1. Metal locking 2. TIG & MIG welding 3. Brazing 4.

Soldering
2. method of torsion test and cold impact test- test piece
3. welding preparation and doing the end plate connection to shell of a unfired pressure vessel
4. welding preparation and doing of longitudinal seams of a high pressure compressed air bottle
5. Two methods of finding superficial crack in a marine machinery component. Procedure for arresting the
propagation of crack
6. various ND tests to carry out to check the damage of tailshaft due to grounding
Chapter 01 METALS and their properties
Of the one-hundred and six elements--natural and man-made
eighty-two have definite metallic properties and only eighteen non-metallic
properties. The remaining six elements are usually classed as 'metalloids'elements
like silicon, germanium and arsenic, the physical and chemical
properties of which are generally intermediate between those of metals and
non-metals. Metals are generally characterised by their lustrous, opaque
appearance, and, in respect of other physical properties, metals and nonmetals
contrast strongly.
(a) All metals (except mercury) are solid at normal temperatures.
Non-metals include gases, a liquid (bromine) and solids.
(b) Metals generally are hard when compared with many of the nonmetals,
but at the same time they possess properties of malleability and
ductility which are lacking in non-metals.
(c) Metals generally have high relative densitics.
(d) Metals are good conductors of heat and electricity, whilst nonmetals
are poor conductors (1.76).
(e) Metals have low specific heats compared with non-metals.
(f) Most metals reflect nearly all wavelengths of light equally well; for
which reason they are white, or nearly white, in colour. Notable
exceptions are gold and copper.
(g) Metals are comparatively difficult to penetrate with X-rays.
(h) Most metals are magnetic to some slight degree, but only in the
metals iron, nickel and cobalt is magnetism strong enough to be of
practical interest. The pronounced magnetism of this group is usually
called 'ferromagnetism'.
Whilst many of these physical properties, such as conductivity, magnetIsm
and melting point, dictate special uses to which metals will be put, it is
chiefly upon the mechanical properties of strength, ductility and toughness
that the usefulness of metals depends.

Fundamental Mechanical Properties

Fundamental mechanical properties of metals are related to the
amounts of deformation which metals can withstand under different
circumstances of force application.
Ductility refers to the capacity or a
substance to undergo deformation under tension without rupture, as in
wire- or tube-drawing operations.
Malleability, on the other hand, is the
capacity of a substance to withstand deformation under compression
without rupture, as in forging or rolling. Substances which are highly
ductile are also highly malleable but the reverse may not be true since some
extremely malleable substances are weak in tension and therefore liable to
tear. Moreover, whilst malleability is usually increased by raising the
temperature (for which reason metals and alloys are often hot-forged or
hot-rolled), ductility is generally reduced by heating, since strength is also
reduced.

Toughness refers to a metal's ability to withstand bending or the

application of shear stresses without fracture. Hence, copper is extremely
tough, whilst cast iron is not. Toughness should not, therefore, be confused
with either strength or hardness, properties which will be discussed later.

Since these fundamental mechanical properties of ductility, malleability

and toughness cannot be expressed in simple quantitative terms, it
has become necessary to introduce certain mechanical tests which are
related to these properties and which will allow of comparative numerical
interpretation. Moreover, the engineer is more concerned with the forces
which cause deformation in metals rather than with the deformation itself.
Consequently tensile tests and hardness tests correlate the amounts of
deformation produced with given forces in tension and compression
respectively, whilst impact tests are an almost direct measurement of
toughness. Such precise measurements of force-deformation values make it
possible to draw up sets of specifications upon which the mechanical
engineer can base his design.

Stress may be defined as the load that is applied externally to a body, or in effect
as the force acting between the molecules caused by the deformation or strain.
Strain is the change that occurs in the shape or dimension of a body subject to
the action of stress.
Unital stress is the stress actina on unit area of material.
Load/area resisting load = unital stress
Unital strain is the ratio of the change in dimension to the original dimension of
the body before stress was applied.
Note When the terms stress and strain are used in the following text the single
word stress will imply unital stress and the single word strain will imply unital
strain. Should it be required to distinguish between the terms they will be
written in full.
Load/area resisting load = stress
Change in dimension/original dimension = strain
Most materials in a solid state when subject to stress, experience a change
in shape. If, when removing the stress, if the material returns to its former shape
the material is said to be elastic. In studies of strength of materials it is
often assumed that a body is isotropic. An isotropic material is one which
has identical properties in all directions from any point within the body.

Tensile stress, A 00dy is ~ubiect to tensile stress when it is acted on by a load

which causes an increase in its length.
Compressive stress, A body is subject to compressive stress when it is acted on
by a load which causes a decrease in its length. In each case the change in length
takes place in the line of action of the applied force. Tensile and compressive
stresses are sometimes referred to as linear or direct stresses.
Shear stress. If the opposite faces of a cube are subjected to a couple acting
tangentially to the faces, the sectional planes of the cube parallel to the applied
force are under the action of a shear stress. The strain will be such that the cube
will take up the shape of a prism with the section forming a rhombus. The shear
strain is measured from the angle formed by the sloping side of the rhombus
and the side of the cube before it was stressed. If diagonals are taken across the
comers of the rhombus, one of the diagonals will be longer than it was
originally and the other shorter. From this it may be deduced that some load is
set up along the diagonals which has caused the change in their length. Where
the diagonal has increased in length a tensile stress has been set up which is
acting on the plane of the shorter diagonal; where the diagonal is shorter a
compressive stress is set up which is acting on the plane of the longer diagonal.
In a somewhat similar manner it can be shown that when a piece of material is
subjected to a direct stress, a shear stress exists on any plane taken at 45° to the
line of action of the force producing tbe direct stress.
Simple stress comes about from some static form of loading, and the value of
the stress does not change.
Fluctuating stress. Diesel engines when operating are not subject to static forms
of loading, Due to cylinder pressure vari~tions and dynamic effects of the
moving parts, the forces acting on any part of an engine are always changing,
As the forces change so the stresses in the various parts change. The changing
values of stress experienced on pans of a machine are referred as fluctuating
stress. At any instant in time the value of a stress can be to a simple stress.
Alternating stress is said to occur when the value of a stress changes from some
value of tensile stress to a similar value of compressive stress. An example is the
overhung flywheel where a particle in the shaft surface will change from tensile
loading at its uppermost position of rotation to compressive loading at its
lowest point. The overhung flywheel may be considered as a cantilever with a
concentrated load.
Cyclic stress. When a certain pattern of stress change repeats itself at equal time
intervals (for example, each revolution of an engine or shaft) the pattern of
stress is referred to as cyclic stress.
Fluctuating, alternating, or cyclic stresses are of great importance as they are
very closely associated with a form of failure of machine parts known as fatigue
failure. Alternating or cyclic stresses are sometimes referred to as fluctuating
stresses as a general term to distinguish them from simple'stresses.

