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COMPARE & CONTRAST THE BELIEF IN SUPERNATURAL POWERS AND

WITCHCRAFT PRACTICE IN EUROPE & AMERICA TO THE 1940’S – 1960S IN

GOLD COAST AND WHY THE PRACTICE STILL PERSISTS IN GHANA

INTRODUCTION

Through out human existence, there have been diverse views on the causes of abnormal

behaviour or what psychologists now call mental illness. Theories developed to explain

these behaviours have been mystical (supernatural), scientific (medical), or humanitarian

in nature. The mystical explanations have regarded abnormal behaviour as a result of

possession by spirits; the scientific approach by natural causes such as: biological

imbalances, faulty learning processes such as Freud’s ‘wish fulfilment’, (thought to be

recollections of repressed memories of sexual abuse but currently considered by Freud’s

critics as actual occurrences), or emotional stressors and the humanitarian approach as a

result of cruelty, trauma or, poor living conditions. These differing etiological theories

have had influence on the treatment of those with psychological disorders.

BACKGROUND

In the Palaeolithic era, there was little distinction between medicine, magic and religion.

Religious priests for example were healers and in some civilisations (ancient Egypt and

the Aztecs) astronomers and engineers. Their roles therefore unified religion, mysticism

and science. It is clear also in many literary works of antiquity like Homer’s Iliad that the

great civilizations of the past were great believers in mystical causalities.

EUROPE, AMERICA
In the course of time, the theories on the causes of abnormality, occasioned by the

maturing of science and religion as independent bodies of knowledge, also grew to be

distinct and subsequently at odds with each other. Greek philosopher Hippocrates

developed a theory of the “four humours” being responsible for physical and mental

health. Hippocrates further classified forms of abnormality. Plato and Aristotle followed

in his stead. Some other Greeks and Romans notable among them Asclepiades also

developed treatments based on more scientific (medical) approaches than the

philosophical one.

THE MIDDLE AGES

The middle ages, up to the beginning of the era of the renaissance, marked a period

during which mystical beliefs in spiritual causes of abnormality resurfaced dragging

scientific advancements up to that point back into oblivion. Here again, religious

influences fuelled these beliefs as The Hammer of Witches (Malleus Maleficarum) was

published by two Inquisitors of the Catholic Church in 1486 to challenge all arguments

against the existence of witchcraft and to instruct magistrates on how to identify,

interrogate and convict witches. This book was widely circulated throughout Europe and

in America. The result was widespread acceptance of mystical causes of abnormal

behaviour where sufferers were believed to participate in forbidden practices with the

devil, sorcerers, or other demons. Witch hunts then began as a way of purging evil from

among the population.

GHANA

Ghana’s traditional belief systems have adhered to superstition and the supernatural in

explaining all phenomena. This is largely because here too, religion plays a key role in
the lives of the people. Beliefs in ‘powers’ outside of oneself that are able to influence

events and ones circumstance have led to people seeking unscientific explanations to

abnormalities in their lives. These beliefs have triggered ‘treatments’ such as: the

deliverance culture, the Tigari phenomenon and the Gambaga witch camp.

SIMILARITIES – EUROPE, AMERICA & GHANA

Among the similarities common to the mystical beliefs in abnormality in both Europe and

Ghana include the presence of a number of social learning variables responsible for:

Indoctrination of supernatural belief systems- This was further reinforced as those

who spoke out against these practices were more likely to be ‘punished’ for their

divergent views. Additionally, the methods of torture used in both instances were almost

certainly guaranteed (coupled with learned explanations and expectations of the

operations of witches) to result in shocking confessions. In the middle ages, torture, sleep

deprivation, deceit, hunger and tremendous social pressures were used to elicit

confessions from those branded as witches. The use of crocodile bile (a hallucinogen) by

the Tigari as well was an effective means of extracting confessions from the Tigari’s

‘witches’.

Interactions between Social Stress and external locus of control - Social

disorganisation according to Leighton et al (1961; 1963) could result in a high degree of

psychopathology in a society undergoing social change. The Middle Ages, as well as the

early 1940s, were periods of rapid social change. Pestilence, war and famine ravaged

Europe while colonialism and the breakdown of the extended family system, resulted in

an increase in social stress and unrest. The belief in external powers of evil influence,
reflecting Bandura’s external locus of control made people attack ‘witches’ to resolve

these problems.

WHY THESE PRACTICES STILL PERSISTS IN GHANA

Belief systems – Danquah surmises that, “the concept of aetiology of mental illness or

psychological disorders among Ghanaians, is still profoundly rooted in ubiquitous socio-

cultural factors.” These factors include “cultural beliefs such as evil machination of the

enemy through witchcraft and other cosmic forces (Lambo, 1962; Field, 1960; Erinosho,

1977a, b). People experiencing symptoms of psychopathology are more likely therefore

to visit spiritual healers than mental health professionals.

Scarcity of mental health workers –The number of mental health workers across Ghana

has always been low. As at March 1982, there were only 9 practicing psychiatrists in the

country (Danquah 1982). This has caused a vacuum in the area of mental health treatment

which has been capitalised upon by spiritualists who promote supernatural explanations

as the cause of these illnesses.

REFERENCES

Danquah S. A. (1982) Journal of behaviour therapy and experimental psychiatry,

Pergamon Press

Leighton A. H. et al (1963) The character of Danger, Basic Books, New York

Field J. M. (1960) Search for Security: An Anthropopsychiatric Study of Rural Ghana.

Faber and Faber, London

Lambo T.A. (1964) Patterns of psychiatric care in developing African countries. In Ari

Kiev (Ed.) Ibid