1.

Null scale and its formation (corrosion) of the oxidation is a chemical process in which the
2. Fretting corrosion electronegative constituent of the molecule has been
3. causes and limiting the corrosion by increased.
manufacturer and ship’s personnel in (1) external 2FeCl2 + Cl2 == 2 FeCl3
and internal surface of the auxiliary steam lines, Here in this reaction oxygen is not involved, but iron!!
(2)external surface of auxiliary boiler , (3)water Chloride has been oxidized into iron!!! Chloride, because of the
boxes of sea water coolers, (4) main sea water chlorine is electronegative , so the electronegative or non-
pipes (5) water ballast tanks (6) spares in engine metallic constituent of the iron !!! molecule is greater than iron!!
room (7) piping in engine room (8) piping on deck Molecule. In metallurgy the removal of the oxygen done by the
(9) foundation of machinery reaction with the carbon because of carbon has a greater
4. Creep, Brinnelling, fretting ,with respect to ship’s affinity towards the oxygen.
propulsion system The process of removal of oxygen is known as
5. fatigue related with the stress level and cyclic REDUCTION. This is the reverse process of oxidation where
frequency of engineering materials , life of the electronegative constituent of the molecule decrease.
materials, design features, Some elements have great affinity towards oxygen,
6. fatigue failure of bed plate transverse girder, like aluminium & magnesium strongly electropositive material.
repair of the crack Here the removal of oxygen is a difficult procedure. Metals like,
aluminium, magnesium, zinc, iron, lead etc which form stable
and tenacious oxides are known as base metals, whilest those
metals which has little affinity towards the oxygen known as
noble metals.
THEORY OF CORROSION

The Mechanism of corrosion

Chapter 01 CORROSION CONTROL
OXIDATION And REDUCTION
OXIDATION is one of the most common chemical
procedures, which simply refers the combination of oxygen
with the parent metal. Taking as example, when carbon reacts
with oxygen forms CO2 gas, in this process heat is released –
the energy potential of the carbon falls down. Wider meaning
There are two types of corrosion one is dry and the
other one is wet.
Dry corrosion or oxidation Group 1 and 2 metals of
periodic classification react with oxygen except beryllium and
magnesium which has low specific gravity with high value of
strength.
Most metals are in transition group where the affinity
for oxygen is rather less. Oxidation is slow at normal
temperature but increases rapidly as the temperature
increases. Oxidation is rapid when the steel is red hot.
Oxidation chemically means that release of electron/s from the
parent metal i.e. iron, nickel, etc., and addition of electron with
the oxidizing material i.e. oxygen, sulfur, etc to form a –
negative ion.
Wet corrosion or electrolytic action involving two
dissimilar materials can occur when metals with difference
electrode potential are in electrical contact with each other and
with an electrolyte. This is also known as galvanic corrosion.
these accomplish a current by the movement of electrons. In
the electrolyte the current is due to movement of ions i.e. the
electrically charged atoms or group of atoms. Metallicions has
a great tendency to migrate from the metal to the free ions, in a
solution. The precious metals gold silver etyc has very little Rust is a porous material which does not give any
tendency to dissolve or ionize. The measure of the tendency of protection to the steel surface. On the contrary the porous ness
metal to exist in metallic form is known as electrode potential. can attract more moisture hence rust continues till the total iron
As we go down in the series there is higher tendency to ionize oxidizes.
or corrode. The series is being as, Null/ mill/ roll scale.
Gold, Au +++ +1.5 v This is recognized as a grey or reddish layer of iron
Platinum Pt ++++ + 0.86 v oxides, which is formed on the surface of the steel plates and
Silver Ag+ +0.80 v sections during hot rolling. The thickness and adhesion of the
Copper Cu+ + 0.52 v mill scale is vary with the type and size of the section, the
Cu ++ +0.34 V cathodic rolling condition. The thickness is around 25- 50 μ which is
Hydrogen H+ 0.000 common to the mild steel plates. A scale up to 0.5 μ may result
Iron Fe +++ - 0.05 v from the forging and other heat treatment processes.
