CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

Friction, wear and lubrication of interacting surfaces are principal subjects of the wide

interdisciplinary science of tribology. In the design process, one of the most important

issues is to minimize the amount of wear being generated in an operation of any mechanical

systems. One of the most effective solutions is to determine an optimal material composition

of the cooperating parts based on the results of investigation on the amount of wear for

different material compositions and configurations. Such investigation has a

phenomenological nature and a final decision is made based on minimization of wear

measured in experimental test systems. Wear may be defined as the progressive loss of

substance from the operating surface of a body occurring as a result of relative motion at

the surface. Wear is rarely catastrophic but it reduces operating efficiency by increasing

the power loss, oil consumption and the rate of component replacement. Basic parameters

influencing wear are load, contact area, sliding velocity, coefficient of friction, material

properties, and environmental conditions. Material properties include shear strength,

toughness, hardness, and chemical composition of the materials involved. One of the most

effective solutions is to determine an optimal material composition of the cooperating

parts based on the results of investigation on the amount of wear for different material

compositions.

The pin-on-disk tribometer is a versatile laboratory apparatus for measuring the

friction and wear properties of combinations of metals and lubricants under selected

conditions of load, speed and temperature. The results provide an indication of the anti-
friction, anti-wear, and anti-scuff properties of oil or an additive, in oil. The operating

conditions can be made to simulate, as far as possible, those in a practical machine. Pin-

on-disc tribometers are not suitable for the wear behaviours of conventionally used

sliding bearings. For this purpose a new wear testing machine for sliding bearings is

needed. The main goal of this project is to measure the wear behaviour of conventionally

used sliding bearings. For this purpose a new wear testing machine is designed and

fabricated for sliding bearings.

1.1 GENERAL BACKGROUND

Friction is caused by forces between the two contacting bodies, acting in their

interface. In moving machinery, friction is responsible for dissipation and loss of much

energy. The energy lost to friction is an energy input that must continually be provided in

order to maintain the sliding motion. This energy is dissipated in the system, primarily as

heat--which may have to be removed by cooling to avoid damage and may limit the

conditions under which the machinery can be operated. Some of the energy is dissipated

in various deformation processes, which result in wear of the sliding surfaces and their

eventual degradation to the point where replacement of whole components becomes

necessary. Wear of sliding surfaces adds another, very large component to the economic

importance of friction, because without sliding friction these surfaces would not wear.

Friction forces are determined by two factors besides the load; the properties of the

contacting material and the area of contact. The friction forces are usually not directly

predictable because both of these factors depend very much on the particular conditions.
 In general, there are four different types of wear in machinery: adhesive, abrasive,

erosive, and fretting. In adhesive wear the wear appears from the adhesion between two

sliding surfaces. When the two surfaces rub each other a certain area of one surface

comes in contact with a similar area on the other surface. These two surfaces start to wear

and particles are released from the two surfaces as wear debris. Abrasive wear occurs,

when a sharp object is pressed onto another surface. The softer material gets grooves that

are cut into the surface; this removal of material is also called wear debris. Erosive wear

is mostly dependent on nature and is mostly caused by impact erosion1. Fretting wear

takes place when slipping occurs between two materials. The slipping that takes place is

mostly caused by vibrations. In sliding bearings adhesive wear mainly occurs due to

continuous motion.

Sliding and adhesive wear refer to a type of wear generated by the sliding of one

solid surface along another surface. Adhesive wear is as ambiguously defined as is

sliding wear, though the two are not strictly synonymous. Adhesive wear denotes a

wearing action in which no specific agency can be identified as the cause of the wear.

Adhesion has been confirmed in the 1930s to be a major contributor to sliding resistance

(friction) and was inferred in mechanics at least to be operative in wear as well. Thus, if

no abrasive substances are found, if the amplitude of sliding is greater than that in

fretting, and if the rate of material loss is not governed by the principles of oxidation, and

so on, adhesive wear is said to occur. Adhesion is most clearly demonstrated in sliding

systems when, for example, a shaft seizes in a bearing. Again, adhesion is implicated in

galling and scuffing (which some researchers classify as surface damage rather than
wear) even when no material is lost from the system. From these examples, it can be seen

that adhesion is not the cause of wear, but only the consequence of contact. Wearing

occurs when interfaces in contact are made to slide and the locally adhered regions must

separate. This separation may occur by one or two of the failure modes of solids,

resulting in a very wide range of wear rate. The purpose in defining and studying specific

wear modes is to find ways to prolong the wear life of sliding systems. Each mode of

wear can best be resisted by the proper choice of material, lubricant, and method of

operation.

1.2 OBJECTIVES OF THE PROJECT

 Design and fabrication of the sliding bearing wear testing machine.

 To investigate the wear behaviour of conventionally used sliding
bearings such as bronze by using the fabricated sliding bearing wear test
machine

1.3 SCOPE OF THE PROJECT

The main scope of the project is to evaluate the co-efficient of friction and wear

rate of different sliding bearings under constant speed and different load conditions.

