrons. electron is further from the nucleus than any of the other electrons.
From Coulombs Law you know that the force of attraction between charged parti-
Shell Subshell Max electrons Max electrons in shell cles decreases dramatically as the distance between the particles increases.
in subshell Therefore, valence electrons experience less attraction from the nucleus. For this
reason, these electrons can be easily separated from the atom.
K 1s 2 2
Other figures below illustrate one way in which a valence electron can be freed.
L 2s 2 2+6=8
Figure 8: .Valence Electron
2p 6
M 3s 2 2 + 6 + 10 = 18
3p 6
3d 10
N 4s 2 2 + 6 + 10 + 14 = 32
4p 6
4d 10
4f 14
Conductors Insulators Semiconductors Silicon and germanium are examples of elements whose valence shell is half filled.
Elements of this type are neither good conductors nor good insulators
Both the electrical and chemical characteristics of the elements depend on the ac-
tion of the valence electrons. An element’s electrical and chemical stability are de-
termined to a great extent by the number of electrons in the valence shell. You RESISTANCE
have seen that the valence shell can contain up to eight electrons. Those elements
that have valence shells that are filled or nearly filled tend to be stable. That is, they INSULATORS
tend to maintain their atomic structure rather than give up or accept electrons. Air or Vacuum
For example, the elements neon, argon, krypton, xenon and radon have 8 elec-
trons in their valence shell. The valence shell is completely filled and, as a result, Fiber
these elements are so stable that they resist any sort of chemical activity. They will Bakelite
not even combine with other elements to form compounds. Furthermore, atoms of
these elements are very reluctant to give up electrons. Because they do not react Rubber High
with other elements, these elements are called inert gases.
Paper
Elements that have their valence shells almost filled also tend to be stable, al-
though they are not as stable as those whose valence shells are completely filled. Shellac
These elements strive to fill their valence shell by capturing free electrons. Conse-
quently, elements of this type have very few free electrons in their atomic structure. Glass
Substances that have very few free electrons in their atomic structure are called Mica
insulators. In addition to certain elements that act as insulators, there are many
compounds that exhibit the same characteristic. SEMICONDUCTORS
Thus, they also act as insulators. By opposing the production of free electrons, Germanium Medium
these substances resist certain electrical actions.
Insulators are important in electrical and electronics work for this reason. The plas- Silicon
tic material on electrical wires is an insulator that protects you from electrical
CONDUCTORS
shock. Elements in which the valence shell is almost empty behave quite different-
ly than insulators. Elements that have only one or two electrons tend to give them Silver
up very easily.
For example, copper, silver and gold each have one valence electron. Copper
In these elements, the valence electrons are easily removed. Consequently, a bar Gold Low
of any one of these elements has a great number of free electrons. Substances
that have a large number of free electrons are called conductors. In addition to sil- Aluminium
ver, copper and gold, some other good conductors are iron, nickel and aluminium.
Notice that all of these elements are metals. Most metals are good conductors. Nickel
Conductors are important because they act as current paths and allow electrical Iron
current to move from one place to another. 
Some elements have four electrons in their valence shell.
Training Manual 3.2 Static Electricity and Conduction
3.2 Static Electricity and Conduction
Electrical Charge To explain this force, science has adopted the concept of an electrostatic field.
Every charged particle is assumed to be surrounded by an electrostatic field that
Electrostatics deals with electrical charges at rest. On the other hand, electronics extends for a distance outside the particle itself. It is the interaction of the fields
deals with moving electrical charges. surrounding the charged particles that cause electron and proton to attract each
We have examined the structure of the atom and learned about some of the char- other.
acteristics of the electron, proton, and neutron. 
An important characteristic of an atom is its electrical charge.  Figure 1: Electrical Charge
The electrical charge is a property associated with the electron and the proton. It
is this electrical charge that makes the electron useful in electrical and electronic
work.
The electrical charge is difficult to visualise because it is not an object, like a mol-
ecule or an atom. Rather, it is a property or characteristic that electrons and pro-
tons have that causes these particles to behave in certain predictable ways.
There are two distinct types of electrical charges. Because these two types of
charges have opposite characteristics, they have been given the names positive
and negative. The electrical charge associated with the electron has been arbitrar-
ily given the name negative. 
The electrical charge associated with the proton is considered to be positive.
The neutron has no electrical charge. It is electrically neutral and, therefore, plays
no known role in electricity or electronics.
The electron revolves around the nucleus of the atom in much the same way that
the earth orbits the sun. You can compare this action to that of a ball that is at-
tached to the end of a string and twirled in a circle. If the string breaks, the ball flies
off in a straight line. 
Thus, it is the restraining action of the string that holds the path of the ball to a cir-
cle. In the case of the earth rotating around the sun, it is the gravitational attraction
of the sun that prevents the earth from flying off into space. The gravitational at-
traction of the sun exactly balances the centrifugal force of each planet. Therefore
the planets travel in more or less circular paths around the sun.
Electrons orbit around the nucleus of the atom at a fantastic speed.
What force keeps them from flying off into space? It is not gravity because the
gravitational force exerted by the nucleus is much too weak. Instead, the force at
work here results from the charge on the electron in orbit and the charge on the
proton in the nucleus. 
The negative charge of the electron is attracted by the positive charge of the pro-
ton.
This is called the force of attraction an electrostatic force.
Laws of Electrical Charges Figure 2:

There is a basic law that describes the action of electrical charges.
It is called Coulomb's Law after Charles A. de Coulomb, who discovered it.
Quite simply, Coulomb's Law states:
1. Like charges repel.
2. Unlike charges attract.
Because like charges repel, two electrons will repel each other.
In a like manner, two protons will also repel each other.
Figure 2 illustrates how the lines of force interact between two electrons.
The direction of the lines of force are such that the two fields cannot interconnect.
The net effect that the electrons attempt to move apart. That is, they repel each
other.
Figure 3 shows that the same is true of two protons. Figure 3:
Figure 1 where an electron and a proton are shown.
Here, the two fields do interconnect. As a result, the two charges attract and tend
to move together.
These examples show only individual charged particles.
However, Coulomb's Law holds true for concentrations of charges as well.
In fact, it holds true for any two charged bodies. An important part of Coulomb's
Law is the equation that allows you to determine the force of attraction or repulsion
between charged bodies.
Laws of Electrical Charges Figure 4:

The equation states that:
Q1  Q2
F = k  ----------------------
2
d
where:
F = the force of attraction between unlike charges or the force of repulsion

between like charges.
Q1 = the charge on one body.
Q2 = the charge on the second body.
d2 = the square of the distance between the two bodies.
k = Coulomb's constant
9
8.99  10
An atom that is no longer in its neutral state is called an ion. Changing atoms to
ions is an easy thing to do and everything you see around you contains ions as
well as atoms. The material around you also contains a large number of free or
stray electrons. These are electrons that have escaped from atoms leaving behind
positive ions.
The electrical characteristics of different types of material are determined largely
by the number of free electrons and ions within the material.
Training Manual 3.3 Electrical Terminology
3.3 Electrical Terminology
Potential Difference Figure 1:

The unit of potential difference is the volt. It is the difference of potential between
two points of a conducting wire carrying a current of 1 ampere, when the power
dissipated between these points is equal to 1 watt.
The potential for producing current flow exists even though no current is flowing.
Potential meaning the possibility of doing work.
The potential to move electrons exists between any two unlike charges, that is,
when two charges are different, electrons will flow from one charge to the other if A B
given the chance.
Figure 2:
Charges can differ in two ways. First, they can be of opposite polarity. That is one
is positive and the other is negative as shown in Figure 1.
Secondly, they can have different magnitudes. Figure 2 shows two charges that
have the same polarity but different magnitudes.
Charge A is more negative because it has more excess electrons than Charge B.
Figure 3 shows five terminals at various levels of charge.
Since no two are of the same magnitude and polarity a difference of potential ex-
ists between any two terminals. Consequently, if a conductor is placed between
any two terminals, electrons will flow until those two charges are balanced.
Remember that electrons always flow from the more negative to the more positive
terminal. A B
Figure 3:
A B C D E
Electromotive Force Figure 4:

The unit of Electromotive Force is the volt.
An electromotive force (EMF) is a force that tends to produce an electric current in
a circuit. That is, it is the force or pressure that sets electrons in motion.
The main sources of EMF are:
1. when electrodes of dissimilar materials are immersed in an electrolyte, as in

primary and secondary cells.
2. the relative movement of a conductor and a magnetic flux such as electric
generators and transformers.
3. the difference of temperature between junctions of dissimilar metals, as in
thermocouples.
In Figure 4, the EMF causes electrons to flow in a closed circuit. Figure 5:
In Figure 5, there is no current flow, as the switch is open, but the potential for cur-
rent flow exists.
Voltage Resistance
Voltage is the measure of EMF or Potential Difference. The unit of electric resistance is the OHM.
One volt is the magnitude of EMF that will cause one unit of energy to move one It can be defined as the resistance between two points of a conductor when a po-
coulomb of charge from one point to another. tential difference of one volt, applied between these points produces a current of
If a potential difference exists between two bodies a current will flow when they are one ampere.
joined by a conductor.
While that current is flowing HEAT energy is being generated.  or,
We know that anything that has energy has the ability to do work but in electricity
we are usually more concerned with the rate at which work is done, which is called
POWER. The resistance of a circuit in which a current of one ampere generates heat of one
watt.
The unit of power is the WATT.
A volt is the difference in electrical potential between two points on a conductor Figure 6:
carrying a current of one ampere, when energy is dissipated between these two
points at the rate of one watt.
Current
Current is a flow of electrons but the electron itself is too small to be of use as the
unit of electrical quantity and therefore a more practical unit consisting of many mil-
lions of electrons has been chosen.
It is called the Coulomb. One Coulomb = 6.28 x 10 18 electrons.
Note that this is a quantity of electricity not a measure of current, but it is used to
define the unit of electrical current, the AMPERE.
When a current of one ampere is flowing in a conductor, one coulomb of electrons
pass any point in the conductor every second.
The size of an electrical current is dependant on the rate of flow of electrons, not
a number of electrons.
We can write this in equation form:
I = Q / t (Amperes)
One ampere of current flowing in a conductor for one hour is equivalent to 3600
coulombs and this is called an ampere-hour.
Factors Affecting Resistance Figure 7:

The most important factor in determining resistance is its resistivity. 
However, other factors also contribute to a substance's resistance such as length,
cross-sectional area and temperature.
Length
A 60 feet length of number 22 insulated copper wire has a resistance of about 1
ohm. 
A 120 feet length of the same wire has a resistance of approximately 2 ohms. 
If you double the length of wire the resistance doubles.
Cross sectional Area

All other things being equal, the resistance of a substance is inversely proportional
to it's cross sectional area. If the cross sectional area doubles, the resistance
drops to half it's former value.
Temperature
With most materials, the resistance changes with temperature changes. With
changes in Length and Cross-sectional area the affects of changes are a known
value, however with changes in temperature materials react differently. In most
materials an increase in temperature causes an increase in resistance.
Materials that respond in this way are said to have a positive temperature co-effi-
cient.
Some substances, such as carbon have a negative temperature coefficient. This
means that as their resistance decreases as temperature increases. There are
also materials whose resistance does not change with temperature change and
are said to have a zero or constant temperature co-efficient.
NOTE: mils = 1/1000 inch
Conductance Figure 8:
Conductance is the opposite of resistance.
It is defined as the ease with which a substance allows a current to flow.
Mathematically, conductance is the reciprocal of resistance. 
This means that conductance is equal to the number 1 divided by the resistance.
Conductance = 1 / Resistance.
The letter G is used to represent conductance, so the equation can be written:
G=1/R
The unit of conductance is the Siemens.

Mho is an alternate name of the ohm. Mho is derived from spelling ohm back-
wards.
Conventional Current Flow

Before the discovery of the true nature of electricity it was assumed that electric
current flowed from positive to negative, although we know now that electrons be-
ing negatively charged are repelled away from negative and attracted to positive.
The original concept of current flowing from positive to negative is called Conven-
tional Current Flow.
Most electrical laws are based on this convention.
Electron Flow
A conductor is a substance that contains a large number of free electrons. These
free electrons do not stand still, they drift about in random motion. The drift of free
electrons can be influenced in such a way so as all or most of the electrons move
in the same direction through the conductor. This is done by placing electrical
charges at opposite ends of the conductor.
When a negative charge is placed at one end of a conductor and a positive charge
is placed at the other end, the negative charge repels the free electrons while the
positive one attracts them.
As a result, the free electrons move or drift in the same direction.
The direction of electron flow is from the negative to positive charge.
This is known as Electron Flow.
Figure 9:
Training Manual 3.4 Generation of Electricity
3.4 Generation of Electricity
Primary Methods of Generation Voltage Produced by Friction

Presently, there are six commonly used methods of producing electromotive force This is the least used method of producing voltage. As a rule, friction electricity (of-
(EMF). Some of these methods are much more widely used than others. The fol- ten referred to as static electricity) is a nuisance.
lowing is a list of the six most common methods of producing electromotive force. For instance, a flying aircraft accumulates electric charges from the friction be-
tween it's skin and the passing air.
1. Friction These charges often interfere with radio communication, and under some circum-
Voltage produced by rubbing two materials together. stances can even cause physical damage to the aircraft.
2. Pressure Most individuals are familiar with static electricity and have probably received un-
(Piezoelectricity) - voltage produced by squeezing crystals of certain sub- pleasant shocks from friction electricity when sliding across dry seat covers or
stances. walking across dry carpets, and then coming in contact with some other object.
3. Heat Figure 1:
(Thermoelectricity) - voltage produced by heating the joint where two dissim-
ilar metals are joined.
4. Light
(Photoelectricity) - voltage produced by light striking photosensitive substanc-
es.
5. Chemical Action
voltage produced by chemical reaction in a battery cell.
6. Magnetism
voltage produced in a conductor when the conductor moves through a mag-
netic field, or a magnetic field moves through the conductor in such a manner
as to cut the magnetic lines of force of the field.
Action of Electrostatic Charges Figure 2 shows a negatively charged comb placed close to an aluminium rod. The
excess electrons in the comb repel the free electrons in the rod.
The effects of an electrostatic charge can be spectacular. One effect is lightning.
Less spectacular examples are evident when removing clothes from a dryer, Consequently, the free electrons gather at the end of the rod away from the
combing hair, or touching a metal object after scuffing feet on a rug. In each of charged comb. This causes that end of the rod to acquire a negative charge. The
these cases, two different bodies receive opposite electrical charges. This occurs other end of the rod acquires a positive charge because of the deficiency of elec-
when one of the bodies gives up a large number of electrons to the other. The body trons.
that gives up the electrons becomes positively charged while the body receiving If the negative end of the rod is touched with a neutral body, some of the electrons
the electrons becomes negatively charged. leave the rod and enter the neutral body.
When hair is combed vigorously with a hard rubber comb, the hair gives up elec- This leaves the rod with a net positive charge. Thus, a positive charge is induced
trons to the comb. This causes the comb to become negatively charged while the into the rod without touching it with the charged body.
hair becomes positively charged. 
Figure 2:
That is, the comb collects a large number of free electrons from the hair. This is an
example of charging by friction.
There are other ways in which an object can become charged. 
For example, the charge on the comb can be partially transferred to another body
simply by touching the comb to the uncharged body.
When the charged comb comes into contact with the uncharged object, many of
the excess electrons leave the comb and collect on the other object. If the comb is
now removed, the object will have a charge of it's own. This is called charging by
contact.
An object can also be charged by induction or electrostatic induction.
This method uses the electrostatic field which exists in the space surrounding a
charged body. In this way, an object can be charged without actually touching it
with a charged body.
It is also possible to neutralise electrical charges. When a glass rod is rubbed with Figure 3:
a silk cloth, the glass gives up electrons to the silk.
As a result, the glass becomes positively charged while the silk becomes negative-
ly charged. This is shown in Figure 3 (A).
If the rod is now brought back into contact with the cloth, the negative electrons in
the silk are attracted by the positive charge in the glass. The force of this attraction
pulls the electrons back out of the silk so that the charge is neutralised as shown
in Figure 3 (B).
Voltage Produced by Pressure Figure 4:

This action is referred to as piezoelectricity. It is produced by compressing or de-
compressing crystals of certain substances.
To study this form of electricity, the meaning of the word "crystal" must first be un-
derstood.
In a crystal, the molecules are arranged in an orderly and uniform manner. A sub-
stance in its crystallised state and its non-crystallised state is shown in the figure.
For the sake of simplicity, assume that the molecules of this particular substance
are spherical (ball-shaped). In the non crystallised state, in (A), note that the mol-
ecules are arranged irregularly.
In the crystallised state, (B) the molecules are arranged in a regular and uniform
manner.
This illustrates the major physical difference between crystal and non-crystal A B
forms of matter.
Figure 5:
Natural crystalline matter is rare; an example of matter that is crystalline in its nat-
ural form is diamond, which is crystalline carbon.
Most crystals are manufactured. Crystals of certain substances, such as Rochelle
salt or quartz, exhibit peculiar electrical characteristics.
These characteristics, or effects, are referred to as "piezoelectric".
For instance, when a crystal of quartz is compressed, electrons tend to move
through the crystal as shown. This tendency creates an electric difference of po-
tential between the two opposite faces of the crystal.
If an external wire is connected while the pressure and EMF are present, electrons
will flow. If the pressure is held constant, the electron flow will continue until the
charges are equalised. When the force is removed, the crystal is decompressed,
and immediately causes an electric force in the opposite direction.
Thus, the crystal is able to convert mechanical force, either pressure or tension, to
electrical force. The power capacity of a crystal is extremely small.
However, they are useful because of their extreme sensitivity to changes of me-
chanical force or changes in temperature.
Voltage Produced by Heat Figure 6: Thermocouples

