1. What is an amplifier? What does the term “amplify” mean? Explain.

An amplifier, electronic amplifier or (informally) amp is an electronic device that can increase
the power of a signal (a time-varying voltage or current). An amplifier uses electric power from a power
supply to increase the amplitude of a signal. The amount of amplification provided by an amplifier is
measured by its gain: the ratio of output voltage, current, or power to input. An amplifier is a circuit that
has a power gain greater than one.

The term “amplify” means to increase or magnify the amplitude of (an electrical signal or other
oscillation).

2. How does an Op-Amp work? Explain.

Working Principle of Op Amp:

This working principle can be better analysed based on the connections that are possible with op-amp.

A. Open Loop Operation:

The term open loop indicates that no connection exists between input and output terminals of
any type. That is, the output signal is not fed back in any form as part of the input signal. An op-amp has
a differential input and single ended output. So, if two signals are applied one at the inverting and
another at the non-inverting terminal, then an ideal op-amp will amplify the difference of the two
applied input signals applied. The difference of the two applied input signals is called as differential
input voltage. The output of an op-amp is given by the equation:

V0: Voltage at the output terminal of the op-amp.

AOL: Open-loop gain for the given op-amp and is constant (ideally).
V1: Voltage at the non-inverting terminal.
V2: Voltage at the inverting terminal.
VD = (V1-V2) is the differential input voltage.
It is clear from the above equation that the output will be non-zero if and only if the differential input
voltage is non-zero, and will be zero if both V_1 and V_2 are equal.

The open-loop gain of an op-amp is very high hence, very small applied differential input voltage
will be amplified to a very large value.
 B. Closed Loop Operation:

In the closed loop configuration a feedback is introduced. This feedback is a part of an output
signal fed back to the input. Hence, at the input where the feedback is given two signals will be
simultaneously present. One of them is the original applied signal and the other is the feedback signal.
The fed back signal can be in phase or out of phase with the original applied signal.

 If the original applied signal and the feedback signal are in phase with each other then it is called
as a positive feedback or a regenerative feedback.

 If the applied signal and the feedback signal are out of phase with each other then it is called as
a negative feedback or a degenerative feedback.

 Each type of feedback, negative or positive has its own advantages and disadvantages. The
output of a closed loop op-amp is given by the equation:

V0: Voltage at the output terminal of the op-amp.

ACL: Closed loop gain of the op-amp which is determined by the feedback circuit connected to the op-
amp.
VD = (V1-V2) is the differential input voltage.

 The feedback is said to be positive if part of the signal from the output terminal is given back to
the non-inverting (+) terminal of the op-amp. Positive feedback is used in oscillators.

 The feedback is said to be negative if part of the signal from the output terminal is given back to
the inverting (-) terminal of the op-amp. Negative feedback is used when op-amps are to be
used as amplifiers.

3. What are the connections to a basic Op-Amp?

The standard operational amplifier (op-amp) symbol is shown in Figure 12–1(a). It has two
input terminals, the inverting (-) input and the noninverting (+) input, and one output terminal. Most op-
amps operate with two dc supply voltages, one positive and the other negative, as shown in Figure 12–
1(b), although some have a single dc supply. Usually these dc voltage terminals are left off the schematic
symbol for simplicity but are understood to be there. Some typical op-amp IC packages are shown in
Figure 12–1(c).
 4. Describe some of the characteristics of a practical Op-Amp.

The Ideal Op-Amp

To illustrate what an op-amp is, let’s consider its ideal characteristics. A practical op-amp, of
course, falls short of these ideal standards, but it is much easier to understand and analyse the device
from an ideal point of view.

First, the ideal op-amp has infinite voltage gain and infinite bandwidth. Also, it has an infinite
input impedance (open) so that it does not load the driving source. Finally, it has a zero output
impedance. Op-amp characteristics are illustrated in Figure 12–2(a). The input voltage, 𝑉𝑖𝑛 , appears
between the two input terminals, and the output voltage is 𝐴𝑣 𝑉𝑖𝑛 , as indicated by the internal voltage
source symbol.

The Practical Op-Amp

Although integrated circuit (IC) op-amps approach parameter values that can be treated as ideal
in many cases, the ideal device can never be made. Any device has limitations, and the IC op-amp is no
exception. Op-amps have both voltage and current limitations. Peak to- peak output voltage, for
example, is usually limited to slightly less than the two supply voltages. Output current is also limited by
internal restrictions such as power dissipation and component ratings.

Characteristics of a practical op-amp are very high voltage gain, very high input impedance, and
very low output impedance. These are labelled in Figure 12–2(b). Another practical consideration is that
there is always noise generated within the op-amp. Noise is an undesired signal that affects the quality
of a desired signal. Today, circuit designers are using smaller voltages that require high accuracy, so low-
noise components are in greater demand. All circuits generate noise; op-amps are no exception, but the
amount can be minimized.
 5. List and explain the amplifier stages in a typical Op-Amp.

Internal Block Diagram of an Op-Amp

A typical op-amp is made up of three types of amplifier circuits: a differential amplifier, a voltage
amplifier, and a push-pull amplifier, as shown in Figure 12–3. The differential amplifier is the input stage
for the op-amp. It provides amplification of the difference voltage between the two inputs. The second
stage is usually a class A amplifier that provides additional gain to further amplify the voltage. Some op-
amps may have more than one voltage amplifier stage. A push-pull class B amplifier is typically used for
the output stage.