1.4 PROBLEM DEFINITION

Pin-on-disc testing is a commonly used technique for investigating sliding wear.The

apparatus consists essentially of a "pin" in contact with a rotating disc. Either the pin or

the disc can be the test piece of interest. The contact surface of the pin may be flat,
spherical, or, indeed, of any convenient geometry, including that of actual wear

components.

In a typical pin-on-disc experiment, the coefficient of friction is continuously monitored

as wear occurs, and the material removed is determined by weighing and/or measuring

the profile of the resulting wear track. Changes in coefficient of friction are frequently

indicative of a change in wear mechanism, although marked changes are often seen

during the early stages of wear tests as equilibrium conditions become established.

The main variables which affect friction and wear are velocity and normal load. In

addition, specimen orientation can be important if retained wear debris affects the wear

rate.

Pin-on-disc tribometers are not suitable for the measurement of wear behaviour of

conventionally used sliding bearings. For this purpose a new wear testing machine is to

designed and fabricated for sliding bearings. Using the fabricated machine sliding

bearings wear behaviours is measured.

A pin on disc tribometer is the standard equipment used to determine the sliding friction

coefficient and wear resistance of surfaces. The tester consists of a stationary "pin" under

an applied load in contact with a rotating disc.

Either the pin or the disc can be wear- and friction-tested using the pin on disc tester. The

pin is usually a sphere however it may be any geometry that simulates the actual

application counter surface.

A load cell attached to the pin on disc tester is used to measure the evolution of the

friction coefficient with sliding distance.[3] Sliding wear of the disc can be measured after

the pin on disc test using a simple piece of equipment called a Calo tester.

The pin on disc test has proved particularly useful in providing a simple wear and friction

test for low friction coatings on machine components, such as the valve train, particularly

in motor sports. These components are now coated with low friction coatings such as

diamond-like carbon to reduce energy losses and the requirement for lubricant.
1.1 ORGANISATION OF THE THESIS

Chapter 2 includes review on various studies wear behaviour of sliding

bearings done on.

Chapter 3 gives a general idea about bearings. It includes the various

types of bearings, their applications, advantages, different types of
damages occurring etc.

Chapter 4 gives an idea about different standard tests specimens used

in this work under various loading conditions. Also determination of
Strain Energy Release Rate using VCCT and Modified Beam theory is
discussed.

Chapter 5 demonstrates the working of MMB test fixture. For this

purpose an experiment was carried out using a specimen made of
aluminum.

Chapter 6 is all about the Finite Element Analysis carried out in this
work. DCB, ENF and MMB tests were modeled in Ansys.

Chapter 7 deals with the evaluation of residual strength of composite

strut with delamination. For this VCCT approach was employed.

Chapter 8 gives an idea about the variation of Strain Energy Release

Rate with Ply Angle.
Chapter 9 discusses the results obtained from the work.

Chapter 10 brings out the conclusions and suggestions for future work.

CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE SURVEY

Sliding wear behaviour of bronzes under varying material composition,

microstructure and test conditions [1] has been discussed by B K Prasad. In this paper

reviews Sliding wear behaviour of some leaded-tin and aluminium bronzes has been

studied over a wide range of applied pressures and speeds using a pin-on-disc machine.

Wear rate, frictional heating and surface roughness of the samples were monitored during

the tests. The wear response of specimens has been correlated with the features of their

wear surfaces, subsurface regions and debris particles, and explained in terms of varying

elemental concentrations and specific characteristics of various micro constituents in

terms of thermal stability, cracking and lubricating tendency, and load bearing capability.

Wear rate of leaded-tin bronzes decreased with increasing sliding speed while the

aluminium bronze exhibited an opposite trend. High wear rates corresponded to more

severe microcracking tendency on and in the regions below the wear surfaces and coarser
debris formation. Improved wear performance of the leaded-tin bronzes with increasing

sliding speed could be attributed to the suppressed microcracking tendency favouring

effective smearing of the lubricating phase (lead) leading to lubrication. Deteriorating

wear behaviour of the aluminium bronze with speed/pressure could be due to the

occurrence of more severe wear conditions leading ultimately to specimen seizure.

Unlubricated rolling-sliding wear mechanisms of complex aluminium bronze

against steel [3] has been discussed by Shi Z et al. In this paper reviews Unlubricated

rolling-sliding wear tests of as-received and electron beam surface melted complex

aluminium bronze, CA104, against hardened En19 steel have been carried out. Test

samples have been examined using optical microscopy, scanning electron microscopy

and microhardness measurements. It is found that both adhesive wear and delamination

wear occur in the wear process and the wear debris forms in two ways. Two types of

structures exist in the wear debris, which are related to a deformed and a highly deformed

subsurface structure in the tested samples. Electron beam surface melting improves the

wear resistance of the material but the wear mechanisms involved have not been

fundamentally changed. Electron beam surface melting produces a martensitic layer on

the surface of complex aluminium bronze and increases the hardness.

Mechanical, friction and wear behaviours of a novel high-strength wear-resisting

aluminum bronze [4] has been discussed by Li Y et al. In this paper, the microstructural

effects on mechanical and tribological behaviors of aluminium bronze, a novel high-

strength wear resisting aluminium bronze(KK) has been developed by optimizing

microstructures, modifying, adding special elements and controlling the casting process.