When a length of metal, such as copper, is heated at one end, electrons tend to
move away from the hot end toward the cooler end.
This is true of most metals. However, in some metals, such as iron, the opposite
takes place and electrons tend to move toward the hot end.
The negative charges (electrons) are moving through the copper away from the
heat and through the iron toward the heat. They cross from the iron to the copper
at the hot junction, and from the copper through the current meter to the iron at the
cold junction.
This device is generally referred to as a thermocouple.
Thermocouples
Thermocouples have somewhat greater power capacities than crystals, but their
capacity is still very small if compared to some other sources.
The thermoelectric voltage in a thermocouple depends mainly on the difference in
temperature between the hot and cold junctions.
Consequently, they are widely used to measure temperature, and as heat sensing
devices in automatic temperature control equipment.
Thermocouples generally can be subjected to much greater temperatures than or-
dinary thermometers, such as the mercury or alcohol types.
Thermocouples are used on aircraft to measure exhaust gas temperature and cyl-
inder head temperature. The most popular thermocouple combinations used on
aircraft are:
1. Chromel and Alumel

2. Copper and Constantan
Voltage Produced by Light Figure 7:
Photocells
When light strikes the surface of a substance, it may dislodge electrons from their
orbits around the surface atoms of the substance. This occurs because light has
energy, the same as any moving force.
Some substances, mostly metallic ones, are far more sensitive to light than others.
That is, more electrons will be dislodged and emitted from the surface of a highly
sensitive metal, with a given amount of light, than will be emitted from a less sen-
sitive substance.
Upon losing electrons, the photosensitive (light sensitive) metal becomes positive-
ly charged, and an electric force is created.
Voltage produced in this manner is referred to as "a photoelectric voltage".
The photosensitive materials most commonly used to produce a photoelectric volt-
age are various compounds of silver oxide or copper oxide.
A complete device which operates on a photoelectric principle is referred to as a
"photoelectric cell".
There are many sizes and types of photoelectric cells in use, each of which serves
the special purpose for which it was designed. 
A photocell's power capacity is very small. However, it reacts to light-intensity var-
iations in an extremely short time.
This characteristic makes the photocell very useful in detecting or accurately con-
trolling a great number of processes or operations.
For instance, the photoelectric cell, or some form of the photoelectric principle, is
used in television cameras, automatic manufacturing process controls, door open-
ers, burglar alarms, and so forth.
Voltage Produced by Chemical Action Because current flow is always in the same direction, the current flow is called di-
rect current or DC and the EMF supplied by the battery is referred to as a DC volt-
Electrons may be removed from their parent atoms and set in motion by energy age or volts DC.
derived from a source of friction, pressure, heat, or light.
In general, these forms of energy do not alter the molecules of the substance being Figure 8:
acted upon. That is, molecules are not usually added, taken away, or split-up when
subjected to these four forms of energy. Only electrons are involved.
When the molecules of a substance are altered, the action is referred to as chem-
ical. For instance, if the molecules of a substance combines with atoms of another
substance, or gives up atoms of its own, the action is chemical
Such action always changes the chemical name and characteristics for the sub-
stance affected. For instance, when atoms of oxygen from the air come in contact
with bare iron, they merge with the molecules of iron. This iron is "oxidised".
It has changed chemically from iron to iron oxide, or rust.

It's molecules have been altered by chemical action. In some cases, when atoms
are added to or taken away from the molecules of a substance, the chemical
change will cause the substance to take on an electric charge. The process of pro-
ducing a voltage by chemical action is used in batteries.
Figure 8 illustrates how a basic battery or cell is made.
A glass beaker is filled with a solution of sulphuric acid and water.
This solution is called the electrolyte.
In the electrolyte, the sulphuric acid breaks down into hydrogen and sulphate. Be-
cause of the chemical action involved, the hydrogen atoms give up electrons to the
molecules of sulphate.
Thus, the hydrogen atoms exist as positive ions while the sulphate molecules act
as negative ions. Even so, the solution has no net charge since there are the same
number of negative and positive charges.
Next, two bars called electrodes are placed in the solution. One bar is copper while
the other is zinc. The positive hydrogen ions attract the free electrons in the cop-
per. This causes the copper bar to give up electrons to the electrolyte. Thus the
copper bar is left with a net positive charge.
The zinc reacts with the sulphate in much the same way. 
The sulphate molecules have a negative charge. Thus the positive zinc ions are
pulled from the bar. This leaves the zinc bar with a surplus of electrons and a net
negative charge. If a conductor is connected between the zinc and copper bars,
electrons will flow from the negative to the positive terminal.
Magnetism and Motion Figure 9:

This is the most widely used method of producing electrical power.
At present, it is the only practical method that can produce enough electrical power
to run an entire city. Well over 99 percent of all electrical power available today is
produced by this method. 
The method for producing an EMF with magnetism is quite simple.
When a conductor is moved through a magnetic field, an EMF is produced.
This is called magneto-electricity.
The force of the magnetic field and the movement of the conductor provide the en-
ergy necessary to free electrons in the conductor.
If the conductor forms a closed loop, then the electrons will flow through the con-
ductor. If the conductor does not form a closed loop, a potential difference is still
present.
The basic requirements for producing an EMF using this method are a magnetic
field, a conductor, and a relative motion between the two.
Figure 9 illustrates how this is done. Here, the magnetic field is produced by a per-
manent magnet.
The field is represented by the lines drawn from the north to the south poles of the
magnet.
If a conductor is moved up so that it moves across the field as shown in Figure A,
electrons flow in the direction indicated.
The same effect can be obtained if the conductor is held still and the magnet is
moved down. All that is required is relative motion between the magnetic field and
the conductor.
Figure B shows that electrons flow in the opposite direction.
If the relative motion is reversed when the conductor is moved up and down the
magnetic field, the direction of the electron flow changes each time the motion re-
verses.
In generators, a reciprocal motion like this occurs.
Thus, the current produced alternately flows in one direction then the other. This
is known as alternating current or simply AC.
Training Manual 3.5 DC Sources of Electricity
3.5 DC Sources of Electricity
Introduction Figure 1: Electrical Cell

Each and every one of us is familiar with batteries in some form or the other,
whether it is in everyday use or on aircraft. To maintain an aircraft battery we must
have some understanding of how a cell functions, and the basic construction of a
battery.
Cells
There are various types of cell, each will have:
1. A different use
2. Different voltages
3. Different capacities
4. Different sizes and weights.
At this point we do not need to know too much about the chemical action that takes
place inside the cell, only how this will affect the operation of the cell. i.e. gassing
and relative density.
Each battery consists of cells connected in series.
We will first discuss the difference between the PRIMARY and SECONDARY cell.
The Electrical-Cell
Let us first define what we mean by a CELL.
It consists of two dissimilar elements, known as plates, immersed in a solution,
known as an electrolyte.
The cell stores chemical energy and converts this to electrical energy when con-
nected to an external circuit.
Primary Cell Figure 3: Secondary Cell

The electrolyte is in paste form.
During discharge, one plate is involved in a chemical reaction and the electrolyte
becomes weaker.
This type of cell cannot be recharged.
An example of its use is in a torch battery.
Secondary Cell
The chemical process which occur during discharge can be reversed by passing
current in the opposite direction to that current which flowed during discharge.
This is known as charging.
These types of cell are found in the main aircraft battery.
Figure 2: Primary Cell
Electrical Output of a Cell Cells - Series and Parallel

Connecting cells in series will INCREASE BATTERY VOLTAGE.
Cell Voltage
The terminal voltage of each cell is added together to obtain the battery terminal
The terminal voltage of a cell depends on the material of the plates and the elec- voltage.
trolyte used. The nominal voltage of a new cell, the type generally used in a torch,
is 1.5 volts. Note, the capacity does not increase.
This is a PRIMARY cell. Connecting cells or batteries in parallel will INCREASE THE CAPACITY.
The nominal voltage of a LEAD/ACID cell is 2 volts. The capacity of each cell or battery is added together to obtain the total capacity.
The nominal voltage of a NICKEL/CADMIUM cell is 1.2 volts.
Note, the voltage does not increase.
Cell Capacity
This will depend on the actual size, i.e. the area of the plates. Cell Internal Resistance
The larger the area of the plate the higher the capacity, that is the amount of cur- The reason for this is the INTERNAL RESISTANCE of the cell or battery.
rent the cell is capable of supplying.
The EMF developed by the cell is NOT affected by internal resistance, only the
The two cells in the diagram below have identical material and electrolyte. TERMINAL VOLTAGE decreases when a current is flowing.
Therefore they have the same voltage, but a different capacity. The TERMINAL VOLTAGE is reduced by:
Figure 4:
1. INCREASE in CURRENT
2. INCREASE in INTERNAL RESISTANCE.
Figure 5: 12V Batteries Connected in Series Figure 6: 12V Batteries Connected in Parallel
Thermocouples Figure 8:
Thermocouples have somewhat greater power capacities than crystals, but their
capacity is still very small if compared to some other sources.
The thermoelectric voltage in a thermocouple depends mainly on the difference in
temperature between the hot and cold junctions.
Consequently, they are widely used to measure temperature, and as heat sensing
devices in automatic temperature control equipment.
Thermocouples generally can be subjected to much greater temperatures than or-
dinary thermometers, such as the mercury or alcohol types.
Thermocouples are used on aircraft to measure exhaust gas temperature and cyl-
inder head temperature. The most popular thermocouple combinations used on
aircraft are:
1. Chromel and Alumel