Lead Pb++ -0.13 v Mill scale is not completely adherent to the steel on
Tin Sn++ - 0.14 v which it is formed. Owing to the difference in coefficient of
Nickel NI++ - 0.25 v expansion, it cracks and occasionally flakes, while cooling
Cadmium Cd ++ - 0.40 v down the steel. It is liable to spall during next fabrication
Iron Fe ++ - 0.44 v process if exposed to the weather. Further more because of its
Chromium Cr+++ - 0.74 v cathode potential with respect to the bare steel, when comes in
Zinc Zn++ - 0.76 v contact with a dilute electrolyte also, its presence on damp
Aluminium Al+++ -1.66 v steel causes a galvanic cell and the fresh steel is attacked at
Magnesium Mg++ - 2.37 v the regions of the cracked flakes.
Lithium Li+ - 3.04v Anodic Mill scale consists of three oxides ferrous oxide-FeO,
tri-ferric tetroxide- Fe3O4also known as magnetite, ferric oxide-
Galvanic corrosion of iron and steel Fe2O3. FeO is the layer near to steel, then the magnetite form
Iron and steel corrode when exposed to the moisture the intermediate layer, and surface layer is ferric oxide, which
by an electro chemical reaction. Once manufactured, steel very is familiar reddish brown color of the rust.
quickly develops a thin film of oxide on its surface. This film Factors affecting the rate of corrosion
forms a partial barrier between the steel and oxygen ,and it 1—Temperature corrosion of steel is totally
retards but does not prevent progressive oxidation. This oxide temperature dependent. Practically nil at -2°c. And doubled in
film is known as mill scale or roll scale. every 10°c rise. In aquous solution the corrosion rate is
A corrosive action requires the presence of oxygen, maximum at 60°c. This is due to the solubility of the of oxygen
water or any other conductive liquid. Iron and steel does not decrease with increase of temperature and above 60°c the
corrode in an atmosphere short of oxygen, even though is available oxygen determines the rate of corrosion.
saturated by moisture. The corrosion process is a galvanic or 2—relative humidity of the atmosphere -- where
electro chemical reaction, generate a work electric current. The the relative humidity value increase to 70%, has tendency for
electrolyte is contaminated water or condensated moisture, corrosion increases. If this falls below 60 % the corrosion
and dissolved moistures. The amount of water present in a practically stops.
very thin layer over the iron, acts like a electrolyte, because of 3—atmosphere pollution – corrosion is highly
slow reaction. In steel normally the cathodic area is formed by stimulated when the air contains SO2 and /or corrosive salts
the mill scale or the foreign material, the anode is the base such as sulfates, chlorides etc. the main source of this type of
material iron or steel, electrolyte is the moisture. As the corrosion is salt water, coal, fuel etc.
galvanic cell is created, a current passes inform of iron ions Various types of corrosion preventions
from anode to the electrolyte simultaneously with the formation 1) Like Aluminium where the metal oxides are dense
of hydroxyl ions at cathode. In the electrolyte the fe+ ion and and of impervious in nature, and due to so the oxide film
OH- ion merge together to form iron hydroxide which is rust. protects further corrosion of the inner metal, although
Aluminium has a great affinity towards the oxygen. The
efficiency of the protection depends upon 2 factors i.e
a) the continuity of the film, how effectively it has
bonded with the surface and porosity, development of crack or
peeling off of the material in hot condition affect the quality of
the protection.
b) The mobility of the ions with in the oxide film. Iron
at a high temperature continue to oxidize even though it is
highly coated with the oxide skin. Iron atom becomes positive
with release of electron which move to the surface and react
with the oxygen forming oxygen-2 ions. Then the positive –
negative ions attract each other. The rate at with which the ions
form depends upon
2) good corrosion resistance is achieved by metallic
coatings. These are may be direct or sacrificial. The direct
system is such that the coating is thoroughly cover the metal
beneath. Sacrificial one is more anodic with respect to the
reaction, soprevent the reaction of the metal. Here a crack in
the coating enhance the galvanic corrosion. First all the rust is
removed from the steel structure. Then the continous paint is
applied.