Hooke's Law states that stress is proportional to strain within the elastic limit.
Elastic limit. If a body is subjected to increasing stress a point will be reached
where the material will behave as only partially elastic. When this point is
reached and the stress is removed some of the strain will remain as a permanent
deformation. The elastic limit is the point where the behaviour of the material
changes to being partially elastic; up to this point strain completely disappears
when stress is removed.
Young's _Modulus, shear modulus and bulk modulus are the three moduli of
elasticity .
Young's Modu/t,s (E) is the ratio of direct stress and the resulting strain.
E = stress/strain
Shear modulus, also known as the modulus of rigidity or modulus of transverse
elasticity (G), is t: :atio of shear stress and the resulting shear strain.
G = shear stresslshear strain (measured in radians)
Bulk modulus (κ) If a cube of material is immersed in a liquid and subjected to
hydrostatic pressure it will be seen that the cube is acted on by three equal
forces acting mutually perpendicular to each other, The cub<.,,;: "'"
loss in volume as the hydrostatic pressure is increased, The change in volume is
the volumetric strain and the intensity of the hydrostatic pressure will be [he
equivalent compressive stress.
K = equivalent compressive stress/volumetric strain
Poisson's Ratio. If a body is subjected to a direct stress it will suffer from linear
strain in the direction of the line of action of the applied force producing this
stress. It will also suffer some lateral strain in a plane at 90° to the line of action
to the force. Lateral strain is proportional to linear strain within the elastic limit.
lateral strain / linear strain . = a constant (α) dependmg on the matenal
This constant (α)is known as Poisson's ratio.

Tenacity or Tensile Strength

The tensile strength of a material is defined as the maximum force
required to fracture in tension a bar of unit cross-sectional area. In practice
a test-piece of known cross-sectional area is gripped in the jaws of a test iug
machine and subjected to a tensile force which is increased by suitable
increments. For each increment of force the amount by which the length
a pre-determined 'gauge length' on the test piece increases is measured by
some device. The test piece is extended in this way to destruction.
A force-extension diagram can then be plotted (Fig. 2.1). At first the rate
of extension is very small and such extension as there is
Test
The ten~i1estrength of a metal is found by breaking a specially shaped test piece
under a tensile load. The test specimen is placed in a tensile testing machine
which records the load applied and the extension, or strain, of the specimen
under the load. The load may be applied through a system of levers or by a
hydraulic pump.
The maximum load shown on the stress-strain diagram, divided by the
original cross-sectional area of the test piece, gives the ultimate tensile strength
of the material; this is usually referred to as the tensile strength. When the
specimen is being tested, the yield point and the percentage elongation are also
found.
In the design of many machinery parts the value of the yield point is of more
importance than the tensile strength.
The ductility of the metal is characterized by the percentage elongation. The
actual value of the percentage elongation figure for the various grades of steel
used in important engine parts is carefully studied. If lhe figure is not up to the
necessary requirements, the material is rejected.

Resilience or elastic strain energy is a term used to denote the storage of the
work done in producing strain within a material which is strained. If a piece of
material is subjected to an increasing stress the strain will also increase. As work
done is the product of force and distance moved by force, the energy stored in a
material subject to stress will equal the average force producing the stress
multiplied by the distance it has moved through, which will be the total strain. Then
resilience = mean total stress x total strain
= l/2- × - total stress x total strain
If the material is subjected to a stress beyond the elastic limit some of the work
done is lost in the form of heat which is generated as the material yields.

In an impact test a square section specimen is prepared and one side is notched
with a slot cut to a particular form. A common form is a V-shaped notch with a
radius at the bottom, the angle ofthe V being 4So, the bottom radius 0.25 mm,
the depth 2 mm, and the specimen section square with 10mm sides.
The specimen is subjected to a shock load in, for example, an Izod impacttesting
machine or a Charpy pendulum machine. A weight on anarm swings
through a certain distance and strikes a hammer blow on the notched test
specimen, with a known amount of kinetic energy. The specimen is fractured,
and the weight continues its movement until the swing is completed. The energy
required to fracture the specimen is recorded on a dial.
Impact tests are made on test specimens to indicate whether their metallurgical
properties are up to the required stanJard. The test is applied to test
pieces taken from heat-treated castings, forgings, the weld metal taken from
welded joints, and steel plates used for pressure vessels and important engine
structures.
Note In the Charpy machine the test piece is supported at two points like a
beam. The hammer blow is taken at the centre of the test piece, with the notch
on the opposite side to the point of impact. In the lzod machine the test piece is
held in a vice and projects upwards like a cantilever. The notch faces the
hammer blow and is set at a fixed height above the jaws of the vice.

Stress raisers occur at abrupt sectional changes of machine parts or members.

They are sometimes referred to as notches. Fillets are made in way of abrupt
sectional changes to reduce the abruptness of the change in section.
The effect of abrupt changes on the stress pattern across a section of material
in way of the section change is such that where the change occurs, the stress is
not uniform across the section. It is higher at the corner or shoulder made by the
change. Material at the surface will yield earlier than material remote from the
shoulder and under conditions of simple or static stress some redistribution of
stress occurs. This does not have time to take place when a machine part is
subjected to fluctuating stresses. It is therefore of the utmost importance to
design properly and remove ali stress raisers. This is done by making fillets
between shoulders or having easy tapers on section changes with the end of any
taper rounded in at its small end. This reduces to a minimum the chances of
fatigue failure.
Stress raisers cannot usually be obviated but the effects are reduced by the use
of proper fiUets which give a better stress distribution and reduce stress concentrations
and variations in way of the change of section. An example of a fillet
which we have all seen is the radius formed between the coupling flange and the
parallel portion of an intermediate shaft. It can be seen 'then that a close
relationship exists between the ability of an engine part or member to resist
fatigue failure and the profile of the fillet in way of section changes. As a section
change becomes more abrupt by reduction of fillet radius, the risk of fatigue
failure is greatly increased.
Stress raisers may also occur in welded joints due to bad design, undercut (see
or discontinuities in the way of the joint due to lack of
penetration between the filler and the parent material.

