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information technology
n. (Abbr. IT)

The development, installation, and implementation of computer systems and applications.

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Information Technology

Computer based information management systems allowing a financial institution to

collect information from many different sources and develop a composite picture about
its customers, its market position in different financial centers, and its net exposure in
those markets.

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Information Technology

Information technology, as defined by the Information Technology Association of

America

(ITAA), is "the study, design, development, implementation, support or management of

computer-based information systems, particularly software applications and computer
hardware." Encompassing the computer and information systems industries, information
technology is the capability to electronically input, process, store, output, transmit, and
receive data and information, including text, graphics, sound, and video, as well as the
ability to control machines of all kinds electronically.

Information technology is comprised of computers, networks, satellite communications,

robotics, videotext, cable television, electronic mail ("e-mail"), electronic games, and
automated office equipment. The information industry consists of all computer,
communications, and electronics-related organizations, including hardware, software, and
services. Completing tasks using information technology results in rapid processing and
information mobility, as well as improved reliability and integrity of processed
information.

History of Information Technology

The term "information technology" evolved in the 1970s. Its basic concept, however, can
be traced to the World War II alliance of the military and industry in the development of
electronics, computers, and information theory. After the 1940s, the military remained
the major source of research and development funding for the expansion of automation to
replace manpower with machine power.

Since the 1950s, four generations of computers have evolved. Each generation reflected a
change to hardware of decreased size but increased capabilities to control computer
operations. The first generation used vacuum tubes, the second used transistors, the third
used integrated circuits, and the fourth used integrated circuits on a single computer chip.
Advances in artificial intelligence that will minimize the need for complex programming
characterize the fifth generation of computers, still in the experimental stage.

The first commercial computer was the UNIVAC I, developed by John Eckert and John
W. Mauchly in 1951. It was used by the Census Bureau to predict the outcome of the
1952 presidential election. For the next twenty-five years, mainframe computers were
used in large corporations to do calculations and manipulate large amounts of information
stored in databases. Supercomputers were used in science and engineering, for designing
aircraft and nuclear reactors, and for predicting worldwide weather patterns.
Minicomputers came on to the scene in the early 1980s in small businesses,
manufacturing plants, and factories.

In 1975, the Massachusetts Institute of Technology developed microcomputers. In 1976,

Tandy Corporation's first Radio Shack microcomputer followed; the Apple
microcomputer was introduced in 1977. The market for microcomputers increased
dramatically when IBM introduced the first personal computer in the fall of 1981.
Because of dramatic improvements in computer components and manufacturing, personal
computers today do more than the largest computers of the mid-1960s at about a
thousandth of the cost.

Computers today are divided into four categories by size, cost, and processing ability.
They are supercomputer, mainframe, minicomputer, and microcomputer, more
commonly known as a personal computer. Personal computer categories include desktop,
network, laptop, and handheld.

Information Technology's Role Today

Every day, people use computers in new ways. Computers are increasingly affordable;
they continue to be more powerful as information-processing tools as well as easier to
use.

Computers in Business One of the first and largest applications of computers is keeping
and managing business and financial records. Most large companies keep the
employment records of all their workers in large databases that are managed by computer
programs. Similar programs and databases are used in such business functions as billing
customers; tracking payments received and payments to be made; and tracking supplies
needed and items produced, stored, shipped, and sold. In fact, practically all the
information companies need to do business involves the use of computers and
information technology.

On a smaller scale, many businesses have replaced cash registers with point-of-sale
(POS) terminals. These POS terminals not only print a sales receipt for the customer but
also send information to a computer database when each item is sold to maintain an
inventory of items on hand and items to be ordered. Computers have also become very
important in modern factories. Computer-controlled robots now do tasks that are hot,
heavy, or hazardous. Robots are also used to do routine, repetitive tasks in which
boredom or fatigue can lead to poor quality work.

Computers in Medicine Information technology plays an important role in medicine.

For example, a scanner takes a series of pictures of the body by means of computerized
axial tomography (CAT) or magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). A computer then
combines the pictures to produce detailed three-dimensional images of the body's organs.
In addition, the MRI produces images that show changes in body chemistry and blood
flow.

Computers in Science and Engineering Using supercomputers, meteorologists predict

future weather by using a combination of observations of weather conditions from many
sources, a mathematical representation of the behavior of the atmosphere, and geographic
data.

Computer-aided design and computer-aided manufacturing programs, often called

CAD/CAM, have led to improved products in many fields, especially where designs tend
to be very detailed. Computer programs make it possible for engineers to analyze designs
of complex structures such as power plants and space stations.