CORROSION CONTROL
a) Bunker tank Corrosion is one of
the biggest cause of wastage of material on board. While PMS
plan ensures proper care & precaution towards this menace,
the corrosion in bunker tanks is often lost sight off, until heavy
steel renewal becomes a necessary. During inspection of
bunker tanks , a high degree of corrosion is observed on the
upper side of the tank. In order to avoid the above , its
suggested that at least once in a year each tank should be
filled up to 98% of its capacity to ensure an oil coating on the
upper side of the tank.
b) Hydraulic piping stainless steel
pipes of JIS 316 are generally fitted on tanker s for the
operation of various cargo hydraulic valve s. SS is regarded as
highly resistant to most agents of corrosion, such that air,
water, oil, chemicals. SS is very sensitive to the localized
pitting corrosion in stagnant sea water, or fresh water
containing chloride. Hence it should be ensured that they are
not allowed remain immersed in stagnant water to avoid
corrosion.
c) Cathodic protection system uses
zinc anodes mostly used in the stern area & the sea chests
1. the chemical reaction set between the anode and
the surrounding sea water gets the outer layer of the anode
polarized and covered with metallic salts which are by
themselves inactive chemical ly and retard the chemical
reaction of the inner material to come in contact with sea water.
This stifies the chemical reaction and the anodes virtually stop
to act. In order that the full benefit from the installed anodes is
available for the intended purposes , surfaces of the anodes
should be scraped clean before undocking. Also the paint
splashes should be remove d from the anode surfaces.
2. it is a common practice to fit rubber joint
between the hull & the anode. But sometimes while renewing
the anodes the rubber joint is missed out . when the anodes
are fitted with an interposed rubber joint electrical contacts are
made through securing studs or side strips cast through the
anode material . when no joints are fitted anodes should make
face to face contact with the hull of the ship so that sea water
can not get in the clearance between the anode and the hull.
Current practice is that to fill the gap by the epoxy putty to
prevent the sea water entering the between the anode and the
hull.
3. anodes on the under water hull and particularly
in the viccini ty of the propeller should be so positioned that
they offer least resistance to the streamlined flow. Any
resistance to the flow of water during the motion of the vessel
will propagate cavitational attack on the ships propeller and
thus cause severe erosion . hence no anode should be
provided on the ships hull with in the propeller circle just in
front of the propeller .
4. Required anode quantity =( required weight in
kg)/individual anode net weight in kg .
= required current (amperes)/ individual anode
out put current( amperes per piece)
required weight in kg =
= life time of anode(yrs) × 8760hr / year ×
required current ×ballast ratio in%
anode material current capacity (amperes .
hr /kg) × utilization factor
 required current A == estimated protective The card is fixed with adhesive cement to the engine
area(m2)× current density (A/m2) component, so that the
wire grid is shortened or lengthened by the same amount as
the surface of the
quantity check : part to which it is attached. The linear strain on the engine
required weight in Kg ≤ Actual total weight in Kg
component is thus
exactly equal to the linear strain or deformation on the;strain
------------------ OK. gauge.
Required current in amperes ≥ actual total By applying a voltage to the strain gauge the change in
resistance that occurs
current -----------------OK
may be related to the linear strain, from which the working
stress can be
calculated.
The circuits into which a strain gauge is wired vary according
d) Integrated aluminum fresh water tanks has
to whether the
got hazard from the chlorine tablets which are used for the stresses are st.atic or changing. and whether the effects of
sterilization of water . hence it should be avoided because of temperature must be
compensated fO£. If transicnl stresses are present they can be
 hypochlorite in even very small quantity also very shown on an
dangerous for aluminum. oscilloscope or recorded using suitable instrumentation.