The surface hardness of a material is found by measuring the resistance of the

surface to penetration by a very hard, specially shaped indenting tool, when it is
pressed into the material by a known load.
The size of the indentation gives a measure of the resistance to penetration
and therefore the surface hardness of the material.
The machines used to measure hardness are the Vickers Pyramid Hardness
Tester, the Brinell Hardness Testing Machine, and the Rockwell Hardness
Testing Machine.
The hardness value is expressed as a number with a p~efix indicating the
machine used, such as BHN (Brinell Hardness Number) or DPH (Diamond
Pyramid Hardness). The indentation made is very small, and in the Brinell and
Vickers machines it is measured with a microscope. A formula is then used to
calculate the hardness number from the load applied and the size of the
impression. Rockwell machines show the hardness number on a graduated dial.
Tables are available which give approximate conversions from the hardness
number on one machine to that of the others.
_ The Rockwell and Brinell machines use a hardened steel ball to make the
indentation or impression. The Vickers machine uses a diamond shaped like a
pyramid

Chapter 02 ALLOYS and their properties

INTRODUCTION TO ALLOYS :

Alloys have certain improvements on various metallic properties like tensile strength, yield point, hardness etc. Broadly
speaking two metals dissolve in each other in the liquid state to form an alloy. When such a homogeneous
solution solidifies one of the following conditions are possible;
1. The solubility ends and the two metals which are mutually soluble as liquid becomes totally in-soluble as solids.
They therefore separate out as particles of two pure metals. This is a very rare occasion since in most cases
there exist slight solubility of one metal in the other.
2. The solubility prevailing in the liquid state may exist completely in solid state so a single solid solution exists in
the alloy. Here one metal dissolved in the other.
3. Solubility exists partially in solid state so there exist two different solid solutions. Here metals are only partially
soluble in each other
4. As solidification proceeds the two metals give rise to what is loosely termed as an inter metallic compound but
which in many cases might more accurately be described as an intermediate phase. Here there occur a single
intermediate phase of some type or a mixture of two intermediate phases, or a solid solution and an intermediate
phase mixed together – and so on.
Hence any substance is a phase. Thus a solid phase is may be a pure metal or a solid solution or some intermediate
phase of two or more metals so long as it exist in the micro structure as a separate entity. From here the phase
rule has been started originally in 1876 by Dr Josiah W. Gibbs.
1. The solid solution, two metals mutually soluble in liquid and solid state in all proportions : A solid solution is
formed when two metals which are mutually soluble in liquid state remain dissolved in each other after
crystallization. One metal dissolve in the other to form a solid solution, if its atoms fit in some way into the crystal
lattice of the other metal. There is ‘substitutional’ or ‘interstitial’ solid solution.
In interstitial solid solution, the atoms of the added metal mostly very small compared to the parent metal, so they fit
into the interstices or the spaces of the crystal lattice of the parent metal. Example the carbon can form a
interstitial solid solution with FCC iron during the solidification of steel. Carburizing steel, and nitriding steel are
the example of this.
In substitutional solid solution, the atoms of the solvent or the parent metal are replaced by the atoms of the solute
metal. This substitution may be ordered or disordered. In a By badly miss fitting an a solute atom, the atoms of
the solvent metal are displaced outwards or inwards as the solute atom is bigger or smaller to the solvent atom.
This distortion of the lattice from the original shape increases the energy of the structure. High degree of the
substitutional solid solubility between two metals is likely to be obtained when,
1. the difference in atomic radii is less than 14%
2. Electro chemical properties are similar. Other wise they can form inter metallic compound like Mg 2 Sn.
3. The two metals have similar crystal structure.
2 Intermediate phases classified into 3 main groups. When the two metals with widely different electro chemical
properties diverge together, one side they form inter metallic compound & on the other side they form
substitutional solid solution which exactly termed as secondary solid solution. In between there are intermediate
phases, which exhibit the gradation of the properties.
Intermetallic compound, in which the laws of chemical valence is apparently obeyed. Examples are Mg2Sn, Mg2Pb,
Mg3Sb2 etc. where the parent metal is strongly metallic i.e. Mg and other metal like tin, lead antimony etc. are
weakly metallic. The character is that the alloy melting point is higher than the metals.
Electron compound are formed there exists a metallic bond such a way that wholesale sharing of the numbers of
electrons takes place in the crystal structure of the pure metal. These are formed as a result of the nature of the
metallic bond and stability of such a structure dependent on the electronic concentration and the lattice structure
of the metal.
Size factor compound are those intermediate phases in which composition and crystal structure arrange themselves in
such a way to allow the constituent atoms to pack themselves closely together in the crystal structure. These are
Intermetallic compounds formed between some transition metals and certain small non-metallic atoms.
Compounds like MgNi2, MgCu2, TiCr2, MnBe2 etc; their formation depends upon the fact that the constituent
atoms vary in size by about 22.5% but that they can none the less pack closely together in crystal structures. A
very important group size-factor compounds are the interstitial compounds. When the solubility of the interstitially
dissolved element exceeds then a compound is is precipitated from the solution. These are of different metallic
structure from the original interstitial solid solution. These are extremely hard. The carbides of steel formed this
way are tool steels, cemented-carbide cutting materials. Many of the compounds are of high melting point, well in
excess of 3000°c.
3 Eutectics: two metals soluble in liquid state and completely in-soluble in solid state
 321°c
271°c

140°c

0 Cd/100 Bi 100 Cd/0 Bi

20/80 40/60 80/20

When two metals which are completely soluble in liquid state and completely in-soluble in solid state solidify, they
crystallize out as alternate layers of the two pure metals. Thus a laminated type of mixture will be obtained and
known as eutectic. This eutectic mixture is always a fixed composition for two metals concerned and it melts at a
temperature below the melting point of either of the metals.
Considering the example of cadmium and bismuth where the mixture have an eutectic point of temperature 140°c and
composition by weight is 40%Cd to 60%Bi. If any metal has added excess by weight, that time some of the
excess added metal will crystallize out first until the temperature has fallen to the eutectic temperature, thereby
keeping the liquid composition as eutectic composition. This liquid later crystallizes as a eutectic mixture.
Practically never two metals are in-soluble in solid state, however there exists a slight amount of solubility.
4 Eutectoids. Sometimes a solid solution which has already formed in an alloy, transforms at a lower temperature to a
eutectic type of structure. When this happens, the eutectic type of structure produced is known as eutectoid,
since it was not formed from a liquid solution like eutectic, but from a solid solution.
Example is the solid solution is austenite, transforms to the eutectoid mixture of pearlite.
5 Two metals which are partially soluble in liquid state: example is a solution of zinc and lead. At 500°c molten zinc
dissolve @2% of lead, & molten lead dissolve @ 5% of zinc. Any composition in between these two metals at
500°c will consist of two separate layers of two different liquid solutions. The upper layer zinc and lower layer is
lead solution. The solubility increases as the temperature rises in both cases. At 798°c the two metals become
completely soluble in each other.
6 Two metals, mutually soluble in all proportions in liquid state and remain partially soluble in solid state this is
in between solid solution and eutectics. Tin and lead alloys are of this category. Tin will dissolve up to a maximum
of 2.6% lead at the eutectic temperature forming the solid solution α, lead will dissolve up to a maximum of 19.5%
tin at the eutectic temperature giving a solid solution β. This α and β solubility decrease as the temperature falls.
Considering a composition, which will start solidifying as the temperature decreases and dendrites of other
solution will starts forming.
7 Peritectic transformation: some times in an alloy system two phases which are already present interact at a fixed
temperature to produce an entirely new phase. This is known as peritectic transformation. Here the original solid
phase is surrounded by the transformation product.
8 system with intermediate phase there are some combinations where alloys exist with the solid solution and
mixed with some intermediate phases.