2. Copper and Constantan.
Figure 7: Thermocouple
Photocells Figure 9: Photocell

When light strikes the surface of a substance, it may dislodge electrons from their
orbits around the surface atoms of the substance. This occurs because light has
energy, the same as any moving force.
Some substances, mostly metallic ones, are far more sensitive to light than others.
That is, more electrons will be dislodged and emitted from the surface of a highly
sensitive metal, with a given amount of light, than will be emitted from a less sen-
sitive substance.
Upon losing electrons, the photosensitive (light sensitive) metal becomes positive-
ly charged, and an electric force is created.
Voltage produced in this manner is referred to as "a photoelectric voltage".
The photosensitive materials most commonly used to produce a photoelectric volt-
age are various compounds of silver oxide or copper oxide.
A complete device which operates on a photoelectric principle is referred to as a
"photoelectric cell".
There are many sizes and types of photoelectric cells in use, each of which serves
the special purpose for which it was designed.
A photocell's power capacity is very small. However, it reacts to light-intensity var-
iations in an extremely short time.
This characteristic makes the photocell very useful in detecting or accurately con-
trolling a great number of processes or operations. 
For instance, the photoelectric cell, or some form of the photoelectric principle, is
used in television cameras, automatic manufacturing process controls, door open-
ers, burglar alarms, and so forth.
Lead Acid Cell Voltage:

Charged: 2.2 volt (approx.) 2.0 volt (nominal)
Construction of an Individual Cell
Discharged: 1.8 volt.
Plates Electrolyte:
These consist of grids made up of an alloy of lead and antimony. Charged: 1.260 ref. manufacturer's specification.
Electrolyte Discharged: 1.150
This is a solution of SULPHURIC ACID diluted with distilled water. Terminal Voltage:
It is essential that the level is maintained just above the top of the plates. Voltage will fall on load, the rate depends on the:
With excessive current the plates may be distorted and short out or shed plate ma- State of charge.
terial which forms a sediment at the bottom of the container. To prevent the plates
Internal resistance.
being shorted by the sediment the plates are raised clear of the container bottom.
A separator is fitted between the plates to prevent them coming into contact with Lead Acid Battery
each other. Such separators must have a high insulation and allow free circulation
of the electrolyte. This type of battery shown below contains two matched pairs of 12 volt cell blocks
connected in series. The cell blocks are made from a polystyrene material which
The Lead Acid Cell in Use is impervious to the electrolyte. It acts as an insulator and is shock resistant (heavy
landings).
The cell action that occurs as it charges and discharges is shown below:
The case is made of acid proofed aluminium.
From this we can see that RELATIVE DENSITY (RD) and VOLTAGE (V) are good
indicators of the state of charge of the cell. Electrical Connection
Lead Sulphate A quick release connector is used to prevent incorrect terminal connection.
This forms on both plates as the cell discharges and acts as an insulator. This re- Vent Plug
duces the effective area of plate. What effect will this have on the cell's output?
The cell's capacitance is decreased and the internal resistance is increased; so This is fitted to allow gasses produced by chemical action to escape without leak-
our cell's output deteriorates. age of electrolyte in normal aircraft manoeuvres.
Another problem of lead sulphate is that if left on the plate it sets like concrete and The area under the cover is used for ventilation of these gasses into the aircraft
charging cannot remove it. This is one of the reasons we never leave the lead acid battery venting system.
battery in a discharged state. Note, this chamber is quite separate from the cooling air circulating around the cell
blocks.
Fully Charged Cell
We now have the information to determine if our lead acid cell is charged, dis- Hydrometer
charged, or partially charged. The points we are looking for are: The purpose of a Hydrometer is to measure the RD (Relative Density) of the elec-
trolyte.
Relative Density is an interchangeable term for Specific Gravity.
Summary Figure 10:

The cell contains two dissimilar elements and an electrolyte.
A cell stores chemical energy and converts it to electrical energy.
A primary cell cannot be charged.
A secondary cell can be charged.
Cell voltage depends on electrode material and electrolyte.
Cell capacity is the amount of current a cell is capable of supplying - size of plates.
Cells in series increase the voltage.
Cells in parallel increase the capacity.
Alkaline Cells Electrolyte

In the past the Nickel Cadmium battery was at a disadvantage compared with the The electrolyte is a solution of POTASSIUM HYDROXIDE and either DISTILLED
lead acid battery, mainly due to cost. or DE-IONISED water.
Today's Nickel Cadmium battery is a different breed. The Relative Density (RD) is set by the manufacturer of the battery and is normally
It is reliable and though the initial cost is high, it's in-service life is long if maintained between 1.240 and 1.300.
correctly. It also has a greater performance. The RD is unaffected by the state of charge, i.e., the RD does not change as the
cell charges and discharges.
It will maintain an almost steady terminal voltage while discharging and can take
more punishment, high discharge current, without causing internal cell damage. Therefore the RD of the electrolyte is not a measure of the state of charge of the
cell.
In a lead acid cell, the electrolyte is an acid, with the alkaline cell the electrolyte is
an alkali. (Chemically, an exact opposite). The state of charge of the cell relates to the level of the electrolyte. The level
changes as the cell charges and discharges but should always cover the top of the
If ACID and ALKALI come into contact with each other they will neutralise each
plates.
other. Therefore, they must always be kept apart.
NOTE Contact with carbon dioxide, which is in the air, will reduce the RD of the
There are three basic types of alkaline cell: electrolyte.
• Nickel Cadmium (Ni/Cd)
• Nickel Iron (Ni/Fe) Cell Cap
• Silver Zinc The basic reason for any cell cap is to prevent foreign objects entering the cell, to
In today's aircraft Ni/Cd batteries have become the most preferred type of alkaline allow inspection or adjustment of the level of the electrolyte, and to permit gassing.
battery. Vent caps on the lead acid cell are free to gas at all times.
The Ni/Cd cell cannot have a fully open type vent cap due to carbon dioxide in the
Nickel Cadmium Cell Construction air. Carbon dioxide will contaminate the electrolyte and reduce the RD, therefore
The case of a single Ni/Cd cell and is made of a plastic/nylon material which allows the atmosphere must be kept out of the Ni/Cd cell.
for a slight expansion of the cell when fully charged. There are three basic types of cap for Ni/Cd cells:
It acts as an insulator between cells and is impervious to electrolyte. SEALED: The cell is completely sealed. Used on small capacity batteries, emer-
gency lighting circuits.
Cell Plates SEMI-SEALED: This cell is almost fully sealed but has a safety pressure valve.
The plates are manufactured by sintering a nickel powder around a wire screen.
SEMI-OPEN: It is fitted with an NRV (non return valve) allowing the cell to gas yet
Sintering means partial fusion under the influence of heat.
preventing the electrolyte from being contaminated by the air. Used as main air-
They are then impregnated with the active plate material, i.e. craft battery.
• POSITIVE PLATE - NICKEL A higher rate of gassing takes place when the cell is at a charged state. This rate
• NEGATIVE PLATE - CADMIUM of gassing can carry with it some of the water content of the electrolyte.
This type of plate construction allows the electrolyte to be absorbed which helps
increase the plate area.
Also, it does not suffer from 'shedding' under high discharge current.
Separator Charged State

An important part of the Ni/Cd cell construction is the separator. There is only one precise method to determine if a Ni/Cd cell is fully charged and
It consists of a triple layer, a cellophane film with a layer of woven nylon on either that is to fully discharge it at a measured rate against time. Any in-situ check on
side. The nylon acts as an insulator between the plates of opposite polarity. The the aircraft can only INDICATE the state of charge of a Ni/Cd battery.
cellophane film acts as a gas barrier to keep the oxygen, generated on the positive Figure 11:
plate while charging, from reaching the negative plate. If large quantities of oxygen
do reach the negative plate because of a damaged gas barrier, the cell will:
1. Lose voltage,
2. Increase temperature.
3. Decrease internal resistance.
4. Increase charge current.
This is known as THERMAL RUNAWAY.
Ni/Cd Charge/Discharge States