 Even shore supply water gets treated with
Note An oscilloscope is a device which uses a cathode ray
tube to produce in
chlorine. Freshly chlorinated water may result in tanks getting graphic form a representation of a variable electric quantity,
exposed to chlorides. usually with
respect to'time. A record can be made by photographing the
 Only filling & emptying of tanks is not sufficient to
oscilloscope
remove all corrosion products. display.
 Hypochlorite or other chloride containing chemicals Strain gauges of the electric-resistance type are used in
should not be used for sterilization of aluminum fresh water research and
development
tanks if the tanks are not fully coated.
projects on prototype engines to find the actual working
 More frequent inspection of the tanks must be stresses on fixed
carried out when there is no way to control the quality of the or moving engine parts. They are also used by engineers to
investigate
supplied water. The tanks to be thoroughly cleaned to avoid operational difficulties or the causes of material failures. By
the chance of corrosion after the process is completed. wiring the strain
 For un coated aluminum fresh water tanks, other gauges in various patterns, complex strains and stresses can be
investigated. The
means of the sterilization than the chloride containing gauges can be used in most places, provided that electrical
chemicals needed such as by using UV light. connections can be
made between the gauge and the instruments. For example,
four strain gauges
The working stress on fixed or moving engine could be wired up in square formation and cemented on the
parts can be found by accurately surface of a shaft
measuring the strain and then calculating the stress by axis to provide a torque measurement. The electrical
the application of connections to the strain
Hooke's Law. gauges for input and output would be made with slip-rings and
Stress/strain = a constant = Young's modulus E silver-graphite
Therefore brushes.
Strain gauges are usually incorporated into an impedance
Stress = E strain
bridge, and
The instrument used to measure the strain on the engine
operated with either dc or ac current. The latter offers some
component is an
advantages, at the
electrical-resistance strain gauge. The principle of its operation
expense of some complexity in the circuitry.
is associated
In work involving moving parts where the changes in stress
with the phenomenon of the change in electrical resistance
values must be
which occurs in an
studied, such as in a crankshaft or moving parts in similar
electrical conductor when it is deformed.
locations, a battery is
The electrical-resistance strain gauge, usually referred to as a
fastened to the moving part to supply current to the strain
strain gauge,
gauge circuits. The
consists of a grid of wire cemented to paper or thin card which
acts as a dielectric.
changes in current flow from the battery are monitored,
amplified and changed
into a radio signal which is transmitted from an aerial or
antenna attached to
the moving part. The signal is received by a stationary aerial
and transformed
'into some form wbere it is usable for tbe analysis of the
strains and the
associated stresses to which the moving part is subjected.
The input signals are filtered and fed into a computer that will
give plots of
stress on a time base or the cyclic frequency and amount of the
stress changes.
Polarized light is used in photoelasticity experiments to
analyse the action of
complex stresses and find the true stress. The stresses may b~
parts of two- or
three-dimensional systems. In photoelasticity experiments, use
is made of a
polariscope which produces polarized light to investigate thin
transparent
models or shaped forms of the part being tested. When the
model is stressed and
placed in the field of polarized light, patterns become visible;
from these stress
patterns the magnitude of the stresses can be determined.
Special plastics are available for three-dimensional studies.
These plastics are
he-Id in a state of stress at a high temperature, and then allowed
to cool slowly to
normal temperature. At normal temperature the photoelastic
properties are
frozen in the plastic, aliowing the model to be broken down to
plane sections for
:c<;r.mg
2xperiments usmg photoelastic methods are made during the
design stage of
Prototype engines. They allow the engineer to determine if any
stress concemration·
I '0';, are present. If any are snown, modifications are made to
bring the ratio of
maximum stress to nominal stress within acceptable limits.
The present knowledge available on fillet forms at bolt heads,
surface
changes made at the edge of shrink fits, transitional forms at
changes in
sections, etc. is derived from the results of photo-elasticity
experiments.
Note The principles governing the photoelastic properties of
transparent
materials, and polarized light, can be found in any physics
book dealing with
optics under the subject headings of: double refraction,
temporary double
refraction (double refraction is sometimes termed
birefringence), monochromatic
light, the polariscope or POlarimeter, polarization of light,
circular
and elliptical polarized light forms, and molecular optics.