Chapter 02 CARBON STEEL

steel-mak.ing processes and the types of steel produced.

Open-hearth process. This process produces either acidic or basic open-hearth

steel, depending on whether the furnace lining is acidic or basic.

Bessemer process. The Bessemer process uses a converter; air is blown through
the molten charge which oxidizes the impurities and liberates heat. After the
charge is blown, deoxidation and decarburization are carried out by the
addition of alloys containing carbon, manganese, and silicon.
Electric furnaces are used to produce small amounts of high-quality steels or
alloy steels.
Oxygen steel is produced by blowing oxygen on to the surface of the molten
metal in a furnace similar to a Bessemer converter.
Killed steel is produced by deoxidizing molten steel, which is afterwards cast
in special moulds to produce ingots. Pipes, blowholes, and slag inclusions are
then reduced to a minimum: This produces an ingot that is less likely to develop
faults later during the forging or rolling processes. The de-oxidants used are
Ferro-manganese, Ferro-silicon, Ferro-titanium, and aluminum.
The type of steel used for important forgings for engine parts is usually killed
open-hearth steel.

The carbon content of a steel controls its internal structure. As the carbon
content increases the steel becomes stronger but its ductility is decreased.
Impurities also affect the internal structure and alter the strength and ductility
of the steel.

Reference to be made to the iron- carbon thermal equilibrium diagram or phase diagram. Plain carbon steels are those
alloys which contains C percentage upto 2%. Practically, there are a lot of manganese present in the in steels.
Pure metal iron below 910°c has BCC(body-centered cubic) structure. When heated above this temperature it
has FCC(face- centered cubic) structure.
At high temperature fcc iron dissolve 2.0% C where as bcc iron can dissolve only 0.02%C. When fcc iron cooled slowly
to bcc iron the C precipitate out, if cooled rapidly precipitation prevented.
When C dissolved in fcc iron, the solid solution formed known as austenite γ iron. Extremely low level solid solution
formed because of C dissolved in bcc iron known as ferrite α iron. Ferrite has very same properties as of iron.
When the C is precipitated from the austenite, it is in form of compound iron carbide, known as cementite, very
hard carbide. This is an interstitial compound containing 6.69% of C. So while slowly cooling when the cementite
portion increases in the solid solution, the iron hardness increases. 0.8% of C is the content for equilibrium in the
phase diagram. When cooled at this percentage a eutectoid mixture of ferrite and cementite formed known as
pearlite. The carbon steel is known as eutectoid steel. Any steel containing below 0.8% of C will transform from
austenite to a mixture of ferrite, and pearlite. Here the carbon steel is known as hypo-eutectoid steel. A steel
containing above 0.8% of C will transform from austenite to a mixture of cementite and pearlite. Here the carbon
steel is known as hyper-eutectoid steel.
So when cooling slowly with less than 0.006% C steel is entirely ferritic. Between 0.006% and 0.8% C the steel structure
contain ferrite and pearlite. The relative proportion vary according to the C content. With exactly 0.8% of C steel
 structure will be entirely pearlitic. With between 0.8% to 2.0% C the structure will consist cementite and pearlite,
the relative amounts depend upon the C content.
When doing a rapid cooling the carbon steel formed is known as martensite.
Austenitic steels are a group of alloy steels that exhibit a particular structural
form. They have high resistance to the changes which occur in normal steels
when subjected to high temperature. They are therefore used where strength is
required at high temperatures. This type of steel may be used for exhaust valves,
exhaust turbo-blower turbine nozzle blading, and turbine rotor blading,
depending on the prevailing temperature and stress conditions that the part has to work under corrosive condition ora high creep
resistance necessary.

Impurities in steel :
1. Manganese : exists in soluble form in austenite and ferrite, and also in form of stable carbide, Mn3C. It should not
exceed by 0.3%, in high carbon steel, because it has tendency to induce quench cracks.
2 Silicon : imparts fluidity to the steel, useful in manufacture of castings. In high carbon steels its percentage kept less
than 0.3% because it makes cementite unstable and decomposes to graphite and ferrite as in cast iron.
3 Phosporus soluble in steel upto 1%. Its controlled below 0.05% because it imparts brittleness, to the carbon steel.
4 Sulphur highly soluble in molten steel and on solidification solubility decreases to 0.03%. its brittle at ordinary
temperatures, so makes steel unsuitable for cold working processes.
5 Nitrogen remains either in form of nitride or remain dissolved interstitially it causes serius embrittlement and renders
steel unsuitable for cold working process.

Various uses of carbon steel according to the C percentage

1. dead mild steel -- 0.05 to 0.15 % C – used in chain, stampings, rivets, wire, nails, seam-welded pipes, mattresses
etc
2. Mild steel --0.10 to 0.20 % C – used in structural steel, R.S.J., screws, machine parts, tin plates, case-hardening,
drop forging, stamping. –0.20 to 0.30 % C – used in machine and structural work gears, free cutting steel,
shafting, levers, forgings etc
3. Medium carbon steel -- 0.30 to 0.40 – connecting rod, shafting, wire, axles, crane hooks, high tensile tubes,
0.40 – 0.50% C – crank shaft, axles, gears, shafts, dies, rotors, 0.50 – 0.60% C – loco tyres, rails, laminated
springs, wire ropes.
4. High carbon steel -- 0.60 to 0.70%C – drop hammer dies, set-screws, screw-drivers, saws, mandrels, hollow drills,
0.70 to 0.80% C – band saws, anvil faces, hammers, wrenches, laminated springs, car bumpers, cable wires,
dies for cold processes 0.80 to 0.90 % C – cold chisels, shear blades, cold setts, punches, rock drills, some
hand tools.
5. Tool steel -- 0.90 to 1.0% C – springs, high tension wires, axes, knives,
1.0 to 1.10% C – drills, taps, milling cutters, screwing dies.
1.10 to 1.20% C – ball bearings , dies, drills, lathe tools, knives
1.20 to 1.30% C – files, reamers, knives broaches, lathe tools
1.30 to 1.40% C – saws, razors, boring and finishing tools, machine part where the resistance to wear is essential