In aluminium bronze adding the anti friction component Pb, modifying components Ti

and B and controlling the melting and solidification process can effectively improve the

microstructures and mechanical friction and wear properties of aluminium bronze.

Compared with other aluminium bronze alloys of the same class, the novel KK bronze

has the best performance especially with regard to its friction and wears properties.

Reproducibility of friction and wear results is ball-on-disc unidirectional sliding

tests of TiN-alumina pairings [5] has been discussed by M.Z. Huq. In this paper,

validation test methods for thin hard coatings, friction and wear characteristics of TiN

coatings were investigated. Ball-on-disc sliding tests were performed in ambient air of

50% FW at various applied loads under a fixed sliding speed. The coefficient of friction

was measured on-line whereas the worn-off volume was determined by laser stylus

profilometry and mass loss measurements. The two wear loss methods were compared. It

was confirmed that the profilometry measured wear volume is linearly dependent on the

total dissipated energy as long as the coating is not worn through. From this study, the

effect of normal load on the fiction and wear behaviour of TiN coatings and the

reproducibility of the tribotests are discussed. The coefficient of friction decreases as the

normal load increases, in contradiction to Amonton’s law. The characteristic friction

behaviour of TiN sliding against alumina is reproducible at different loads as long as the

wear is confined within the TiN coating. The reproducibility decreases with increasing

normal load and the maximum standard deviation in the co-efficient of friction is noticed

at a load of 15.82 N.
 Reciprocal sliding wear of SIC particle-reinforced Al-Cu aluminium matrix

composites against stainless steel, high speed tool steel and ceramics [6] has been

discussed by Mingwu Bai. In this paper The friction and wear of AI-Cu-SiC aluminium

matrix composite pins dry sliding against 4Cr13, W18Cr4V and Si3N4( SN) ceramic blocks

were investigated in a reciprocal friction test machine under applied loads of 20-175 N

and reciprocal speeds of 0.075-1.2 m/s. Five wear regimes, adhesion wear (mild,

intermediate),abrasion wear, mild melt wear and severe abrasion wear, are identified for

Al-Cu-SiC/4Crl3 tribopairs. Abrasion wear is the most severe wear mode of aluminium-

Sic composites. The selection of counterpart material is very critical in reducing dry

sliding wear of aluminium-SiC composites. The counterpart materials of high hardness

and high properties of iron oxide formation in situ are recommended.

Abrasive wear of aluminium composites--a review [7] has been discussed by R.L.

Deuis. In this paper Aluminium-silicon alloys and aluminium-based metal-matrix

composites (MMCs) containing hard particles offer superior operating performance and

resistance to wear. Wear behaviour results using AI-Si as the matrix is already "masked"

by the fact that this composition is an in situ composite in its own right, with Si as the

second phase, the use of an aluminium alloy also complicates this study, by the presence

of intermetallics formed during the fabrication process. Studies using aluminium as the

matrix material would enhance our understanding of reinforcement particle-matrix

interaction during the wear process, Presentation of wear data obtained by the use of

standardized test conditions would also aid in the comparison of published work. The
composite coating formed exhibits microstructutal and tribological properties

characteristic of a bulk composite material, but independent of substrate effects.

Energy and wear analysis in lubricated sliding contact [8] has been discussed by

Asuman Alp. In this paper Lubricants are used to control friction and minimize wear in a

variety of tribological applications. When lubricants are used at the contact interface of

two sliding surfaces the material loss due to wear and the energy consumption due to

friction are reduced by several orders of magnitude. In railroad applications, lubricants

are routinely applied to the side of the rails to reduce friction and wear that occur between

the flange part of the wheel and the gauge side of the rail on curved tracks. Lubricated

tests were conducted in boundary lubrication regime to develop a standard testing method

for the measurement of railroad gauge side lubricant performance in sliding contact, on a

modified pin-on-disk system using AISI 1040 steel samples. Both friction and wear can

be reduced between the gauge of the rail and the flange of the wheel using the lubricants

tested Ranking of the lubricant performance for railroad gauge side application can be

based on: (a) amount of energy saved, (b) amount of sliding distances before the lubricant

breakdown took place, and (c) lubricant breakdown duration, and (d) extent of

acceleration monitored during steady-state and towards the end of the sliding

experiments. For the rail gauge side lubrication, the longer the lubricant breakdown

duration the less the number of lubricant applications needed. Lower friction and wear

values, and less amount of wear debris were obtained in lubricated tests, when compared

with unlubricated tests.

 Determination of friction coefficient in journal bearings [9] has been discussed by

Bekir Sadık Unlu. In this paper, friction coefficient knowing is important for the

determination of wear loss conditions at journal bearings. Tribological events that

influence wear and its variations effect experimental results. In this study, friction

coefficient as example at bronze radial bearings has been determined by a new approach.

In experiments, friction effects of bearings have been examined at dry and lubricated

conditions and at different loads and velocities. At the beginning of the motion because

of the dry friction, friction coefficient increases and later decreases. As the load increases,

friction coefficient decreases at dry condition. But at lubricated condition, friction

coefficient increases by increasing load because of decreasing oil film thickness. Finally,

bearing temperature increases by increasing load and velocity. Friction force is

approximately stable by increasing.

