Source/ sumber : http://en.wikipedia.

org/wiki/Fluoride

Fluoride
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
This article is about the chemical ion F−. For the addition of fluoride
ions to water supplies, see Water fluoridation.

Fluoride is the anion F−, the reduced form of fluorine. Both

organic and inorganic compounds containing the element fluorine
are sometimes called fluorides. Fluoride, like other halides, is a
monovalent ion (−1 charge). Its compounds often have properties
that are distinct relative to other halides. Structurally, and to some
extent chemically, the fluoride ion resembles the hydroxide ion.
Fluorine-containing compounds range from potent toxins such as
sarin to life-saving pharmaceuticals such as efavirenz, and from inert
materials such as calcium fluoride to the highly reactive sulfur
tetrafluoride. The range of fluorine-containing compounds is
considerable as fluorine is capable of forming compounds with all
the elements except helium and neon.[1][2]

Compounds containing fluoride anions and in many cases

those containing covalent bonds to fluorine are called fluorides.

Contents

• 1 Occurrence
• 2 Natural occurrence
• 3 Applications
o 3.1 Organic synthesis
o 3.2 Inorganic fluorides
o 3.3 Fluoropolymers
o 3.4 Cavity prevention
o 3.5 Biomedical applications
• 4 Toxicology
• 5 See also
• 6 References

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• 7 External links

[ ] Occurrence

The mineral fluorite.

Solutions of inorganic fluorides in water contain F− and

bifluoride HF2−.[3] Few inorganic fluorides are soluble in water without
undergoing significant hydrolysis. Examples of inorganic fluorides
include hydrofluoric acid (HF), sodium fluoride (NaF), and uranium
hexafluoride (UF6). In terms of its reactivity, fluoride differs
significantly from chloride and other halides, and is more strongly
solvated due to its smaller radius/charge ratio. Its closest chemical
relative is hydroxide. The Si-F linkage is one of the strongest single
bonds. In contrast, other silyl halides are easily hydrolyzed.

[ ] Natural occurrence
Many fluoride minerals are known, but of paramount
commercial importance are fluorite and fluorapatite. Fluoride is
found naturally in low concentration in drinking water and foods.
Water with underground sources is more likely to have higher levels
of fluoride, whereas the concentration in seawater averages 1.3
parts per million (ppm).[4] Fresh water supplies generally contain
between 0.01–0.3 ppm, whereas the ocean contains between 1.2
and 1.5 ppm.[5]

[ ] Applications

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Fluorides are pervasive in modern technology. Hydrofluoric

acid is the fluoride synthesized on the largest scale. It is produced
by treating fluoride minerals with sulfuric acid. Hydrofluoric acid and
its anhydrous form hydrogen fluoride are used in the production of
fluorocarbons and aluminium fluorides. Hydrofluoric acid has a
variety of specialized applications, including its ability to dissolve
glass.[6]

[ ] Organic synthesis
Fluoride reagents are significant in synthetic organic
chemistry. Due to the affinity of silicon for fluoride, and the ability of
silicon to expand its coordination number, silyl ether protecting
groups can be easily removed by the fluoride sources such as
sodium fluoride and tetra-n-butylammonium fluoride (TBAF).

[ ] Inorganic fluorides
Sulfur hexafluoride is an inert, nontoxic insulator that is used
in electrical transformers. Uranium hexafluoride is used in the
separation of isotopes of uranium between the fissile isotope U-235
and the non-fissile isotope U-238 in preparation of nuclear reactor
fuel and atomic bombs. The volatility of fluorides of uranium and
other elements may also be used for nuclear fuel reprocessing.

PTFE is often used to coat non-stick frying pans as it is not water-

wettable and possesses high heat resistance.

[ ] Fluoropolymers

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Fluoropolymers such as polytetrafluoroethylene, Teflon, are

used as chemically inert and biocompatible materials for a variety of
applications, including as surgical implants such as coronary bypass
grafts,[7] and a replacement for soft tissue in cosmetic and
reconstructive surgery.[8] These compounds are also commonly used
as non-stick surfaces in cookware and bakeware, and the
fluoropolymer fabric Gore-Tex used in breathable garments for
outdoor use.

[ ] Cavity prevention
Main article: water fluoridation

Fluoride-containing compounds are used in topical and

systemic fluoride therapy for preventing tooth decay. They are used
for water fluoridation and in many products associated with oral
hygiene.[9] Originally, sodium fluoride was used to fluoridate water;
however, hexafluorosilicic acid (H2SiF6) and its salt sodium
hexafluorosilicate (Na2SiF6) are more commonly used additives,
especially in the United States. The fluoridation of water is known to
prevent tooth decay[10][11] and is considered by the U.S. Centers for
Disease Control and Prevention as "one of 10 great public health
achievements of the 20th century".[12][13] In some countries where
large, centralized water systems are uncommon, fluoride is
delivered to the populace by fluoridating table salt. Fluoridation of
water is not without critics, however (see Water fluoridation
controversy).[14]

Structure of halothane.