VARIOUS HEAT TREATMENT OF CARBON STEEL

Heat treatment of metals and alloys defined as an operation or a combination of operations involving heating and cooling
of the material in solid state to attain certain desired properties. this is thermo mechanical process. Heat treatment is the name
given to the process of heating metal above the critical temperature, at which internal changes occur, and then cooling the metal slowly or rapidly to
give it more desirable physical and mechanical properties. The heat-treatment processes are normalizing, annealing, hardening, and tempering.
Basically this consists of three main parts. 1. heating the material to a temperature which is predetermined. This is
achieved by by raising the temperature in a closed environment in a controlled manner. Furnaces used for
controlled heating and furnace oil. The oil is pre heated to a temperature 400-500°c and spray on the matl block
through highly pressurized nozzle. On burning the temperature rises to the 700 to 1300 °c. Some time material
kept inside a chamber whose inner wall is highly conductive and outside wall is totally insulative. Some time the
heating is done by electric means which gives 1000-1200°c. This heating achieves austenite stage for steel.
2ndly, the soaking of the material at the temperature until the structure becomes uniform, through out the section, this is
the stage of homogisation.
3rdly, cooling the material by a pre determined rate, to cause the desirable properties. The medium of solid cooling is
100-150°c per hour. Gas cooling rate is 100 to 500 °c per hour. Liquid cooling rate is above 500°c per hour.
The purpose of heat treatment is to improve the machinability, relieve the internal stresses, improve the mechanical
properties like ductility strength, toughness hardness etc. change in grain size, increase in resistance to heat or
corrosion, modify some electric and magnetic properties, change in chemical composition, remove gases.
ANNEALING
This has different thermal treatments which are applied too various metals and alloys. This can be done in three stages,
pre treatment, intermediate and finished treatment. Annealing is similar to normalizing. Different rates of cooling are required for
different materials. Steel is annealed by heating to the required temperature at
which its internal structure changes, and then soaking at this temperature. After
soaking, the steel is cooled slowly in a furnace. Furnace cooling is referred to as
slow cooling. Annealing refines the grain structure, reduces hardness, and
increases ductility.

Stress relief annealing : raising the temperature of mild steel to its recrystallization temperature @ 500°c, the internal
stresses are relieved. Such a process known as process annealing, is carried out at 650°c, at this higher
temperature the annealing process is accelerated. Prolonged annealing although makes the steel more ductile,
but properties lost like strength. Here the grain structure gets damaged.
Spheroidising Annealing : its the balling up of the cementite part of the pearlite, this is used to soften the tool steel.
Spheroidising condition is achieved at a temperature 650 to 700°c. Here there is no basic phase change, only
surface tension causes the cementite to form the globular form. To have smaller globules of cementite, the steel
is given a quenching treatment, which causes spheroidising quickly. These small globules not only increase the
surface finish but also dissolve more quickly when the tool is ultimately heated for hardening.
Annealing of castings :
NORMALISING
Steel is normalized by heating it slowly to just above the temperature at which
changes in the internal structure take place; it is then soaked at this temperature.
After the soaking period, the steel is cooled slowly in air. Air cooling is
referred to as medium cooling.
Normalizing refines the grain structure of the steel.

HARDENING
When a carbon steel containing sufficient C is cooled rapidly it becomes considerably harder than when it cooled slowly.
The degree of hardness depends on initial quenching temperature, the size of the work, the constitution, properties of the
quenching medium, the degree of agitation, final quenching medium. Here the metallic structure is gets trapped as it is at
higher temperature. Steel is hardened by heating to a specified temperature followed by rapid
cooling. The cooling may be in air, or by quenching in oil or water: the method
used depends on the type of steel and the properties required. A gain in hardness
is accompanied by a loss of ductility. In the fully hardened state steel is brittle.
Steels containing very small amounts of carbon cannot be hardened.
Water quenching causes extreme hard structure known as martensite which has needle shaped crystal structure.
When cooled, the very rapid cooling prevent formation of iron carbide, lattice structure remain in FCC, at some
places approaching to BCC. The BCC structure remains supersaturated with C at ambient temperature with
0.06% of C.
Less severe quenching causes bainite, which is some thing like pearlite. it is somewhat approaching to the pearlite.
Slower rates of cooling produce normal pearlite.
When a small structure is quenched, it is hardened to a martensitic structure, but for a larger structure the surface skin
may be martensitic, the core of the large section may be bainitic, because its cooled slowly. If small amount of ni,
cromium, manganese added than the martensitc layer becomes thick. Alloying increases the depth of hardening.
Various quenching media according to fast speed as 5% caustic soda, 5-20%brine, cold water, hot water, mineral oil,
animal oil, vegetable oil. Extreme hardness is obtained from caustic soda solution. The medium should have high
flash point, low viscosity, good stability.
HARDENING IS DONE BY heating the steel to between 30 to 50°c above the upper critical temperature and then
quenched into a medium which can give desired cooling, according to the properties requirement .
TEMPERING
Steel is tempered by heating hardened Steel and then c:ooling it by air or
quenching. The temperature to which it is heated and the quenching rate control
the degree of hardness, strength, and ductility.
Steel is tempered to obtain special mechanical or physical properties.
Important engine parts such as coupling bolts, bearing bolts, and parts
subjected to alternating stress, are tempered to increase their strength and resistance
to fatigue failure.
This is the process of relieving the internal developed stresses, thereby the brittleness of the hardened steel structure.
Medium carbon constructional steel are also tempered to a higher temperature so that the strength and hardness
are sacrificed to some extent, in favour of toughness and ductility. This is done below lower critical temperature,
martensite transform to the equilibrium structure of ferrite and cementite. Higher is the temperature more is the
transformation. By choosing the appropriate tempering method a wide range of properties are introduced in steel
structure.
Tempering is carried out in different ways, when steel is heated, steel forms oxide film, first is bright in color then turns to
pale yellow. Slowly color changes to dark blue at last. Hence color of the oxide film is a major guide line. Batch
type heating is done with a circulating atmosphere or oil bath or salt bath of various mixtures of sodium nitrate
and potassium nitrate, or mixture of chloride or lead bath. A uniform heating is required.
Temperature °c 220 color is pale yellow used in scrapers, hacksaws, light turning and parting tools
230 straw screwing dies for brass , hammer faces etc
240 dark straw shear blades, milling cutters, paper cutters, drills, reamers,
250 light brown taps, metal shears, punches, dies,
260 purplish brown plane blades, stone cutting tools, punches, reamers,
270 purple axes, augers, press tools
280 deeper purple cold chisels
290 bright blue cold chisel for wrought iron, screw drivers.
300 dark blue wood saws, springs
SURFACE HARDENING OF STEEL
Surface hardening is a process whereby the structure of the surface of a material
is changed to give it better wearing properties. The process may increase the
carbon content of the steel by carburization or, in the case of steels with higher
carbon contents, by heat-treating the surface concerned.
The requirement of hard and wear resistant surfaces and tough, shock resistant cores introduced the surface hardening.
So a steel low carbon or med carbon heat treated to have desirable core properties, and then surface hardened
to have a hard surface.
Case hardening here the carbon will diffuse into the iron. This is done by carburizing. This is the procedure by which
the component is surrounded by a suitable carbonaceous material and heated to a temperature above its upper
critical temperature for long enough to form a carbon enriched layer of sufficient depth. This is known as
carburizing. Solid, liquid, gas carburizing media is used.
Solid carburizing or pack carburizing -- here the steel is heated in solid carbonecious material. The carbon atoms
released from the burning of the material charcoal dissolve interstitially into the surface of the steel.
Carburizing processes
cyaniding - pack method
nitriding - gas method