 CHAPTER 3

BEARINGS

3.1 Introduction

A bearing is a machine element which supports another moving machine element

known as journal. It permits a relative motion between the contact surfaces of the

members while carrying the load. Due to the relative motion between the contact

surfaces, a certain amount of power is waste in overcoming frictional resistance and if he

rubbing surfaces are in contact, there will be rapid wear. In order to reduce frictional

resistance and wear and in some cases to carry away the heat generated, a layer of fluid

(known as lubricant) may be provided. The lubricant used to separate the journal and

bearing.

3. 2 Classification of Bearings

Bearings may be classified in to different ways

(1) Depending upon the direction of load to be applied

(a) Radial bearings (b) Thrust bearings

In radial bearings the load acts perpendicular to the direction of the motion of the moving

element. In thrust bearings, load acts along the axis of rotation.

(2) Depending upon the nature of contact

(a) Sliding contact bearings (b) Rolling contact bearings

In sliding contact bearings, the sliding takes place along the surface of the contact

between the moving element and the fixed element. The sliding contact bearings also

known as plain bearings. In rolling contact bearings, the steel balls or rollers, are

interposed between the moving and fixed elements. The balls offer rolling friction at two

points for each ball or roller.

Sliding bearings (plain bearings) are designed to transmit force between two

surfaces that are in relative motion. The simplest forms of sliding bearings are used

unlubricated and thus suffer from the penalty of high friction and wear. Providing

lubricant under favorable conditions separates the surfaces and reduces the coefficient of

friction by a factor of 100, and reduces the rate of wear by many orders of magnitude. A

bearing may be an integral part of the equipment, but it is usually a separate component

either in the form of a round bushing, a half bearing, a thrust washer, a flanged bearing

(which can accommodate both radial and axial loads), or a wear plate. These components

are generally classified as thin wall if their thickness is 5 mm (0.2 in.) and heavy wall if

their thickness is >5 mm (>0.2 in.). Bearings with diameters >150 mm (>6 in.) are mostly

in the heavy-wall class. For special-purpose applications, the bearing surface may be
divided into a number of elements or tilting pads, either for relatively highly loaded high-

speed thrust bearings, or for lightly loaded journal bearings where the increased

resistance to oil-film whirl provided by these bearings is required (as in vertical-shaft

high-speed pumps, turbo compressors, and so on). Sliding bearing performance is

substantially affected by the lubrication regime. Three categories of lubrication regimes

will be discussed in this article:

· Rubbing (dry or boundary lubrication)

· Full film (surfaces separated by lubricant film)

· Mixed film (load partly carried by rubbing and partly by fluid film)

Rolling-contact bearings use special-grade steels designated as "bearing steels." For high

temperature applications, stainless steels, tool steels, cemented carbides, super alloys, and

ceramics are useful in sliding or rolling contacts. If corrosion resistance is required,

stainless steels, hardfacing alloys, super alloys, titanium-base alloys, ceramics, carbon-

graphite, and polymers should be considered. Journal bearing materials, which require

conformability, embeddibility, softening under frictional heating, and fail-safe properties.

3.3 Materials used for sliding bearings

The materials commonly used for sliding contact bearings are Babbitt metal,

bearing bronzes, cast iron, silver, zinc-base alloys, and aluminum-base alloys; some

polymers also fall under this classification. For sliding bearings operating in water,

carbon-graphite is an excellent selection; some polymers are appropriate for these

applications as well. Self-lubricating materials for use under dry sliding conditions

include various polymers, carbon graphite materials, and metal-matrix composites.

3.3.1: Babbitt metal

The tin base and lead base babbits are widely used as a bearing material, because they

satisfy most requirements for general applications. The babbits are recommended where

the maximum bearing pressure is not over 7 to 14 N/mm2. Bobbitt are commonly used in

Automobiles. They have an ability to embed dirt and have excellent compatibility

properties under boundary lubrication. Compared with other bearing materials, babbitts

generally have lower load-carrying capacity and fatigue strength, are slightly more costly,

and require a more complicated design. Also, their strength decreases rapidly with

increasing temperature. These shortcomings can often be avoided by using an

intermediate layer of high-strength, fatigue-resisting materials between the steel backing

and the thin babbitt surface layer. Such composite bearings frequently eliminate any need

for alternative materials with poorer compatibility characteristics. Common compositions

for Babbitt alloys:

• 90% tin 10% copper

• 89% tin 7% antimony 4% copper

• 80% lead 15% antimony 5% tin

3.3.1.1 Tin babbitt:

These materials are composed of 80 to 90% tin, with about 3 to 8% copper and 4 to

14% antimony added. An increase in the copper or antimony increases hardness and

tensile strength and decreases ductility. Increasing the percentage of these hardening

alloys above this range decreases both cracking resistance and fatigue strength.
 3.3.1.2 Lead babbitt:

Generally, these compositions range from 10 to 15% antimony plus up to 10% tin.