The action that occurs as a Ni/Cd cell discharges and charges is as follows:
Positive Plate
In its charged state has more hydroxide.
Negative Plate
In its discharged state it gains hydroxide.
These two statements show you that the plates do go through a chemical change
during discharge and charge.
Electrolyte
Note that the RD does not change during discharge and charge. It is the level that
changes, the plates absorb the electrolyte as the cell discharges, so the level falls.
The RD of the electrolyte varies for different batteries.
The actual value for a battery is stated in the manufacturer's instructions.
Cell Voltage NOTE:
The nominal voltage for a Ni/Cd cell is 1.2v. The charged and discharged voltages Rated Voltage: voltage at which an electrical equipment is designed to operate.
vary between manufacturers. Nominal Voltage: is the standard value that is used when referring to a voltage
level.
NOTE: Terminal Voltage: is the voltage at the terminals of an electrical device
During battery maintenance the cell is discharged down to zero volts.
Thermal Runaway A lead-acid battery can also enter thermal runaway, but does not enter this state
at such a rapid rate as the Ni/Cd battery.
Thermal runaway, perhaps more appropriately termed overcharge runaway, is a
condition of overcharge instability. Figure 12:
It occurs in the latter part of the charge cycle.
During a normal charge cycle, the heat generated by the charging current is dissi-
pated by the battery and the battery temperature does not rise appreciably.
As the Ni/Cd cell reaches it's charged state, higher gassing takes place.
If the cell temperature is permitted to rise higher, the internal resistance and the
voltage would fall.
If the internal resistance falls the charging current will increase which in turn caus-
es more heat.
This chain reaction effect builds up rapidly and leads to the destruction of the gas
barrier, then the cell, and finally a fire or even an explosion.
So thermal runaway takes place very rapidly and is a danger to aircraft.
Causes
Some of the causes of thermal runaway are:
1. Aircraft battery location, poor ventilation.
2. Higher than normal charging current.
3. Frequent or lengthy engine starts. (Electric starter).
4. Loose cell connection.
5. Low electrolyte.
6. Damaged gas barrier.
7. Unbalanced cells (see charging booklet).
Preventive Action
To prevent this dangerous situation from arising the following action is recom-
mended.
1. High Standard of Maintenance
2. Design - Battery location
3. Monitor charge current
4. Monitor battery temperature
Nickel Cadmium Battery Figure 13:

There are 20 cells connected in series in a Ni/Cd battery (1.2v x 20 = 24v). 
Also produced is a 19 cell battery and some with even 22 cells.
The 19 cell battery is not widely used. As the normal number of cells in a Ni/Cd
battery is 20, we will use this as our basic battery.
Construction of Ni/Cd Battery

The general construction details are shown in the figure below.
The case is of treated metal.
It contains 20 cells connected in series which are secured with plastic spacers,
side wedges, and retainers.
The battery main connector is a quick release type, which prevents incorrect con-
nection.
A removable lid is fitted on the case.
The case is vented to the aircraft or the battery venting system depending on air-
craft design.
Each battery has a data plate with leading particulars of the battery.
Temperature Sensor
With the danger of thermal runaway, it is important to monitor the battery temper-
ature.
For this reason a majority of Ni/Cd batteries have a small connector for tempera-
ture sensors.
The temperature can be monitored in two basic ways:
1. A temperature sensitive switch mounted inside the battery case: In an over-
heat condition operation of the switch will give a cockpit warning for the pilot
to carry out action, or automatically stop the charge.
2. A temperature sensor mounted between the cells: As the temperature rises
the charge is reduced or even stopped.
Emergency Lighting Batteries Capacity Test

Some of the types of cells used are:
Nominal Rating
1. Dry cell (primary)
Nominal rating is the manufacturers stated output of a new battery.
2. Ni/Cd cell (secondary). It is expressed in Ampere Hours (AH) and an hour rate.
Ampere Hour
Today's transport aircraft are fitted with emergency lighting units which contain:
A term used when talking about batteries is Ampere Hour (AH).
It is the discharge current of a fully charged battery multiplied by the time taken
a) (a) The battery pack, (sealed Ni/Cd cells) from the fully charged to the discharged state.
b) (b) Transistorised control circuit and a charging circuit. DISCHARGE CURRENT (AMPS) x DISCHARGE TIME (HOURS) = AH
e.g. A new 20AH at the 1 HOUR RATE battery with 20 amps flowing should take
While the aircraft normal supply is available the circuit controls the charge of the 1 hour to discharge.
battery of Ni/Cd cells.
When the aircraft supply fails, providing the flight deck switch arms the system, the 20 amps x 1 hour = 20AH or
emergency lights are automatically switched on.
10 amps x 2 hours = 20AH Hour Rate
The duration of this type of emergency battery is 20 minutes for a fully charged bat-
tery, and the charging time is 16 hours.
Figure 14:
Capacity Cross Contamination of Lead Acid and Ni/Cd Areas

It is required to understand the terms: If any particle from a LEAD ACID battery workshop comes into contact with an AL-
Nominal Rating KALINE battery, or any particle from an ALKALINE battery workshop contacts a
Ampere Hour LEAD ACID battery, the electrolyte becomes contaminated.
Hour Rate Therefore, the L/A and Ni/Cd batteries with their maintenance equipment must al-
ways be kept apart.
to be able to talk about the CAPACITY of a battery.
This is achieved by:
The Nominal Rating gives a rated output but this only applies to a new battery.
1. Having separate charging rooms.
After the battery enters service, it's ability to deliver the Nominal Rating decreases
until eventually it must be withdrawn from service. 2. Not transferring equipment from one workshop to the other.
To measure the CAPACITY of a battery it must be fully charged and then dis- 3. Clearly identifying the equipment and areas with notices, 
charged at its continuous current rating and at the same time recording the time e.g. ACID ONLY, ALKALINE ONLY
(in hours) it takes to reach the discharged state.
Hazards Associated With Industrial Batteries
For Example • Hydrogen Gas
A battery is rated at 20 AH at the 1 Hour Rate. • Sulfuric Acid
Record the time in hours from fully charged to discharged, assume 48 minutes. • Shock
Discharge at a continuous 20 amps. • Weight of the Battery
ACTUAL(Ah) 100 Hydrogen Gas

CAPACITY= ----------------------------------- x ---------
RATED(Ah) 1 • A by-product of the battery’s charging process.
• Lighter than air.
20  48- 100 • Flammable in nature.
-----------------  --------- • Explosive mixture at 4 – 74% by volume of air.
20  60 1
• Can not taste or see the gas vapors. You can smell the acid in the battery if it
heats up.
This battery therefore has a capacity of 80%. Acid Hazards
Therefore it is 80% of the nominal rating, so the battery will now only give:
• Ph <2 (Typically Sulfuric Acid)
80% of 20 AH = 16 AH • Corrosive material
• Burns to skin
• Burns to eyes
• Never open the battery caps with your face directly over the battery.
Electrical Hazard Handling Battery Acid

• Exposed terminals, even on disconnected batteries, present an electrical • Use extreme caution when handling electrolyte and keep an acid neutralizing
shock hazard. solution, such as baking soda readily available.
• Some battery systems are capable of discharging at extremely high rates of • Always wear proper eye, face and hand protection.
current. Accidental shorting of terminals or cables can result in severe electri- • Use non-metallic containers to handle liquid.
cal arcing, causing burns and electric shock to nearby personnel. • If the electrolyte is splashed into an eye, immediately force the eye open and
flood it with clean, cool water for at least 15 minutes. Get prompt medical at-
Electrical Safety Precautions tention.
• Never touch both battery terminals with your bare hands at the same time! • If electrolyte is taken internally, drink large quantities of water or milk. DO NOT
• Remove rings, watches and dangling jewelry when working with or near bat- induce vomiting. Call a physician immediately.
teries. The metal in the jewelry can cause a shock or burn if they contact the • Neutralize with baking soda any electrolyte that spills on a vehicle or in the
battery terminals. work area. After neutralizing, rinse contaminated area clean with water.
• Only use insulated/non-conducting tools to remove cell caps. Never lay tools • To prepare electrolyte of a desired specific gravity, always pour the concen-
or other metal parts on top of a battery. trated acid slowly into the water; DO NOT pour water into the acid. Always stir
• Consider covering battery terminals and connectors if possible with an insu- the water while adding small amounts of acid. If noticeable heat develops, al-
lating blanket before overhead inspections or repairs. low the solution to cool before continuing to add acid.
• Ensure charger is turned off before connecting or disconnecting a battery to
prevent arcing.
Fire and Explosion Precautions