Liquid -- done by a solution of sodium cyanide, sodium carbonate together with sodium or barium chloride.
Gas – is done by heating the element in methane gas or propane gas.

ALLOY STEELS

PLAIN CARBON STEEL contain upto 1.0% of manganese, also acceptable limits for other elements are as 0.1% of Mo
or Vanadium, 0.3% of tungsten, cobalt, or chromium, 0.4% of ni, 2.0% of manganese.
Nickel in steels : can be used upto 5%.
 This improves tensile strength and toughness. This is used in stainless steel.
 It has grain refining effect, so it makes steel suitable for case hardening.
 Its presence in steel makes the iron carbides less stable. So never added to high carbon steels. When the
carbon content needed, then in these more manganese is added because manganese is a carbide stabliser.
Hence plain nickel steels are less used, normally they are nickel- chromium, nickel-molybdenum, nickel-
chromium-molybdenum.
 Nickel reduces the coefficient of thermal expansion, its very less in 36% of nickel. INVAR with 36% of nickel and
less than 0.1% of carbon developed, and used as measuring taps, inner linings of vessels carrying liquid LNG,
thermostats.
 51%nickel and 49% iron, has coefficient of expansion equal to that of glass, so used in reed switches.
Chromium in steels :
 Chromium in steels increase the hardness, but only when sufficient carbon is present, because it’s a carbide
stabilizer, and forms hard carbides with iron.
 In low carbon steels its addition increases strength, with some loss of ductility.
 The disadvantage of its addition is, its tendency to promote the grain growth, so increases brittleness. Hence
holding too long for normal heat treatment process is restricted.
 Low chromium low carbon steel is popular for case hardening. Low chromium medium carbon steel is used for
axles, connecting rod, gears. Low chromium 1.0% carbon is extremely hard, used for ball bearings, dies, parts of
grinding machine.
 Chromium with 25% has high corrosion resistance, due to the protective layer of oxide it forms on the surface
which is very thin, and gives steel a high polish. Chromium has high affinity towards oxygen, the oxide film
although very thin , but very stable and strongly adherent to the surface there by prevents further corrosion.
 With 13-14% of this, makes a general purpose alloy, used for utensil, cutlery, various pump parts etc.
Nickel and chromium in steels :
 As nickel inhibits grain growth but chromium accelerates it. Chromium tends to have stable carbides, where as
nickel opposes, promotes graphitization. Each other reduce the negative effects if used together. Same time the
positive effects add together, like increase in strength, increase in corrosion resistance, retardation of
transformation during heat treatment
 Nickel to chromium is 2 to 1. here the steel suffer from temper brittleness, causes low resistance to shock during
impact test. This effect in minimized by addition of molybdenum.
 Nickel chromium steel is better for forging and machining, so highly used in manufacture of complex structures,
which are to be hardened.
 High nickel high chromium steel is stainless steels. Popular is 18-8 steel, i.e. 18cr 8ni, have a good polish and
resist corrosion. Used highly in domestic purposes.
 12-12 nickel chromium is more ductile more corrosion resistance, used for table ware.
 In these steels the carbon content kept low because of the precipitated carbides in the micro structure level
reduces the corrosion resistance.
Molybdenum in steel :
 Some low nickel chromium steel which are oil hardened to a temperature range of 800 to 850°c, and tempered at
a temperature 250 to 400 °c, develop temper brittleness. If tempered above 400°c, its necessary to cool the steel
quickly which develops temper brittleness. This effect is minimum with addition of molybdenum.
 When added to steel causes general improvement of machinability.
 Molybdenum increases high temperature strength, creep resistance of high temperature alloy.
 It increases the corrosion resistance particularly towards chloride solution and so brine, sulfuric acid, phosphoric
acid, some organic acids.
Vanadium in steel :
 Addition of vanadium to chromium steel increases the yield stress and percentage elongation of area.
 Vanadium chromium steel are easier to forge, stamp, and machine but susceptible to the mass effect of heat
treatment than corresponding to the nickel chromium steel.
 Vanadium is a good grain refiner and restricts the grain growth.
 Vanadium has strong carbide stabilizing tendency.
 It combine readily with oxygen and nitrogen, hence often used as a scavenger to produce gas free ingots.
Manganese in steel :
 Manganese used during the production of steel both for deoxidation and desulfurisation.
 Although it is not a strong carbide former, but it’s a very strong carbide stabilizer.
 High manganese steel is extremely tough and shock resistant, soft, wear resistant.
 High manganese steel can be available as a casting, forging, or hot rolled sections, but difficult to machine,
because its tendency to to harden as soon as it is attempted.
 Toughness with extreme resistance to abrasion, makes it useful in rock crushing machinery, dredging equipment,
track work points and crossings.
Tungsten in steel :
 Inhibits grain growth, therefore has a grain refining effect.
 Reduces decarburization during working and heat treatment. It has very high affinity towards carbon forming
extremely hard and stable carbides. Due to this tungsten commonly used in small amts in the tool steels.
 Also used in heat resisting steel and alloy in which it raises the creep strength at high temperature.
Cobalt in steel :
 Used in high strength maraging steels, like flexible driving shafts, pressure vessels, rams, dies, die casting etc.
Boron in steel :
 Pure boron is very hard grey solid, with a very high melting point @ 2300°c.
 They are used in steel where high strength is required like high tension bolts, self tapping screws, thread rolled
wood screws.
Silicon in steel :
 Silicon upto 0.35% present in steel.
 Used in sand castings, since it improves casting fluidity.
 It has good graphitizing effect.
 It has good affinity for oxygen, so used as a deoxident.
 Increases high temperature corrosion resistance , used in valve steels.
 Silicon-iron alloys have high magnetic permeability but very low hystersis making suitable for electric magnetic
cores in transformer, motors, alternators.
 Silicon and manganese 1% in steel increase carbide stabilization, same time tempering causes good strength,
hardness, impact toughness makes useful for coils, leaf type springs of compressors , shock resisting punches
and chisels etc.
Copper in steel :
 It improves corrosion resistance.
High SPEED STEELS are characterized with its great hardness in the heat treated condition and able to resist softening
at relatively high working temperatures. Tools are formed from this.
Cementite is replaced by certain metallic carbides, tungsten carbides, vanadium carbides etc. vanadium carbide is
abrasion resistant , so increases cutting efficiency with abrasive materials. Also it is a grain refiner, so when used
in steel , steel can with stand very high heat treatment temperatures. Vanadium added in steel upto 5%.
Cobalt is used in high speed steel , upto 12%, increases the hardenability and wear resistance. this promotes excellent
red hardness to steel, so very useful in super high speed steels.
Molybdenum also used with greater proportions. Makes the steel tougher, useful for drills, taps, reamers etc.
Tungsten also added, helps to form stable and hard carbides, increases strength at high temperature. Can be used upto
22%.
HEAT RESISTING STEELS are used in exhaust valves, conveyor chains, furnace arch or floor plates, gas turbine
rotors. The requirements are : these steels should have resistance to oxidation by gases in the working condition,
should have sufficiently high strength and creep resistance at the working temperature, should be free from
structural changes at the working temperatures.
Chromium is used as it gives resistance to oxidation at this high temperature. This is assisted by small amount of silicon.
Creep resistance increased by addition of small amount of tungsten, vanadium, molybdenum, titanium, niobium,
aluminium or nitrogen; whose carbides and nitrides increase this creep resistance.