Brittle fracture
Ultimate strength is obtained from a laboratory test on a
standard specimen loaded at a constant rate and temperature.
The test can be performed under tension, compression,
bending
and shear, but for a ductae material tension test is common.
Ccmpression
test is carried out on brittle materials. From the test resuit,
force required to fracture the material is obtained. The
elongation
from the yield point to the point of rupture is not recoverable
and is a measure of the piastic deformation. The total
elongation
upto fracture expressed as a percentage of gauge length
provides
a measure of ductility. For a ductile material there is a period of
plastic deformation before failure occurs. This property enables
us to predict failure. When failure is associated with practically
no plastic deformation the material is said to be 'brittle'.
Brittle fracture
Brittleness is a term which denotes the tendency of some
material to break or shatter when subjected to a stress
exceeding
the elastic limit. The behaviour is in contrast to the slow and
continuous
deformation of the ductile material. Under certain conditions
a normally duclile material can fail in a brittle manner. Thus
when the rate of strain is high the critical shear stress is
reached
earlier than the critical tensile stress, the failure takes place in
a
brittle manner. Application of strain at low temperature can also
cause brittle fractll.re. The process of failure originates from a
notch under normal tensile stress.
Single blow impact tests have been carried out with test
specimens
at various temperature and it is found that there is a distinct
temperature range within which the material behaves in a
brittle
manner. The transition temperature range from brittle to ductile
behaviour of M. S. is shown in the diagram
 rate of reversal of stress has practically no effect on the
fatiguelife at normal temperatures. The frequency of stress
variation
does not affect the result. The test is carried out at the same
frequency.

S-N curve

Fatigue
Fatigue in a material is a measure of its behaviour when
submitted to cyclic stressing. It may occur as variation of
magnitude
of stress or a complete reversal. The maximum, minimum
and mean stress values are measured. Materials under fatigue
may fail at a lower stress value than would. be required on the
same
material under laboratory static stress. Fracture caused by
fatigue
is of brittle nature even in a ductile material. This is evidenced
5.61. The yield strength of a material is a measure ofthe static
by an absence of plastic deformation. The type of stresses that
stress it can
cause fatigue may be direct stress only (tension and
withstand without permanent deformation, and is applicable
compression),
only to
bending stress only, shear stress only (due to twisting) or
components which operate under static loading. Metals
combinations
subjected to
of these stresses. Fatigue cracks appear at the surface of
fluctuating or repeated forces fail at lower stresses than do
the material at an irregularily and penetrate progressively
similar metals
towards
under the action of'dead' or steady loads. A typical relationship
the COle.Failures that usually occur in machinery parts are
between the
almost
number of cycles of stress (N) and the stress range (S) for a
always due to fatigue.
steel is shown in
Fatigue is measured on prepared specimens by labOlatory
the S-N curve (Fig. 5.10 (ii)). This indicates that if the stress in
tests. Endurance to fatigue is defined as the maximum range
the steel is
of
reduced then it will endure a greater number of stress cycles.
stress within which the material will not fracture by the
The curve
application
eventually becomes almost horizontal indicating that, for the
of an infinite nu.mber of stress reversals. When a test is carried
corresponding
out, the number of cycles to cause failure is measured for a
stress, the member will endure an infinite number of cycles.
given
The stress
stress value. A lll.umberof similar tests are performed until
horn under these conditions is called thefatigue limit, SD' For
fracture
many steels
occurs with stress values successively lowered. The values are
t he t~ltigue limit is approximately one half of the tensile
plotted in S-N curves.
strength as
Fatigue limit is the maximum stress that can be applied
lucasured in a 'static' test.
repeatedly
all infinite number of times without fracturing the material. The
5.62. Most non-ferrous metals and alloys and also some steels
operating
under conditions of corrosion, give S-N curves of the type
shown in Fig.