• Do not smoke in battery charging areas.
• Prevent open flames, sparks or electric arcs in battery charging areas.
• Do not strike the sides of the battery with any spark producing item.
• Keep tools and other metallic objects away from uncovered batteries.
• Have an ABC dry chemical fire extinguisher in charging areas or readily avail-
able
• Neutralize static buildup just before working on battery by contacting nearest
grounded surface.
• Ensure battery area ventilation is operating prior to working on.
PROTECTIVE CLOTHING Requirements for Electrolyte Safety Eye Wash & Shower Requirements
Handling • An eyewash facility should be capable of flushing both eyes simultaneously
PPE Requirements: for fifteen minutes and a water hose or safety shower that, if portable, is ca-
• Safety Glasses/goggles pable of drenching the body.
• Rubber Gloves • Eyewash and drenching facilities are to be located as close to the point of ex-
posure as possible of battery handling areas (not to exceed 25 ft.) (OSHA)
• Face Shield
• If Acid comes in contact with eyes, flush for 15 minutes and report to medical
• Chemical Apron immediately.
• Boots • If acid comes in contact with skin or clothing, rinse off for several minutes and
Figure 15: try not to spread the electrolyte. Report to medical after rinsing.
Figure 16:
Training Manual 3.13 AC Theory
3.13 AC Theory
AC Theory Introduction Figure 1:

Alternating current, or AC is current which flows first in one direction and then in
the other at regular intervals.
The diagram below shows the conventional current flow (positive to negative)
'downwards' through the resistor. If we reversed the connections to the battery (Di-
agram below) the current would flow 'upwards' through the resistor.
If we continue to reverse the connections at regular intervals with a device such as
a changeover switch, we would produce a type of AC.
Assume the changeover switch is operated at 2 second intervals and that the
changeover can occur instantly.
Draw graphs, on the axes provided (bottom diagram below), of how you think the
voltage and current will vary with time. Remember the battery voltage (3V) and the
resistance value (1).
Graphs, which show how current or voltage varies over a period of time, are known
as waveforms.
The Elementary Generator With the loop moving in this direction (black down, white up) we are assuming the
polarity of the generated voltage to be positive.
The elementary generator utilises the principle that electricity is produced when-
ever a conductor passes through a magnetic field. Finish the diagram below by drawing in the remainder of the waveform for a com-
As the armature loop rotates, electricity is produced. plete revolution of the loop.
This is 'picked up' by contact between the slip rings and brushes and passed to the Keep in mind that between positions C and D, the white part of the loop will be
external circuit. moving downwards and the black part upwards, different from when the loop was
The 'center zero' meter can then be used to monitor output at each stage. moving between A and B.
Also keep in mind that between positions D and A, the white part of the loop will
The diagram below shows the armature loop in various positions; the remainder of
be moving downwards and the black part moving upwards.
the generator's components has been left out for clarity.
Between B and C the generated voltage is reducing, until at C it reduces to zero.
Assume the armature loop rotates clockwise within the magnetic field. In position
A both the black and white parts of the loop are moving parallel to the magnetic This is because at this point no field is being cut.
field, it doesn't cut through it, so no voltage is generated. Between C and D the voltage increases in a negative direction and by the time it
As the loop rotates towards position B (90 later) maximum voltage is generated. returns to position A reduces again to zero.
Notice that the black part of the loop is moving downwards through the field and The name we give to this kind of waveform is a SINE WAVE.
the white part is moving upward.
Figure 2:
N S N S N S N S
Electron Electron
Flow Flow
A Generator B C D
Terminal Voltage A B C D E
+
Generator
Terminal 0 180˚ 270˚ 360˚
0˚ 90˚
Voltage
-
Period Figure 3:
When you are analysing an AC sine wave, it is often necessary to know exactly
how much time is required to generate one complete cycle. The time required to
produce one complete cycle is called the period of the waveform.
The period of a sine wave is shown in the fig below.
The period is usual measured in seconds although other units of time can be used.
Furthermore, the period is often represented by the letter T as shown.
If a generator produces 1 cycle of output voltage in 1 second, the output sine wave
has a period of 1 second. However, if 4 cycles are produced in 1 second, the out-
put sine wave will have a period of ¼ of a second (T = 0.25 seconds). It is important
to remember, that the period is the time of one cycle, and not the total time required
to generate a given number of cycles.
Time of a cycle is also expressed in angular notation. Remember that an armature
is rotated through 360 degrees, to produce a complete sine wave. The output volt-
age started at zero and increased to maximum at 90 degrees. This portion is equal
to ¼ of one revolution. From maximum back to zero completes one alternation,
which is ½ of one cycle. The other ½ cycle is the other alteration.
Angular motion is measured in radians. A radian is approximately 57.3 degrees.
A circle (360 degrees) contains exactly 2 radians.
The Cycle Figure 4:

When the loop of our elementary generator rotated through 360 degrees, the gen-
erated voltage and current completed one cycle.
In other words, a cycle is a complete set of positive and negative values.
Frequency
The frequency of an alternating current or voltage is a measure of the number of
cycles that occur in 1 second of time.
In mathematical terms this is:
A frequency of one cycle per second is known as 1 HERTZ (Hz).
Frequency is the reciprocal of time. This relationship is shown in the following
equation:
F = 1/T
The diagram below shows 25 cycles occurring in half a second.
What is the frequency of the waveform?
This value of 50 Hz is interesting in that it is the standard frequency of the domestic

electricity supply.
The standard frequency for aircraft electrical supplies is 400 Hz.
Frequency Ranges
Frequencies that range from just a few hertz to many millions of hertz are widely
used in the electronics industry.
As mentioned before 50 hz is the standard frequency of the domestic electricity
supply, but in many electronic applications, much higher frequencies are required.
This is because high frequencies are needed to carry information or intelligence.
The higher frequencies are easier to convert into electromagnetic (radio) waves.
The higher frequencies can be transmitted more easily over long distances.
Mechanical AC generators cannot produce these higher frequencies. Mechanical
generators cannot rotate at the very high speeds required to produce frequencies
such as 10Khz.
To produce a frequency equal to 10Khz requires a waveform with a period of (1
divided by 10,000).
The generator would have to turn at the rate of 600,000 revolutions per minute
(RPM).
Therefore, electronic generators are used to produce the required frequencies
which would be necessary.
Electronic circuits do not require moving parts and are easily capable of producing
frequencies many times greater than 10Khz.
When working with frequencies that extend up to many million of hertz, you must
work with very large numbers.
However, these large numbers can be reduced to a manageable size by using var-
ious metric prefixes and position notation (powers of ten).
The metric prefixes most commonly used for this purpose are defined in the table
shown.
Max or Peak Value RMS values are the ones most usually quoted when values of alternating current
or voltage are being referred to.
The maximum value of a waveform is the highest value it reaches in either a pos- Maximum values are used when the amount of conductor insulation required for
itive or negative direction. If we compare the two waveforms in the diagram below electrical equipment is being considered.
we can see that the DC is at a maximum whenever it is switched on, whereas the
AC is at maximum only once per half cycle. All the other instantaneous values are Figure 5: Sine Wave
less than peak values.
Peak to Peak Value

This value is twice the maximum value since it is measured between maximum
positive and maximum negative (See Peak to Peak Value diagram).
Effective or RMS Value

The EFFECTIVE value of a sine wave is usually referred to as the RMS or ROOT
MEAN SQUARE value. This refers to the mathematical process used to find the
value.
Simply, it is the amount of heat that a particular current can produce in a circuit,
provides a convenient method of finding the effective or RMS value.
If a DC current of 1 amp flows through a resistor to raise its temperature by 
100° C, a sine wave AC of maximum value 1 amp would only raise its temperature
by 70.7 °C.
From this we can see that the sine wave AC. is only 0.707 times as effective as
the 1 amp DC. This is the AC maximum value.
Therefore: I RMS= 0.707 x I PEAK
Or: I PEAK = I RMS / 0.707

= I RMS x 1.414
In this instance we have quoted the RMS value with respect to current I.
The same would apply to voltage.
VRMS = VPEAK x 0.707
AC Meters bled. When a DC meter is used with a rectifier network to measure AC values, the
meter deflection depends on the average value.
Most DC meters use a basic moving coil movement and are polarity sensitive.
Positive must be connected to positive and negative to negative. This now takes us back to values associated with alternating currents.
If we used a DC meter to measure an AC value without modifying it, the movement
Figure 7: Half Wave Rectification
would first turn in one direction and then the other on alternate half cycles.
This could damage the meter (Diagram below). To modify DC meters to measure
AC, we could use a device known as a rectifier.
Figure 6: AC Meter
Figure 8: Full Wave Rectification
Rectifiers
A rectifier allows a conventional current flow in one direction only, so if we applied
an alternating current to a rectifier it would conduct on alternate half cycles.
The rectifier allows conventional current flow in the direction of the arrow.
A simple meter rectifier circuit, shown below, consists of a rectifier and basic meter
movement connected in series.
For one half-cycle, current flows through the meter circuit.
During the next half-cycle, no current flows, although a voltage exists across the
circuit, including the rectifier.
This is called half wave rectification.
It is more usual to use full wave rectification for modifying AC meter to read AC
values.
A bridge circuit using four rectifiers can be used (Diagram below).
It is so connected that both halves of the AC current wave must follow paths that
lead through the meter in the same direction.
Thus, the number of current pulses flowing through the meter movement is dou-
Average Value
The average value of an alternating current is obtained by averaging all the instan-
taneous values over half a cycle.
The average value of a half cycle of sine wave AC is 0.637 of the maximum value.
VAVERAGE = VPEAK x 0.637
Although the meter deflection depends on average values, the scales are normally
calibrated in RMS.
So bear in mind whenever a DC Meter is used to measure AC values with a recti-

fier network, the Meter responds to average values but is calibrated to read RMS.
The last topic we are going to look at is the relationship between RMS and average
values.
For a DC waveform the average value will of course be the same as the maximum
value.
Figure 9: Sine Wave
Types of AC Waveforms Triangular waves are used as electronic signals and are seldom used to provide
electrical power.
Although the sine wave is the most basic and widely used AC waveform, it is not
the only type of waveform that is used in electronics. Figure 10: Periodic Waveforms
In fact, many different types of AC waveforms are used and these waveforms may
have very simple or extremely complex shapes.
The Square Wave