CAST IRON And ITS ALLOYS

ORDINARY CAST IRON is a complex alloy containing a tot up to 10% of elements of carbon, silicon, manganese, sulfur,
and phosphorus.
Carbon exist in two forms – free graphite and cementite or carbide form, both are referred as graphic carbon. Cementite
is a hard, white, brittle compound , so the iron containing much of it will look white bright when broken. This will
have low resistance to shock and high resistance to wear i.e. brittle and hard, known as white iron. As the
fractured surface contains a lot of graphite and appear grey, so known as grey iron.
In presence of silicon, the cementite becomes unstable, graphite is precipitated , at 1131°c eutectic temperature,
austenite and graphite eutectic mixture is formed. Thje graphite is seen in form of flakes. Rapid cooling causes
more graphitization with finer graphite flakes. This gives a better property. The softer form of cast iron is achieved
which has better machinability. As graphite is in greater volume in the solid structure than the carbon in the liquid
iron, solidifying causes shrinkage.
Silicon dissolves in the ferrite in the cast iron, and has a predominant effect on the relative amount of graphite and
cementite present. That is silicon increases the in-stability of the cementite and causes more graphitization. So
higher is the silicon content , higher is the flakes of graphite, hence a grey iron. So silicon strengthens the
ferrite( as dissolves in it) and gives softness.(due to graphitization). As silicon content increase more, all
cementite content decompose, then again the hardness and brittleness increase due to excess amount of silicon
present. The presence of silicon in cast iron increases the fluidity of molten iron and improves the casting
properties.
Sulfur has a tendency to stabilize cementite, thus inhibit graphitization, helps to produce hard, brittle, white iron.
Manganese combine with the sulfur to form manganese sulfide, which is insoluble in molten iron, so removed as slag.
This indirectly promote graphitization, by reducing the content of the sulfur. Again it has a character of stabilizing
the carbides, so offsets the effect of reduction of sulfur. So manganese has a tendency for grain refinement,
increasing the strength, hardening the steel.
Phosphorus present in the cast iron in eutectic form, imparting greater fluidity to the iron, so makes the cast iron very
suitable for production of castings in thin sections. It has little effect on cementite, but promote hardness and
brittleness so its content always kept very low in castings where the shock resistance is very important.
Uses of ordinary cast iron has according to their properties,
 Fluid cast iron, where the fluidity is increased by has silicon -2-3% and has phosphorus-upto 1.5%, used in
lamp posts, fireplaces and railings. These have a reasonably strong tough grey structure.
 Carbon 3-3.5%, silicon 1.5- 2.5%, manganese 0.5-0.8%, sulfur 0.10%, phosphorus is from 0.1- 1.0% increases
stepwise according to the need of hardness, used in motor brake drums, motor cylinder and piston, light and
medium and heavy machine castings, water pipes, etc.
HIGH STRENGTH CAST IRONS here the flake grey cast iron replaced to either spherical particles or compacted flakes.
Spheroidal graphite SG cast iron or nodular cast iron or ductile iron— in ordinary cast iron carbon present as a
flakes which tends to have sharp edged rims. These flakes are with negligible strength, and their sharp edges
induce stress concentration. So when they are change over to spherical form, the metallic matrix is less broken
up and stress raisers are eliminated. Its formation is effected by small addition of cerium or magnesium or
calcium or calcium carbide or calcium fluoride or lithium or strontium or barium or argon. As these has got a
tendency towards the formation of the strong carbides so the silicon content kept has enough to prevent the
formation of the white in thin sections. These cast irons has high ductility and toughness also good strength.
Malleable cast iron are the cast irons which have been cast to a shape in an ordinary way , but in which the ductility
and the malleability is considerably increased by heat treatment.
Compacted graphite cast iron is the iron whose character is in between the grey cast iron and nodular cast iron. These
also resist scaling and growth at high temperature is very good, and a better conductor of electricity. They are
used in gear pumps, eccentric gears, fluid air cylinders, discharge manifolds etc.
ALLOY CAST IRON
Nickel in cast iron promote graphitization, improve grain refining effect, prevent chilling in sections, prevent the
tendency of thin section to crack.
Chromium has same tendency like in steel i.e. a carbide stabilizer. So nickel and chromium together certain
percentage ratio.
Molybdenum increase hardness and promote uniformity in the structure. Vanadium increase the heat resistance. Copper
increases the resistance to corrosion.