Lead babbitts based on lead-antimony-tin alloys have a structure consisting of hard

antimony-tin crystals in a relatively soft high-lead matrix. Compared to tin babbitts,

lead-base materials are less costly and have less tendency to score a shaft. With quick

chilling to give a fine microstructure, thin surface layers for improved fatigue

strength, and careful attention to bonding, lead babbitt gives excellent service and is

used in much greater volumes than tin Babbitt.

3.3.2 Bronzes

The bronzes are generally used in the form of machined bushes pressed in to the shell.

Bronze is the alloy of copper, tin and zinc. The bush may be in one or two pieces. The

bronzes commonly used bearing materials are gun metal and phosphor bronze.

3.3.2.1 Gunmetal

Gunmetal is a type of bronze – an alloy of copper, tin, and zinc. Originally used chiefly

for making guns, gunmetal was superseded by steel. Gunmetal composed of 88% copper,

10% tin, and 2% zinc. Gunmetal has good casting characteristics, particularly as a sand

casting, and so is often employed in the production of pump casings and for similar

components where comparatively high strength, coupled with pressure tightness and

corrosion resistance are important requirements. Gunmetal are used for valve guides,

bearings and bushes, particularly in the gas and oil engine field and where bearing/shaft

alignments can be ensured and lubrication is good. Gunmetal has a low coefficient of
friction; very good corrosion resisting properties makes its use common place in marine

engine ring.

3.3.2.2 Phosphor bronze

Phosphor bronze is an alloy of copper with 3.5 to 10% of tin and a significant

phosphorus content of up to 1%. The phosphorus is added as deoxidizing agent during

melting. These alloys are notable for their toughness, strength, low coefficient of friction,

and fine grain. The phosphorus also improves the fluidity of the molten metal and thereby

improves the castability, and improves mechanical properties by cleaning up the grain

boundaries. Further increasing the phosphorus content leads to formation of a very hard

compound Cu3P (copper phosphide), resulting in a brittle form of phosphor bronze,

which has a narrow range of applications.

PLAIN BEARING FAILURES

Plain or sliding bearings are lubricated by the formation of a hydrodynamic film of

lubricant, where the wedge formed lifts the shaft or journal off the bearing. For clarity the

bearing clearance is greatly exaggerated. Since pressure in the wedge increases to a

maximum near the point of minimum oil film thickness, and then completely disappears

as the bearing clearance increases, the resultant force, FR, both lifts the journal and

displaces it slightly away from the wedge.

To prevent contact between a journal and its bearing, the minimum oil film

thickness must at all times be greater than the combined mean surface roughness of the

journal and bearing. This film thickness depends on the following four factors: The

lubricant viscosity, Speed of journal rotation, Load on the journal, Operating temperature.
Slight changes in load, lubricant flow to the bearing or temperature will alter the oil film

thickness, the most common of these being load changes due to some vibration or

harmonic in the system. A vibrating load alternately will decrease the film thickness and

increase the bearing offset; thus the journal center will follow an elliptical path within the

bearing if the vibration is a constant or may follow a complex path, as in the case of an

engine main bearing.

Abnormal wear and failures occur as the oil film thickness decreases to less than the

combined mean surface roughness. This may occur due to a lack of lubricant, an

abnormal load, excessive temperature or a combination of any of these factors.

Lack of lubricant

An unfortunately common cause of engine failure occurs as an engine runs dry of oil,

resulting in a diminished flow of lubricant to the bearings. Because the big end bearings

rotate about the main bearings and are lubricated via the main bearings, the crank-shaft

becomes a centrifugal pump, and the available lubricant supply preferentially feeds the

big end bearings. Note how the main bearings are more severely damaged than the big

end bearings.

Abnormal load

Abnormal load causes bearing to severe wear .Note the undulating wear pattern formed

on the surface of the unloaded bearing half. The loaded half of this bearing was

excessively worn.
Material failures

Under a continuous normal operation, a bearing should have infinite life because it is

protected by the oil wedge, and no metal-to-metal contact occurs. Bearing life then is

only limited by the fatigue life of the bearing material. This is fatigue only of the bearing

overlay material and does not impair bearing life. In reality, bearings must stop and

restart at regular intervals. An oil wedge can only be formed in a rotating bearing; hence,

it is when a bearing stops and restarts that wear occurs.

Bearings also must absorb particles in the lubricant that otherwise would lead to

abnormal wear and failure. This property is called embedability. Typical haloes from

embedded material are seen in Figure 6. Although the bearing surface is marked, this is

not a failure, and the bearing could have been expected to continue in service for a

normal life.

Bearing erosion may occur from either cavitation or corrosion.

Cavitation

Changes in the pressure wedge from grooves cut across the bearing caused entrained air

to be released at a microlevel. causing the cavitation. Cavitation initially erodes the

bearing overlay material but over a period of time will progress into the bearing material,

causing eventual failure if the bearing material has a poor resistance to fatigue.

Corrosion
Oxidation occurs during the service life of a lubricant, which produces acids. In engines

strong acids are produced from combustion. Acids attack the intergranular matrix, in

engine. In addition, further corrosion will break out larger grains of material resulting in

bearing failure.