The fig below shows two different types of non-sinusoidal waveforms, which rep-
resent either current or voltage. In each case, only one cycle of the waveform is
shown. Waveform fig (a) is commonly referred to as a square wave. The name
was selected because its positive and negative alternations are square in shape.
The square shape of each alternation indicates that the voltage, or current, imme-
diately increases to its maximum or peak value, at one polarity and remains there
throughout that alternation. Then the voltage waveform immediately changes its
polarity, or the current waveform reverses its direction. Notice that the waveform
jumps to a peak value almost instantly, and remains there for the duration of the
second alternation. When continuous train of these square waves is produced, the
voltage or current simply continues to fluctuate back and forth between its peak
values.
Not all square waves are symmetrical, as shown in fig (a).
In some cases, the positive half may be wider or narrower (longer or shorter time
duration) than the negative half.
Also, some square waves may have a positive peak value that is higher or lower
(amplitude variations), than its negative peak value.
Although electrical power can be generated as square waves, the square wave is
more useful as an electronic signal. The square wave is used to represent elec-
tronic data because its characteristics can be easily varied.
The Triangular Wave

The waveform shown in fig (b) is called triangular wave because its positive and
negative alternations are triangular in shape.
Notice that during the positive alternation the waveform rises at a linear rate from
zero to a peak value and then decreases linearly back to zero.
Then, on the negative alternation its polarity, or direction, reverses.
Triangular waves may have peak values that are higher or lower than those shown
in fig (b).
In other words, the positive and negative alternations may not always form a per-
fect triangle which has three equal sides.
The Wattmeter Wattmeter Operation

Whilst power may be calculated from the measured RMS values of V and I in AC Wattmeters are not constructed with a basic moving coil meter movement.
circuits containing only resistance, it can also be measured directly with a wattme- Instead, they use what is known as a dynamometer-type movement. This differs
ter. from the moving coil meter in that it does not have a permanent magnet to provide
Wattmeters are not used as commonly as voltmeters, ammeters and ohmmeters a fixed magnetic field.
- but in order to learn more about AC circuits we will need to discuss them. The field in this meter is obtained from field coils.
These are two coils of wire, one placed opposite to the other, just like the perma-
The wattmeter looks very much like any other type of meter, except that the scale nent magnet poles in a moving coil meter.
is calibrated in watts and it has four terminals instead of the usual two, as shown
in Diagram below. These field coils are connected in series across the wattmeter current terminals so
There are two 'voltage terminals' and two 'current terminals'. that all the circuit current flows through the coils when a measurement is being tak-
The voltage terminals are connected across the circuit just like a voltmeter, whilst en.
the current terminals are connected in series just like an ammeter. A large circuit current provides a strong magnetic field, whilst a small current pro-
vides a weak magnetic field.
Two of the terminals, one a voltage terminal and one a current terminal, are- The strength of the magnetic field provided by the current coils will of course de-
marked (). pend on circuit current.
When using the wattmeter, these two terminals must always be connected to the
The wattmeter reading will vary as circuit current varies.
same point in the circuit. So, for a fixed voltage, the meter pointer deflection will be large for a large current
This is usually done by connecting them together directly at the meter terminals. and small for a small current.
For measuring either AC or DC power, this common junction is connected to one
side of the power line. Figure 12:
The voltage terminal (V) is then connected to the opposite side of the power line.
The current terminal (A) is connected to the power-consuming load resistance.
(Diagram below).
Figure 11:
The moving coil in a wattmeter is similar to that of a basic moving coil meter and Figure 13:
is connected in series with an internal multiplier resistor to the VOLTAGE terminals
of the wattmeter.
The voltage terminals are connected across the circuit just like a voltmeter.
The multiplier resistor limits the current flow through the moving coil. Because the
resistance of the multiplier is fixed, the amount of current flow through it, and
through the moving coil, will depend on circuit voltage.
The lower the voltage, the lower the current flow through the multiplier and moving
coil and therefore the weaker the magnetic field.
This produces a small turning force.
The higher the voltage, the higher the current flow and therefore the stronger the
magnetic field.
This leads to a large turning force.
Therefore the meter reading depends on both the circuit current and the circuit
voltage and will vary if either changes.
Since power depends on both voltage and current the meter measures power.
Figure 14:
It would appear that the same wattmeter could be used to measure power in both
AC and DC circuits.
Because of design problems, meters are usually made to measure either AC or
DC power.
This type of wattmeter can only be used in circuits where the frequency does not
exceed 120 Hz.
Three Phase Systems Generation of a Three Phase Output

The fig below shows three similar loops placed 120 degrees apart.
A single loop generator provides a single-phase output. If further loops and slip
rings are added, then a generator with multiphase outputs can be constructed. Air- Each of the loops has a pair of slip rings to "pick off" the generated EMF's. The slip
craft and industrial generators generally have three phase outputs. rings are not shown for the sake of clarity.
Three phase power generation is advantageous for the following reasons: The three loops have been positioned to rotate within the magnetic field produced
by the permanent magnet.
1. A three phase generator produces a higher output than a similar size single
phase generator.
2. To transmit the same amount of power at the same voltage over the same dis- The phases are normally identified A, B, and C, and are normally colour coded red,
tance, requires less conductor material than a single phase system. yellow and blue respectively.
3. Three phase motors can be used. These have high, uniform torque and can The loops in the diagram have been identified RR1, YY1 and BB1 corresponding
be self-starting. with colour codes red, yellow and blue.
4. Three phase generators can operate in parallel with little difficulty. The 1 suffix identifies the 'Start' part of the loop.
5. Two voltages can be made available. Assume that when the EMF direction is from 'Start' to 'finish' the EMF is positive
and when the EMF direction is from 'finish' to 'Start' it is negative.
By using three loops in the rotor of the elementary generator shown below a simple
three-phase generator is created. The three loops have been symmetrically
placed 120 degrees apart. In a simple three-phase generator each loop would Assume the loop is rotating anti-clockwise within the magnetic field. With RR1, in
have its own pair of slip rings. the Start position shown (0 degrees), no EMF is produced.
Slip rings are omitted from this diagram for clarity.
Figure 15: Generation of a 3-Phase Output Having rotated through 90 degrees the EMF will have built up to a maximum.
Once the loop travels through one revolution, a full cycle will have been completed,
as shown by the solid line waveform.
Since all three loops are turning together the YY1 and the BB1 loops will each
have produced their own waveforms, but the YY1 EMF will lag the RR1 EMF by
120 degrees.
Similarly the BB1 EMF will lag the YY1 EMF by 120 degrees.
Sum of the Instantaneous EMF's is Zero

Fig. below shows that at any instant, the sum of the EMF's of the three phases is
zero. At time P for instance, PL = PM + PN.
If you measured PM and PN and added their lengths together you would see that
this equalled the length of PL.
Since PM and PN are both negative and PL is positive the resultant instantaneous
EMF will be zero.
If the three phase generator was connected to a 'balanced load', or in other words
a load offering the same opposition to current flow for each phase, then the sum
of the instantaneous currents would also be zero.
Figure 16: 3-Phase Output
Star and Delta Connections Figure 17: Y Stator

In a practical three-phase generator, windings are used instead of a single loop
and the number of slip rings can be reduced from six, by using the methods of con-
nection shown in figures below.
Delta or Mesh Connection

One method of connecting the windings is shown below.
This is known as 'mesh' or 'Delta' connection.
The number of slip rings is reduced to three by connecting the 'Start' end of the
winding to the 'finish' end of the next winding.
The phase currents IP flow through each individual phase and line currents IL flow
in each output line.
Three Wire Star or 'Y' Connection

The fig below shows the three windings connected in the form of a Star or 'Y'.
In this case all the 'Start' ends of the windings are connected together at what is
known as the 'Star' or 'Neutral' point.
This method of connection is known as a 'three wire' method.
Four Wire Star or 'Y' Connection