Materials used in marine engineering

Stellite is the trade name of an alloy consisting of cobalt, chrome, molybdenum,
tungsten, ar,d iron. Varying proportions of some or all the metals are used to
produce alloys with various characteristics. These alloys resist loss of strength
at high temperatures. Stellite IS extremely hard and corrosion-resistant and is
o:ten used for metal-Cutting tools. In diesel engines, Stellite is used to surface
~t1e valve face~ and seats of exhaust poppet valves. It is applied by welding
processes on to the valve face and seat, which must be preheated.

Cast iron – Used in different machine structures. Has the property of self lubrication because of the graphite present in
molecular structure.
Tin bronze casting – Used for certain sea water & fresh water pumps mostly pump casings. Have got the character of
corrosion resistance.

The non-ferrous metals and their alloys are mainly copper, zinc, tin,
aluminium, nickel, and chromium.
Copper is often used in pipe systems, while aluminium or aluminium alloys
can be used for various castings.
Copper when alloyed with zinc and small amounts of tin, in various proportions,
forms the range of alloys known as brass.
Copper alloyed with tin and small amounts of zinc forms the bronzes and
gunmetals.
Aluminium bronze is an alloy with 80 to 90% copper and up to 10%
aluminium, with small additions of other metals.
Phosphor-bronze is the name of.a range of tin-copper alloys containing small
amounts of phosphorus.
Manganese bronzes are produced by additions of up to 2070 manganese to
approximately 60/40 copper-zinc alloys.
Plastics, a product of the organic chemist, are made up of long chains of
identical molecules, Le., they are polymers. The constituent molecules are
carbon and hydrogen compounds and may also contain a wide range of other
elements. The raw materials used to produce plastics are obtained from coal or
petroleum oils.
Plastics are not used in any of the major parts of diesel engines. Their use is
limited to instruments and electrical fittings.
The materials mainly used are as follows.
Nylon. This material is used for bearings and small gearwheels in instruments.
It is tough, has a low coefficient of friction, and can be machined from rod or
plate sections. !tis also made into fibres .
Polymethylmethacrylate (Perspex). This is a clear plastic used for instrument
glasses, level gauge tubes (not boiler or steam service), and bearing-oil-well
sight glasses..
Polytetraj/uoroethylene (PTFE or Teflon). This material has a very low
coefficient of friction and resists heat; it also has good chemical resistance in the
presence of oil. It is used for gland packings or for coating conventional soft
packings. Due to its low frictional resistance it may be used as a packing for
shafts with high rubbing speeds. PTFE is supplied in moulded O-rings, or in
sheet or shredded form. It gives good service in fuel pump and valve glands.
Phenolic resins. These resins are normally bonded with linen or other fibrous
materials. They are used for bearings in pumps and on screwshafts. They swell
in water, an action to be considered when calculating bearing clearances. One
material which gives excellent service in water-lubricated bearings is Tufnol.
A wide range of other plastic materials are used to make paints and
compositions, thermal insulation, sound absorbents, bonding cements, etc.

Hdpe – high density polyurethanes. A kind of rubber polymer. Used in the inside lining of sea water pipes. Excellent
wear resistant & highly positive towards chemical injection for the removal of barnacles.
An elastomer is a rubber-like material. The term covers both natural products
and synthetic materials which are elastic or resilient.
Elastomers are used to make O-rings, jointing material, and packings. For
service at low temperatures, vulcanized or treated natural rubber can be used
for joints, O-rings, and similar packings. Treated natural rubber will not
withstand oil. Where there is contact with oil, the elastomer Neoprene is used.
Neoprene is produced from acetylene, which is converted to chloroprene and
then polymerized.
Nitrile rubber (a butadiene-acrylonitrile copolymer) is a synthetic material
used for service at high temperatures. It is used for the sealing rings fitted
between cylinder liners and jackets, and in the exhaust and scavenge port belt of
a two-stroke engine cylinder liner

Some of the engineering or technical ceramic materials are listed below.

aluminum oxide Al2O3
silicon carbide Si C
Silicon dioxide SiO2
Silicon nitride Si3N4' (
Zirconium dioxide ZrO2
Mllny of these materials are able to withstand very high temperatures before
mdlil'll or change of state occurs. The list is by no means complete, but covers
1I0meof the more important materials likely to be met in diesel machinery
practice.
The production of new ceramic materials and their use and application in the
field of diesel engine technology must still be regarded as in its infancy,
although, progress in the last few years has been rapid, particularly in the
automotive engine field.
Aluminium oxide is used in the manufacture of electrical insulators, abrasive
materials such as grinding wheels, grinding powders, pastes, and the like; it may
also be used in the manufacture of refractory cement. In certain hydrated forms
it can be used as a gas adsorb ant. It is also used in abrasive blast cleaning
processes (see Note). Silicon carbide is used in the manufacture of electronic
circuit components such as light-emitting diodes and in the manufacture of
abrasives. It is used in abrasive blast cleaning processes.
Silicon dioxide is used in glass manufacturing, abrasives, and foundry
moulding work. Silicon nitride is sometimes used in the manufacture of gas
lurbine components operating at extremely high temperatures such as stator
blading. It has a high resistance to thermal shock. It can sometimes be used for
cutting tools as it is extremely hard.
Zirconium dioxide is also known as Zirconia and used in applications for
the manufacture of special glasses, piezoelectric crystals and ceramic-metallic
materials (cermets). Zirconium oxide can withstand very high temperatures. A
considerable amount of research work has gone into trying to improve the efficiency
of diesel engines by using it to coat the piston crown, cylinder head, valve
heads and cylinder walls with zirconium oxide. The purpose is to increase the
operating temperature range in the cylinder and raise the thermal efficiency of
the engine. The oxide coating protects the metallic parts of the engine from the
higher temperatures and reduces the amount of heat passing into the cooling
water. The engine then operates on a higher range of temperature and so
increases the thermal efficiency.
A secondary consideration is to increase the life of parts by protecting them
from wear.
The coating of the parts is carried out by the plasma flame spraying process.
In this process the ceramic is fed in powder form into a spraying torch, an arc is
struck between a cooled central electrode and the nozzle, but is not transferred
on to the work. The nozzle forms an orifice and constricts the are, increases its
temperature and causes ionization of the plasma gas. The plasma gas is usually
argon. This is fed into the nozzle and emerges at an extremely high temperature
and melts the powdered ceramic. The velocity of the gas carries the melted
particles on to the work being coated.
r Composites of different ceramic materials and ceramic materials and metals

are made up to give the necessary properties of strength and make them
isotropic, to increase resistance to mechanical and thermal shock loading,
balance the thermal expansion between parts of different materials, improve
corrosion resistance, and the like.
Note Extremely hard, sharp abrasives should not be used in abrasive blast
cleaning processes on materials subjected to cyclic stress variations; the microscopic
abrasions left on the surface will form nucleation sites for the
commencement of fatigue failure.