Integrated Information Systems With today's sophisticated hardware, software, and

communications technologies, it is often difficult to classify a system as belonging
uniquely to one specific application program. Organizations increasingly are
consolidating their information needs into a single, integrated information system. One
example is SAP, a German software package that runs on mainframe computers and
provides an enterprise-wide solution for information technologies. It is a powerful
database that enables companies to organize all their data into a single database, then
choose only the program modules or tables they want. The freestanding modules are
customized to fit each customer's needs.

Software

Computer software consists of the programs, or lists of instructions, that control the
operation of a computer. Application software can be used for the following purposes:

• As a productivity/business tool
• To assist with graphics and multimedia projects
 • To support household activities, for personal business, or for education
• To facilitate communications

Productivity Software Productivity software is designed to make people more effective

and efficient when performing daily activities. It includes applications such as word
processing, spreadsheets, databases, presentation graphics, personal information
management, graphics and multimedia, communications, and other related types of
software. Word-processing software is used to create documents such as letters, memos,
reports, mailing labels, and newsletters. This software is used to create attractive and
professional-looking documents that are stored electronically, allowing them to be
retrieved and revised. The software provides tools to correct spelling and grammatical
mistakes, permits copying and moving text without rekeying, and provides tools to
enhance the format of documents. Electronic spreadsheet software is used in business
environments to perform numeric calculations rapidly and accurately. Data are keyed into
rows and columns on a worksheet, and formulas and functions are used to make fast and
accurate calculations. Spreadsheets are used for "what-if" analyses and for creating charts
based on information in a worksheet. A database is a collection of data organized in a
manner that allows access, retrieval, and use of that data. A database management system
(DBMS) is used to create a computerized database; add, change, and delete data; sort and
retrieve data from the database; and create forms and reports using the data in the
database. Presentation graphics software is used to create presentations, which can
include clip-art images, pictures, video clips, and audio clips as well as text. A personal
information manager is a software application that includes an appointment calendar,
address book, and notepad to help organize personal information such as appointments
and task lists. Engineers, architects, desktop publishers, and graphic artists often use
graphics and multimedia software such as computer-aided design, desktop publishing,
video and audio entertainment, and Web page authoring. Software for communications
includes groupware, e-mail, and Web browsers.

Hardware

Information processing involves four phases: input, process, output, and storage. Each of
these phases and the associated devices are discussed below.

Input devices: Input devices include the keyboard, pointing devices, scanners and reading
devices, digital cameras, audio and video input devices, and input devices for physically
challenged users. Input devices are used to capture data at the earliest possible point in
the workflow, so that the data are accurate and readily available for processing.

Processing: After data are captured, they are processed. When data are processed, they
are transformed from raw facts into meaningful information. A variety of processes may
be performed on the data, such as adding, subtracting, dividing, multiplying, sorting,
organizing, formatting, comparing, and graphing. After processing, information is output,
as a printed report, for example, or stored as files.
Output devices: Four common types of output are text, graphics, audio, and video. Once
information has been processed, it can be listened to through speakers or a headset,
printed onto paper, or displayed on a monitor. An output device is any computer
component capable of conveying information to a user. Commonly used output devices
include display devices, printers, speakers, headsets, data projectors, fax machines, and
multifunction devices. A multifunction device is a single piece of equipment that looks
like a copy machine but provides the functionality of a printer, scanner, copy machine,
and perhaps a fax machine.

Storage devices: Storage devices retain items such as data, instructions, and information
for retrieval and future use. They include floppy disks or diskettes, hard disks, compact
discs (both read-only and disc-recordable), tapes, PC cards, Smart Cards, microfilm, and
microfiche.

Information and Data Processing

Data processing is the input, verification, organization, storage, retrieval, transformation,

and extraction of information from data. The term is usually associated with commercial
applications such as inventory control or payroll. An information system refers to
business applications of computers and consists of the databases, application programs,
and manual and machine procedures and computer systems that process data. Databases
store the master files of the business and its transaction files. Application programs
provide the data entry, updating, and query and report processing. Manual procedures
document the workflow, showing how the data are obtained for input and how the
system's output is distributed. Machine procedures instruct the computers how to perform
batch-processing activities, in which the output of one program is automatically fed into
another program. Daily processing is the interactive, real-time processing of transactions.
Batch-processing programs are run at the end of the day (or some other period) to update
the master files that have not been updated since the last cycle. Reports are printed for the
cycle's activities. Periodic processing of an information system involves updating of the
master files— adding, deleting, and changing the information about customers,
employees, vendors, and products.

Bibliography

Cannings, Terence, and Finkel, Leroy. (1993). The Technology Age Classroom.
Wilsonville, OR: Franklin, Beedle, & Associates.