Bearing melting

Heat is generated in bearings by friction in the lubricant as it forms an oil wedge. By

definition viscosity is the lubricant's resistance to shear; thus, higher viscosity lubricants

and bearings operating under higher loads stabilize at higher operating temperatures. The

bearing material chosen for any operation must have a melting point higher than the

operating temperature. Figure 9 shows a bearing where the operating temperature was

above the overlay material melting point.

The extra friction in a section of the load zone from a high spot in the bearing will cause

a localized failure. Since bearings are generally precision components, high spots are

caused by a solid object lodged behind the bearing shell.

Final failure

Ultimately bearings fail because the bond between the steel back and the bearing material

breaks down, and the bearing material delaminates from the steel back. Failure of this

bond is caused by abnormally high temperatures generated in the load zone by the real

cause of the failure. Figure 11 shows the bearing delaminating from the steel back of a

bearing.
After the bearing material has been lost from a bearing, the resultant excessive clearance

between the steel back and journal in a reciprocating application, such as an engine,

allows the extra momentum to pound and flatten the steel back. Consequently, after a

typical failure all that is left is the deformed pieces of steel bearing backing that can be

seen in Figure 12, which don't tell what caused the failure in the first place.

Conclusion

When considering any excessive bearing wear or failure, look at as many bearings and as

much of the system as possible and consider the overall dynamics of the system. The real

cause of failure is usually lost in the failed bearing but normally will still be present on

other bearings in the system. Remember that all the bearings normally see the same

operating conditions, but that one bearing has to fail first.

 CHAPTER 4

THEORY

Introduction

Many different approaches have been used to determine amounts of wear, both

qualitatively and quantitatively. If material is actually lost during wear, then a commonly used

method of measurement is to determine the amount of removed material, perhaps by weight loss,

as is also done in the field of corrosion. Alternatively, if the wear process leads to surface distress

on some component, then surface roughening or cracking may be measured. Other forms of

surface and subsurface wear damage can be encountered, as well, and can be measured by other

direct and indirect methods. The amount of wear will also influence the selection of measurement

method. If large amounts of wear are experienced, then relatively simple, inexpensive

measurement approaches, such as volume change or mass change determination, are usually

conducted successfully. Alternatively, if very small wear amounts are experienced, then more

sensitive and costly techniques are necessary to detect minute changes of mass or volume. The

approach of measuring mass change in this test method is usually quick and inexpensive, and

specimen costs can be low. Weld-overlay materials, coatings, ceramics, composites, and many

other types of materials can be studied using this method.

Mass Loss Measures of Wear

Wear loss can be determined by measuring either mass change or dimensional change.

The mass loss method is straightforward. It is necessary that an original part or specimen

(or equivalent) be weighed, and that the weight of the object after wear exposure is

determined and subtracted from the original to determine the difference in weight (that is,

mass change). As the parts involved become smaller and lighter or the wear loss becomes

smaller, it will be necessary to use increasingly sensitive weighing equipment. At some

point, the mass change will be too small for the method to be feasible. Other problems

with this approach include the need to clean the specimen carefully to avoid having

extraneous matter on the surface contribute to any weight difference. Of course, any

fluids or solids used in cleaning must be thoroughly removed or dried. Another

consideration is that material that was plastically displaced by the wear process but not

actually removed from the part will not be included in the weight difference. The amount

of wear can be described by the absolute amount of mass loss (in grams), or by the rate of

mass loss per unit of usage (grams per day), or by a fractional change in the mass of the

part involved (1% change per 100 hours of operation).

Linear Measures of Wear

A common alternative to the weight loss measure of wear is to measure dimensional

change. In many situations, the design of a component that is subject to wear will only

allow up to a certain loss of dimension before either the integrity or function of the
system is lost. In such cases, monitoring the dimensions of a part is a natural approach to

assessing the amount of wear encountered. Frequently, such studies lead to the

establishment of criteria for servicing or for part replacement. Examples include the wear

of bushings or shafts, ball-bearing retainers, sliding actuator parts, and piston cylinder

wall contacts. Although this approach to wear measurement is frequently used, very small

amounts of wear are difficult to measure, much as in the case of wear measurement by

mass loss. As one example of a linear measure of wear, consider a reported study of the

abrasive wear of various types of metals used in tractor shovels (Ref 5). In the design of

interest, both bucket teeth and cutting edges were involved. Therefore, a natural approach

was to measure the shape changes of those components that were due to wear. Figure 5

shows a worn bucket tooth having a linear wear loss of amount L. Because that measure

only applies to one location on the worn part, the user must be certain that the location

picked is either typical or average, or perhaps shows a maximum amount of wear.

Area Measures of Wear

Certain wear contact geometries produce material loss over a localized area on the two

surfaces. In many cases, those areas of wear loss can be measured and are proportional to

the amount of wear. Examples would include worn areas on gear teeth, on bearing

retainers, and on sliding pads with contoured surfaces. If the curvature of the surface is

known, then the amount of wear can be quantified on the basis of the area worn. Because

many tribological components involve area contacts, as contrasted to point or line

contacts, area measures of wear are important. Two examples are described below. One

frequently used laboratory test system comprises a stationary block and a rotating ring.
Several ASTM standards, such as Ref 11, that are concerned with lubricants and material

wear, utilize this type of system. Although the initial contact between the two specimens

is nominally a line (there is actually a small lateral width associated with elastic

deformation along the contact line), the resulting scar on the block becomes a curved

rectangular surface as the two components wear. The volume worn from the block can be

calculated from the two scar dimensions and the ring (or scar) curvature, but it is also

common to find the projected scar area reported. The ASTM standard involves scar width

measurement only because it specifies the specific block size, and, hence, scar length and

ring diameter. An optical micrograph of a portion of a wear scar on a Ag-Cu alloy block

is shown in Fig. 10, along with a profile measurement taken perpendicular to the scar

length (that is, the sliding direction).