[ ] Biomedical applications

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Positron emission tomography is commonly carried out using

fluoride-containing pharmaceuticals such as fluorodeoxyglucose,
which is labelled with the radioactive isotope fluorine-18, which
emits positrons when it decays into 18O.

Numerous drugs contain fluorine including antipsychotics

such as fluphenazine, HIV protease inhibitors such as tipranavir,
antibiotics such as ofloxacin and trovafloxacin, and anesthetics such
as halothane.[15] Fluorine is incorporated in the drug structures to
reduce drug metabolism, as the strong C-F bond resists deactivation
in the liver by cytochrome P450 oxidases.[16]

Fluoride salts are commonly used to inhibit the activity of

phosphatases, such as serine/threonine phosphatases.[17] Fluoride
mimics the nucleophilic hydroxyl ion in these enzymes' active sites.
[18]
Beryllium fluoride and aluminium fluoride are also used as
phosphatase inhibitors, since these compounds are structural
mimics of the phosphate group and can act as analogues of the
transition state of the reaction.[19][20]

[ ] Toxicology
Main article: Fluoride poisoning

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Reaction of the irreversible inhibitor diisopropylfluorophosphate with

a serine protease

Fluoride-containing compounds are so diverse that it is not

possible to generalize on their toxicity, which depends on their
reactivity and structure, and in the case of salts, their solubility and
ability to release fluoride ions.

Soluble fluoride salts, of which NaF is the most common, are

mildly toxic but have resulted in both accidental and suicidal deaths
from acute poisoning.[6] While the minimum fatal dose in humans is
not known, a case of a fatal poisoning of an adult with 4 grams of
NaF is documented.[21] For Sodium fluorosilicate (Na2SiF6), the
median lethal dose (LD50) orally in rats is 0.125 g/kg, corresponding
to 12.5 g for a 100 kg adult.[22] The fatal period ranges from 5 min to
12 hours.[21] The mechanism of toxicity involves the combination of
the fluoride anion with the calcium ions in the blood to form
insoluble calcium fluoride, resulting in hypocalcemia; calcium is
indispensable for the function of the nervous system, and the
condition can be fatal. Treatment may involve oral administration of
dilute calcium hydroxide or calcium chloride to prevent further
absorption, and injection of calcium gluconate to increase the
calcium levels in the blood.[21] Hydrogen fluoride is more dangerous
than salts such as NaF because it is corrosive and volatile, and can
result in fatal exposure through inhalation or upon contact with the
skin; calcium gluconate gel is the usual antidote.[23]

In the higher doses used to treat osteoporosis, sodium

fluoride can cause pain in the legs and incomplete stress fractures
when the doses are too high; it also irritates the stomach,
sometimes so severely as to cause ulcers. Slow-release and enteric-
coated versions of sodium fluoride do not have gastric side effects in
any significant way, and have milder and less frequent complications
in the bones.[24] In the lower doses used for water fluoridation, the
only clear adverse effect is dental fluorosis, which can alter the
appearance of children's teeth during tooth development; this is
mostly mild and is unlikely to represent any real effect on aesthetic
appearance or on public health.[25]

[ ] See also

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• Fluoride deficiency
• Sodium monofluorophosphate
• Total ionic strength adjustment buffer

[ ] References

1. ^ Greenwood, Norman N.; Earnshaw, A. (1997), Chemistry of

the Elements (2nd ed.), Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann,
ISBN 0080379419 p. 804
2. ^ Khriachtchev, Leonid; Mika Pettersson, Nino Runeberg, Jan
Lundell & Markku Räsänen (24 August 2000). "A stable argon
compound". Nature 406 (6798): 874–876.
doi:10.1038/35022551. PMID 10972285.
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v406/n6798/abs/40687
4a0.html.
3. ^ Holleman, A. F.; Wiberg, E. "Inorganic Chemistry" Academic
Press: San Diego, 2001. ISBN 0-12-352651-5.
4. ^ Fluoride in Drinking-water: Background document for
development of WHO Guidelines for Drinking-water Quality.
World Health Organization, 2004, page 2. Page accessed on
February 22, 2007.
5. ^ Environmental Health Criteria 227: Fluorides. World Health
Organization, 2002, page 38. Page accessed on February 22,
2007.
6. ^ a b Aigueperse, Jean; Mollard, Paul; Devilliers, Didier;
Chemla, Marius; Faron, Robert; Romano, Renée; Cuer, Jean
Pierre (2005). "Fluorine Compounds, Inorganic title =
Ullmann’s Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry". Wiley-VCH,
Weinheim. p. 307. doi:10.1002/14356007.a11.
7. ^ Kannan RY, Salacinski HJ, Butler PE, Hamilton G, Seifalian
AM (2005). "Current status of prosthetic bypass grafts: a
review". J. Biomed. Mater. Res. Part B Appl. Biomater. 74 (1):
570–81. doi:10.1002/jbm.b.30247. PMID 15889440.
8. ^ Singh S., Baker J. L. (2000). "Use of expanded
polytetrafluoroethylene in aesthetic surgery of the face". Clin
Plast Surg 27 (4): 579–93. PMID 11039891.
9. ^ McDonagh M. S., Whiting P. F., Wilson P. M., Sutton A. J.,
Chestnutt I., Cooper J., Misso K., Bradley M., Treasure E., &
Kleijnen J. (2000). "Systematic review of water fluoridation".