New Book of Knowledge, The; (1994). Danbury, CT: Grolier.

Saettler, Paul. (1990). The Evolution of American Educational Technology. Englewood,

CO: Libraries Unlimited.

Shelly, Gary, Cashman, Thomas, Vermaat, Misty, and Walker, Tim. (1999). Discovering
Computers 2000: Concepts for a Connected World. Cambridge, MA: Course
Technology.
Swanson, Marie, Reding, Elizabeth Eisner, Beskeen, David W., and Johnson, Steven M.
(1997). Microsoft Office 97 Professional Edition—Illustrated, A First Course.
Cambridge, MA: Course Technology.

Webster, Frank, and Robins, Kevin. (1986). Information Technology—A Luddite

Analysis. Norwood, NJ: Ablex.

[Article by: LINDA J. AUSTIN; DEBBIE HUGHES]

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information technology
To meet Wikipedia's quality standards, this article may require cleanup.
Please discuss this issue on the talk page, and/or replace this tag with a more specific message.
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This article has been tagged since December 2006.

Information Technology (IT)[1] is concerned with the use of technology in managing

and processing information, especially in large organizations.
In particular, IT deals with the use of electronic computers and computer software to
convert, store, protect, process, transmit, and retrieve information. For that reason,
computer professionals are often called IT specialists or Business Process Consultants,
and the division of a company or university that deals with software technology is often
called the IT department. Other names for the latter are information services (IS) or
management information services (MIS), managed service providers (MSP).

History
The first commercial business computer was developed in the United Kingdom in 1951,
by the Joe Lyons catering organisation. This was known as the 'Lyons Electronic Office' -
or LEO for short. It was developed further and used widely during the 1960s and early
1970s. (Joe Lyons formed a separate company to develop the LEO computers and this
subsequently merged to form English Electric Leo Marconi and then International
Computers Ltd.)

Early commercial systems were installed exclusively by large organisations. These could
afford to invest the time and capital necessary to purchase hardware, hire specialist staff
to develop bespoke software and work through the consequent (and often unexpected)
organisational and cultural changes.

At first, individual organisations developed their own software, including data

management utilities, themselves. Different products might also have 'one-off' bespoke
software. This fragmented approach led to duplicated effort and the production of
management information needed manual effort.

High hardware costs and relatively slow processing speeds forced developers to use
resources 'efficiently'. Data storage formats were heavily compacted, for example. A
common example is the removal of the century from dates, which eventually lead to the
'millennium bug'.

Data input required intermediate processing via punched paper tape or card and separate
input to computers, usually for overnight processing. Data required validation in batches.
All of this was a repetitive, labour intensive task, removed from user control and error-
prone. Invalid or incorrect data needed correction and resubmission with consequences
for data and account reconciliation.

Data storage was strictly serial on paper tape, and then later to magnetic tape: the use of
data storage within readily accessible memory was not cost-effective.

Results would be presented to users on paper. Enquiries were delayed by whatever turn
round was available.

Today
As with other industrial processes, commercial IT has moved in all respects from a
bespoke, craft-based industry where the product was tailored to fit the customer; to multi-
use components taken off the shelf to find the best-fit in any situation. Mass-production
has greatly reduced costs and IT is available to the smallest company or one-man band -
or school-kid.

LEO was hardware tailored for a single client. Today, Intel Pentium and compatible chips
are standard and become parts of other components which are combined as needed. One
individual change of note was the freeing of computers and removable storage from
protected, air-filtered environments. Microsoft and IBM at various times have been
influential enough to impose order on IT and the resultant standardisations allowed
specialist software to flourish.

Software is available off the shelf: apart from Microsoft products such as Office, or
Lotus, there are also specialist packages for payroll and personnel management, account
maintenance and customer management, to name a few. These are highly specialised and
intricate components of larger environments, but they rely upon common conventions
and interfaces.

Data storage has also standardised. Relational databases are developed by different
suppliers to common formats and conventions. Common file formats can be shared by
large main-frames and desk-top personal computers, allowing online, realtime input and
validation.

In parallel, software development has fragmented. There are still specialist technicians,
but these increasingly use standardised methodologies where outcomes are predictable
and accessible. At the other end of the scale, any office manager can dabble in
spreadsheets or databases and obtain acceptable results (but there are risks).

United Kingdom
In the United Kingdom education system, information technology was formally
integrated into the school curriculum when the National Curriculum was devised. It was
quickly realised that the work covered was useful in all subjects. With the arrival of the
Internet and the broadband connections to all schools, the application of IT knowledge,
skills and understanding in all subjects became a reality. This change in emphasis has
resulted in a change of name from Information Technology to Information and
Communication Technology (ICT). ICT in Education can be understood as the
application of digital equipment to all aspects of teaching and learning. It is present in
almost all schools and is of growing influence.