Another method of Star connection is to use four wires connected as shown in fig
below. Figure 18: Delta Stator
This method has the advantage of making two different voltages available.
These are: VPHASE and VLINE
The voltage across a single phase, known as the phase voltage VP. The voltage
across two phases known as the line voltage VL.
Modern commercial aircraft power systems normally use three phase generators.
These are usually arranged as four wire systems with the Star point earthed or
grounded.
The aircraft structure would then act as the fourth wire.
Three phase loads such as components containing three phase motors would nor-
mally be connected to the three phases of the generator busbar.
Single-phase loads would be connected to one of the phases of the busbar.
The distribution of the single-phase loads across the three phases is normally ar-
ranged for an overall 'balance'.
Line & Phase Voltages & Currents for Star Connected Systems Figure 19:
The line and phase currents are one and the same. Therefore, for a Star connect-
ed system:
IL = IP
To examine the relationship between line and phase voltages for a 'balanced' sys-
tem it is necessary to construct a vector diagram of the circuit below.
The phases are identified simply as A, B and C.
VA represents the voltage across the A phase and VAB represents the voltage
across the A and B lines.
The relationships between VB, VC and their respective line voltages will be identi-
cal.
The vector VA , VB and VC represent the individual phase voltages.
To find the line voltage VAB, which is the vector difference of VA and VB it is re-
quired to draw in a 'dotted VB vector, equal and opposite to the solid one. This will
create an angle of 60 degrees between VA and our dotted VB vector as shown be-
low. Line & Phase Voltages & Currents for Star Connected Systems.
If now the diagonal is completed by drawing a parallelogram, the diagonal will rep-
resent VAB.
The diagonal has split the 60 degree angle into two equal 30 degree angles as
shown below.
The dotted line drawn between the ends of VB and VA would cut VAB exactly in
half.
Half VAB forms one side of a right-angled triangle.
Therefore:
V AB = 3  VA
We can therefore say for a Star connected system:
VL = 3  VP
Line & Phase Voltages & Currents for Delta Connected Systems Summary of Relationships between Currents and Voltages in
In the fig below the line and phase voltages are one and the same. Therefore, for Star and Delta 'Balanced' Systems
a Delta connected system:
In Star connected systems:
VL = VP
IL = IP
To examine the relationship between line and phase currents for a 'balanced' sys-
tem it is required to construct a vector diagram for the circuit shown below.
The phases are identified as A, B and C. IA, IB and IC represent the individual
VL = 3  VP
phase currents.
The line current for phase A will be a combination of IA and IB.
The line currents for B and C will be combinations of IB and IC and IA and IC re-
spectively. In Delta connected systems:
Figure 20: Delta Connected System

VL = VP
IL= 3⋅IP
Exercise
An aircraft generator has a line to line voltage of 200 volts.
What is its phase voltage?
Comments on Exercise
Modern aircraft generators normally are Star connected, so we have to use the for-
mula for a Star connected system.
VL = 3  Vp
therefore
VL
V P = -------
3
In this case:
200
V P = ---------  115volts
3
Training Manual
Study Questions
3.01 Electron Theory 4. What is a molecule?
1. What is an element? Answer:
Answer:
5. What is an ion?
2. What is a compound? Answer:
Answer:
6. How many electrons can take place in the valence shell?

3. Which are the parts of an atom? Answer:
Answer:
7. Which parts of the atom belong to the nucleus?
Answer:
Copyright by SR Technics For training purposes only Cat: A 3.Study Questions - 1
Training Manual
8. Which forces are holding an electron in balance? 12. Which is the direction of the conventional flow?
Answer: Answer:
13. What is the definition of electromotive force?

3.02 Static Electricity and Conduction
9. The Coulomb's law states: Answer:
Answer:
14. How much is 1 Ampere (in Coulomb)?
10. What is the term for electrostatic charging by friction? Answer:
Answer:
15. What is the unit of EMF?
Answer:
3.03 Electrical Terminology
11. Which is the direction of the electron flow?
Answer:
Training Manual
16. Which factors will affect the resistance value? 20. Which are, in aviation, the most used thermocouples materials?
Answer: Answer:
17. There is a current of 40 mA in a lamp for 16 s. Calculate the quantity of charge 21. What kinds of compounds are used to produce a photoelectric voltage?
that passes any point in the circuit in this time. Answer:
Answer:
22. Which electrolyte is used in a lead acid battery?
3.04 Generation of Electricity Answer:
18. Which are the common methods to produce EMF?
Answer:
23. What is the most used method to produce electrical power?
Answer:
19. Which materials are used to produce piezoelectricity?
Answer:
Training Manual
3.05 DC Sources of Electricity 28. What will be increased if cells are connected in parallel?
24. Which are the differences between primary and secondary cells? Answer:
Answer:
29. What will be increased if cells are connected in series?

25. Which is the nominal voltage of a lead acid cell? Answer:
Answer:
30. On which AC systems are thermocouples used?

26. Which is the nominal voltage of a nickel cadmium cell? Answer:
Answer:
31. What is the electrolyte in a nickel cadmium cell?

27. The cell capacity depends on? Answer:
Answer:
Training Manual
32. On which battery is the relative density a state of charge indication? 36. Which is the operation time of an emergency battery?
Answer: Answer:
33. What is the meaning of thermal runaway? 37. A 30 AH battery will be discharge in 50 minutes. Which is the capacity of the
Answer: battery?
Answer:
34. Which causes can produce a thermal runaway?
Answer: 38. Which tool is used to measure the relative density of the electrolyte?
Answer:
3.13 AC Theory
39. How is the waveform of the voltage in an AC circuit called?
35. How can a thermal runaway be prevented?
Answer:
Answer:
Training Manual
40. How is the time, required to produce one complete cycle, called? 44. What is the Peak to Peak value?
Answer: Answer:
41. What is frequency? 45. What is the RMS value?
Answer: Answer:
42. What is the unit of frequency? 46. What is the Average value?
Answer: Answer:
43. What is the Peak value? 47. Name all types of Waveforms.
Answer: Answer:
Training Manual
48. Name the advantages of a three phase system?
Answer:
49. Which is the phase shifting of a three phase system?
Answer:
50. What is the advantage of a four wire star connection?
Answer:
51. An aircraft has a line to line voltage of 300 volts. What is the phase voltage?
Answer:
Training Manual

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Basic Maintenance Module 3 Electrical Fundamentals

Training Manual Contents

3.1 Electron Theory Voltage Produced by Chemical Action . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

3.1 Electron Theory

Elements and Compounds

Figure 1: Periodic Table of the Elements

NOTE: Atomic Number is equal to the amount of protons. EXAMPLE: AG = 47 Protons

Electrons, Protons and Neutrons

BOHR Model of the Atom

The Difference between Elements Figure 5: Carbon

The Balanced Atom

3.2 Static Electricity and Conduction

This is called the force of attraction an electrostatic force.

Laws of Electrical Charges Figure 2:

Quite simply, Coulomb's Law states:

1. Like charges repel.

2. Unlike charges attract.

Laws of Electrical Charges Figure 4:

F = the force of attraction between unlike charges or the force of repulsion

3.3 Electrical Terminology

Potential Difference Figure 1:

Electromotive Force Figure 4:

The main sources of EMF are:

1. when electrodes of dissimilar materials are immersed in an electrolyte, as in

In Figure 4, the EMF causes electrons to flow in a closed circuit. Figure 5:

Factors Affecting Resistance Figure 7:

Cross sectional Area

The letter G is used to represent conductance, so the equation can be written:

The unit of conductance is the Siemens.

Conventional Current Flow

3.4 Generation of Electricity

Primary Methods of Generation Voltage Produced by Friction

Voltage Produced by Pressure Figure 4:

Voltage Produced by Heat Figure 6: Thermocouples

1. Chromel and Alumel

Voltage Produced by Light Figure 7:

It has changed chemically from iron to iron oxide, or rust.

Magnetism and Motion Figure 9:

3.5 DC Sources of Electricity

Introduction Figure 1: Electrical Cell

Primary Cell Figure 3: Secondary Cell

Electrical Output of a Cell Cells - Series and Parallel

1. Chromel and Alumel

Photocells Figure 9: Photocell

Lead Acid Cell Voltage:

Summary Figure 10:

Alkaline Cells Electrolyte

Separator Charged State

Ni/Cd Charge/Discharge States

Nickel Cadmium Battery Figure 13:

Construction of Ni/Cd Battery

Emergency Lighting Batteries Capacity Test

Capacity Cross Contamination of Lead Acid and Ni/Cd Areas

ACTUAL(Ah) 100 Hydrogen Gas

Electrical Hazard Handling Battery Acid

Fire and Explosion Precautions

AC Theory Introduction Figure 1:

The Cycle Figure 4:

The diagram below shows 25 cycles occurring in half a second.

What is the frequency of the waveform?

This value of 50 Hz is interesting in that it is the standard frequency of the domestic

Peak to Peak Value

Effective or RMS Value