Volume Measures of Wear

In a large proportion of reports that contain wear measurements, one finds the wear

amount reported in volume units, for example, mm3. This better enables a comparison of

wear among materials having different densities, and also permits easy calculation of

linear wear amounts or wear allowances. Many of the standards for wear testing require

the reporting of wear in volume units (Ref 3). In some cases, it is actually necessary to

directly measure wear volume. This generally occurs when the worn region is very

irregular or unsymmetric in shape, or when high accuracy in the result is needed.

Unfortunately, such measurements are quite time-consuming. Two examples of direct

volume determinations associated with laboratory wear testing are given next to illustrate

the methods involved. In one study (Ref 13), the worn surface of interest was neither flat
nor smooth enough to permit accurate use of the usual geometric formulae. Therefore, the

surface was traced on an X-Y stylus profiling system, and the resulting data were digitized

to facilitate further calculations. Figure 14 shows a view of the worn surface

reconstructed from the surface profile data. With such data, it is straightforward to

calculate the volume difference between the worn specimen and the unworn original,

which in this case was a sphere. This approach should be possible for most worn

contacts, as long as they can be cleaned of extraneous matter, such as wear debris

particles, and as long as sufficient lateral and vertical resolution are offered by the stylus

tip and system.

CHAPTER 4

3.1 METHODOLOGY

An experimental set up is fabricated which contains a three phase squirrel cage

induction motor having 1.1 K W and 1445 rpm capacity was selected. The motor shaft is

fixed with a hardened material which is harder than the wear testing material. In this test

set up quenched steel is using the shaft covering material. The use of hardened material

prevents the wear failure of mile. Mile is the hardened material. The shaft material is

supported with two ball bearings. In between the two ball bearings the test specimen is

fixed in the test machine on the mile surface. Then a cast iron pulley is placed over the

sliding bearing. Using the set up for applying the load on the test specimen or the sliding

bearing. Over the pulley a V-belt is mounted and is mounted another pulley. The Second

pulley is placed over a shaft, in between the pulley and shaft bearings are provided. Then

a loading system is attached with the shaft. The test specimen contact pulley is connected
with a plate .The twisting of the plate is measured with the help of a transducer element.

The transducer element is connected with a data acquisition system for continuous data

storaging. The collected data sent into a computer. Using the data, various curves are

plotting commonly plotting curves are Cumulative volume loss Vs Time, Wear rate Vs

Time, Wear rate Vs Applied load.

Initial no load condition the motor started. Again loading is applied on the

specimen this time test specimen contact pulley turn and the pulley contact plate is

twisted. The test will be conducted for different materials under different loads.

DESIGN OF SLIDING BEARING TESTING MACHINE

In order to investigate the wear failures and also characterize it observed in sliding

bearings, a new wear testing machine was designed and fabricated. The experiments have

been performed by using this machine.

At first Crompton three Phase induction motor having 1.1 kW and 1445rpm capacity is

selected using equation 1.

2π N T
P= (4.1)
60

where P is power in watt, N is the speed of the motor in rpm, T is the torque in Nm.

POWER OF THE MOTOR ( P ) =1.1 KW

T = P × 60 ÷ 2π N

SPEED OF THE MOTOR ( N ) =1445 RPM

TORQUE OF THE MOTOR ( T ) = P*60/( 2*3.14*N )

T =1100*60/(2*3.14*1445)

= 7.298 Nm

V BELT PULLEY SELECTION

 Pulley is selected on the basis of the power of the motor using the experimental set

up.

 Cast Iron pulley is selected for the testing purpose

 Selected pulley Dimensions

 Pulley diameter ( D ) = 120 mm

 Width of the pulley ( B) = 20 mm

Figure 4. 1: Cast iron pulley with bearing specimen

V BELT DESIGN

 A’ Grade V belt is selected on the basis of the power of the motor and pulley

dimensions.

 Rubber on fabric type V- belt is used in this experimental set up.

Specification & Design

 For minimum slip between the two pulleys and belt, select A33 belt for connecting

purpose

 Centre to centre distance between the V- belt pulleys (C) = 231.8 mm

 Ball bearing selection

 Ball bearings are used to support the shaft to prevent from bending while loading.

 The selected bearing types are S K F 6204 & S K F 6206 given below.

 S K F 6204

 Inner Diameter = 20 mm

 Outer Diameter = 47 mm

 Width of the bearing = 16 mm

 The specification of SKF 6206.