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British Medical Journal 321 (7265): 855–859.

doi:10.1136/bmj.321.7265.855. PMID 11021861.
10.^ Griffin SO, Regnier E, Griffin PM, Huntley V (2007).
"Effectiveness of fluoride in preventing caries in adults". J.
Dent. Res. 86 (5): 410–5. doi:10.1177/154405910708600504.
PMID 17452559.
11.^ Winston A. E., Bhaskar S. N. (1 November 1998). "Caries
prevention in the 21st century". J. Am. Dent. Assoc. 129 (11):
1579–87. PMID 9818575. http://jada.ada.org/cgi/pmidlookup?
view=long&pmid=9818575.
12.^ Community Water Fluoridation - Oral Health
13.^ http://www.cdc.gov/about/history/tengpha.htm
14.^ Newbrun E (1996). "The fluoridation war: a scientific dispute
or a religious argument?". J. Public Health Dent. 56 (5 Spec
No): 246–52. doi:10.1111/j.1752-7325.1996.tb02447.x.
PMID 9034969.
15.^ Park BK, Kitteringham NR, O'Neill PM (2001). "Metabolism of
fluorine-containing drugs". Annu. Rev. Pharmacol. Toxicol. 41:
443–70. doi:10.1146/annurev.pharmtox.41.1.443.
PMID 11264465.
16.^ Fisher MB, Henne KR, Boer J (2006). "The complexities
inherent in attempts to decrease drug clearance by blocking
sites of CYP-mediated metabolism". Curr. Opin. Drug Discov.
Devel. 9 (1): 101–9. PMID 16445122.
17.^ Nakai C, Thomas JA (1974). "Properties of a phosphoprotein
phosphatase from bovine heart with activity on glycogen
synthase, phosphorylase, and histone". J. Biol. Chem. 249
(20): 6459–67. PMID 4370977.
http://www.jbc.org/cgi/pmidlookup?
view=long&pmid=4370977.
18.^ Schenk G, Elliott TW, Leung E, et al. (2008). "Crystal
structures of a purple acid phosphatase, representing
different steps of this enzyme's catalytic cycle". BMC Struct.
Biol. 8 (1): 6. doi:10.1186/1472-6807-8-6. PMID 18234116.
PMC 2267794. http://www.biomedcentral.com/1472-6807/8/6.
19.^ Wang W, Cho HS, Kim R, et al. (2002). "Structural
characterization of the reaction pathway in phosphoserine
phosphatase: crystallographic "snapshots" of intermediate
states". J. Mol. Biol. 319 (2): 421–31. doi:10.1016/S0022-
2836(02)00324-8. PMID 12051918.

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http://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0022-
2836(02)00324-8.
20.^ Cho H, Wang W, Kim R, et al. (2001). "BeF(3)(-) acts as a
phosphate analog in proteins phosphorylated on aspartate:
structure of a BeF(3)(-) complex with phosphoserine
phosphatase". Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 98 (15): 8525–30.
doi:10.1073/pnas.131213698. PMID 11438683. PMC 37469.
http://www.pnas.org/cgi/pmidlookup?
view=long&pmid=11438683.
21.^ a b c I. M. Rabinowitch. Acute Fluoride Poisoning. Can Med
Assoc J. 1945, 52, 345–349. [1]
22.^ The Merck Index, 12th ion, Merck & Co., Inc., 1996
23.^ Muriale L, Lee E, Genovese J, Trend S. Fatality due to acute
fluoride poisoning following dermal contact with hydrofluoric
acid in a palynology laboratory. Ann Occup Hyg. 1996 40,
705–710. PMID 8958774.
24.^ Murray TM, Ste-Marie LG. Prevention and management of
osteoporosis: consensus statements from the Scientific
Advisory Board of the Osteoporosis Society of Canada. 7.
Fluoride therapy for osteoporosis. CMAJ. 1996;155(7):949–54.
PMID 8837545.
25.^ National Health and Medical Research Council (Australia). A
systematic review of the efficacy and safety of fluoridation
[PDF]. 2007. ISBN 1864964154. Summary: Yeung CA. A
systematic review of the efficacy and safety of fluoridation.
Evid Based Dent. 2008;9(2):39–43.
doi:10.1038/sj.ebd.6400578. PMID 18584000. Lay summary:
NHMRC, 2007.