The growth of use of Information and Communications Technology and its tools in the
field of Education has seen tremendous growth in the recent past. Technology has entered
the classroom in a big way to become part of the teaching and learning process.
Industry organizations
World Information Technology and Services Alliance (WITSA) is a consortium of
over 60 information technology (IT) industry associations from economies around the
world. WITSA members represent over 90 percent of the world IT market. As the global
voice of the IT industry, WITSA is dedicated to:

• advocating policies that advance the industry’s growth and development;

• facilitating international trade and investment in IT products and services;
• strengthening WITSA’s national industry associations through the sharing of
knowledge,
• providing members with a vast network of contact, experience, and critical
information in nearly every geographic region of the world;
• hosting the World Congress on IT, the premier industry sponsored global IT
event;
• hosting the Global Public Policy Conference; and
• hosting the Global Information Security Summit.

Founded in 1978 and originally known as the World Computing Services Industry
Association, WITSA has increasingly assumed an active advocacy role in international
public policy issues affecting the creation of a robust global information infrastructure,
including:

• increasing competition through open markets and regulatory reform;

protecting intellectual property;

• encouraging cross-industry and government cooperation to enhance information

security;
• bridging the education and skills gap reducing tariff and non-tariff trade barriers
to IT goods and services; and
• safeguarding the viability and continued growth of the Internet and electronic
commerce.

The Information Technology Association of America (ITAA) is an industry trade

group for several U.S. information technology companies.

Founded in 1961 as the Association of Data Processing Services Organizations

(ADAPSO), the Information Technology Association of America (ITAA)provides global
public policy, business networking, and national leadership to promote the continued
rapid growth of the IT industry. ITAA consists of approximately 325 corporate members
throughout the U.S., and is secretariat of the World Information Technology and Services
Alliance (WITSA)., a global network of 67 countries' IT associations. The Association
plays a leading role in issues of IT industry concern including information security, taxes
and finance policy, digital intellectual property protection, telecommunications
competition, workforce and education, immigration, online privacy and consumer
protection, government IT procurement, human resources and e-commerce policy. ITAA
members range from the smallest IT start-ups to industry leaders in the Internet, software,
IT services, digital content, systems integration, telecommunications, and enterprise
solution fields.

ITAA membership is open to any company with operations situated in the U.S. and
offering commercial IT products and services. Companies eligible for full IT membership
include firms with headquarters, division offices, or branch offices located in the U.S. as
well as foreign firms with subsidiary operations in the U.S. In addition, [1] offers affiliate
membership to firms that sell business products and services to IT companies.

ITAA publishes a series of electronic newsletters. The ITAA E-LETTER covers the
issues of the networked economy. These include coverage issues such as information and
telecommunications public policy, as well as pertinent news about the businesses of
electronic commerce, Internet service and enhanced telecommunications service
providers. The ITAA E-LETTER is distributed exclusively by electronic mail and
available for free available for free.....

Topics
• Information technology audit
o Computer security audit
• Computing
• Computer science
• Information science
• Information security
• World Wide Web
• Digital library
• Pattern recognition
• Data management
o Data processing
o Data drilling
o Data mining
o Data transformation
o Metadata
• Data storage
o Database
o Data networking
• Database Administration & Automation
• Technology assessment
• Cryptography
• Information Technology Infrastructure Library
• Information technology governance
• Telematics
Notes
Information Technology is also known as Information and Communication(s)/Computing
Technology (ICT) and Infocomm in Asia

1. ^ Information Technology is also known as Information and

Communication(s) Technology (ICT) and Infocomm in Asia.

Major computing companies

Hardware companies: Acer - Alcatel-Lucent - AMD - ASUS - Cisco - Dell - Freescale - Infineon -
Intel - Juniper Networks - Matsushita - Motorola - NXP - Philips - Samsung - Sony -
STMicroelectronics - Texas Instruments - Toshiba -VIA Technologies
Software companies: CA - Microsoft - Oracle - SAP - Adobe
Hardware/software companies: Apple - EMC - Fujitsu - HP - Hitachi - IBM - NEC - Nokia - Sun -
Siemens - Thomson
Dot-com Companies: Amazon.com - AOL - eBay - Google - Yahoo!
Technology Consulting companies: Accenture - Infosys - Wipro - CSC - TCS - Satyam - EDS -
Cognizant - Capgemini - LogicaCMG

This entry is from Wikipedia, the leading user-contributed encyclopedia. It may not have
been reviewed by professional editors (see full disclaimer)

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