 FABRICATION OF THE TESTING MACHINE

A shaft is fixed at the center of the motor. This mile is a hardened material and its

diameter is 30mm. The mile is hardened in order to prevent it from wear failure. A cast-

iron pulley is designed to put the ring shaped specimen tested. During the experiment the

specimens are put in their location in the test machine and tightened and then vertically

loaded against the mile located at the center of the motor. A plate is attached to the cast-

iron pulley in order to measure the deflection due to the frictional force.

The photo graph of the newly designed and produced wear testing machine is shown in

figure 1-2
Figure 4.1: Sliding bearing testing machine
 Figure 4.2: Side view of the wear testing machine.

Figure 4.3: Pictorial view of the sliding bearing testing machine

A. Specimen Preparation.

The conventional sliding bearing alloys were produced by centrifugal casting method.

These specimens were formed in to ring shape by means of a lathe and their inner surfaces

were made to ground finish. The specimen is shown in figure 3 and its specifications are

shown in table 1. Specimens made from two different bearing materials were used for the

experimental purpose and their chemical composition is shown in table 2

TABLE 4.1. SPECIFICATION OF BEARING MATERIAL

Inner Diameter of the bearing 30 mm

Outer Diameter of the bearing 41 mm

Width of the bearing specimen 10 mm

TABLE 4.2: CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF SPECIMEN

Sample Cu Zn Sn
Gun metal 80 2.0 10
 Figure 4.4: Specimen.

I. EXPEIMENTAL PROCEDURE

The production picture of the experimental set up is shown in figure 4. At first the

specimen to be tested is fitted in the cast-iron pulley. It is then inserted on the shaft and

placed between two ball bearings and the whole assembly is tightened with a hexagonal

nut. Now wear test of sliding bearing specimen were performed for one hour under three

different wear loads as10N, 20N and 30N. Each experiment conducted on with a time of

10 minutes.

When we start the experiment the mile turns and a force occur to put up with the

friction occurred between the mile and specimen interface. This force creates a moment

along the mile axis and tries to turn the specimen. Due to this moment a deflection is

obtained on the angle plate attached to the cast-iron pulley. This deflection is recorded by

means of a transducer as a voltage (v). This voltage is used to evaluate the frictional force

and the coefficient of friction value of bearing material is found.

 The specimen is tested under both wet and dry condition. The weight of the specimen

is measured before and after each experiment using a precise electronic weighing machine

having an accuracy of 0.0001g. Now using the mass loss technique wear rate can be

calculated.

CHAPTER 4

RESULTS AND ANALYSIS

Wear test of the gun metal is performed under wet and dry conditions for three different

loads as 20N and 30N, with a 0.5m/s constant turning velocity of the mile.

Figure 4.1 and figure 4.2 shows the wear rate Vs Time for the dry and wet condition

respectively. From the figure it can be inferred that the wear rate increases with the
applied load. This is due to the increase in the coefficient of friction when the load is

increased.

Figure 4.1. Wear rate for the bearing specimen ( Dry condn )
 Figure 4.2. Wear rate for the bearing specimen (wet condition )

Results of the tested specimen

Applied load 20 N under dry condition

Time in minutes Volume loss in m3 Wear rate mg/km

10 3.82E-10 2.5

20 2.02E-10 1.322

30 1.80E-10 1.175

40 1.57E-10 1.03

50 1.35E-10 0.88

60 1.34E-10 0.88

Applied load 30 N Dry condition

 Time in minutes Volume loss in m3 Wear rate mg/km
10 7.42E-10 4.85

20 2.35E-10 1.54

30 2.02E-10 1.32

40 1.79E-10 1.17

50 1.68E-10 1.10

60 1.57E-10 1.03

Applied load 20 N under wet condition

Time in minutes Volume loss in m3 Wear rate mg/kg

10 1.46E-10 0.95

20 0.449E-10 0.294

30 0.337E-10 0.220

40 0.225E-10 0.147

50 0.225E-10 0.147

60 0.112E-10 0.07

Applied load 30N wet condition

 Time in minutes Volume loss in m3 Wear rate mg/km
10 1.69E-10 1.10

20 0.67E-10 0.441

30 0.56E-10 0.368

40 0.449E-10 0.294

50 0.337E-10 0.221

60 0.225E-10 0.147

The various graphs are plotted such as Wear rate vs. Time and also Cumulative volume

loss vs. Time with an applied load of 20 and 30Nunder dry and wet condition
Figure 4.3. Cumulative volume loss of bearing at dry conditin
Figure 4.4. Cumulative volume loss of bearing at wet condition
 Wear Rate Vs Applied Load

2
1.8 Dry Condition
1.6
Wear Rate in mg/km

Wet Condition
1.4
1.2
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0 10 20 30 40 50
Applied Load in Newton

Fig. 4.5. Wear rates of bearing speciman at different conditions

 CHAPTER 5

CONCLUSION AND FUTURE WORK

In this work a new sliding bearing wear testing machine is designed and fabricated.

Using the testing machine the wear test of Gun metal is conducted in wet and dry

condition with an applied load of 10, 20 and 30 N. Low wear rate have been observed at

lubricated test conditions. The amount of wear depends on the material properties,

surface properties, sliding speed and sliding distance, and the stress applied. Wear rate

and cumulative volume loss against time for the test specimen is plotted.
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