5.1O(iii). Here there is no fatigue limit as such and a member
will fail
ultimately if subjected to the appropriate number of stress
reversals even at
extremely small stresses. With such materials which show no
fatigue limit an
endurance limit, SN, is used instead. This is the maximum
stress which can be
sustained for a stated number, N, of cycles of stress.
Components made
from materials of this type must therefore be designed with
some specific
life (in terms of stress cycles) in mind and then 'junked'--as our
American
friends put it~after an appropriate working life, that is, before
the number
of cycles (N) for the corresponding stress (S) has been reached.
It should be noted that many authorities now use the terms
'fatigue limit'
and 'endurance limit' to mean the same, but the above
distinction still seems
valid in differentiating between the two classes of S--N curve
obtained for
different materials.
Several factors affect the endurance of a material to fatigue.
The factors which reduce the fatigue endurance limit are :
i) Stress concentration caused by abrupt change in section,
keyway, hole, threads, corrosion at the surface etc.
ii) Magnitude and nature of stress application : The cyclic
stresses can be represented by a sinusoidal curve as
shown in the fig. (65). Though the stress varies in each
case through the same range, complete stress reversal
with zero mean stress is the worst condition of fatigue.
iii) Surface condition :
The condition of surface has a marked effect on
the fatigue strength as the fatigue failure genelally originates
at a notch serving as a stre~s raiser on the surface
of a member. For fatigue strength the surface is hardened
by a hardening process, ground and finished smooth.
The surface may become affected by scoring, roughness,
In many
such instances a member may be designed to carry a static
load (well above
Sd or SN)' yet it may be suffering undetected vibrations which
give rise to reversal of stress at a value above SD (or S N)' Such
vibrations are often
sympathetic.
Appearance of a fatigue fracture-The appearance of a
fatigue
fracture is usv.ally quite different from that due to static load.
The origin of the failure is at the surface from where the flaw is
propagated in the form of a series of arcs, commencing with
smaller
alCS below the origin. The material section is weakened as the
creeping craek progresses inwards. Eventually a stage is
reached
at which the remaining material ruptures. being unable to
sustain
the load. The fatigued area through which the crack
progresses is
fairly smooth due to movement between the two surfaces. The
ruptured area has a fresh crystalline appearance. Examples
(Fig. 66) have demonstrated the pattern of failure due to
bending
fatigue, Torsion, fatigue and tension fatigue.
There is a negligible extension before breakage except in
cases where loading is wholly tensile.
 A fatigue fracture thus develops in three stages-nucleation,
crack
growth and final catastrophic failure. Since the crack
propagates slowly
from the source, the fractured surfaces rub together due to the
pulsating
nature of the stress and so the surfaces become burnished
whilst still
exhibiting the conchoidal markings representing the large
ripples. Final
fracture, when the residual cross section of the member is no
longer able to
carry the load, is typically crystalline in appearance. Fatigue
failures in
The Mechanism of Fatigue Failure. Fatigue failure begins metals are therefore generally very easy to identify.
quite Fatigue cracks are not the result of brittle fracture but of plastic
early in the service life of the member by the formation of a slip.
small crack, During cyclic stressing, at stresses above the fatigue limit,
generally at some point on the external surface. This crack plastic deformation
then develops is produced continuously and alternately positive and negative.
slowly into the material in a direction roughly perpendicular to It is
the main this continuous to-and-fro plastic deformation in localised
tensile axis. Ultimately the cross-sectional area of the member regions which
will have ultimately propagates and spreads a fatigue crack. The
been so reduced that it can no longer withstand the applied continual plastic
load and oscillation of metal layers along slip planes in and out of the
ordinary tensile fracture will result. A fatigue crack 'front' surface causes
advances a very some of the metal to produce ridges as work hardening sets in
small amount during each stress cycle and each increment of to resist 'back
advance is slip'. These ridges are forced up at the surface and are termed
shown on the fracture surface as a minute ripple line. These extrusions
ripple lines (Fig. 5.13). Narrow fissures or intrusions are formed in a similar
radiate out from the origin of fracture as a series of manner.
approximately Several of these intrusions may then interconnect to initiate the
concentric arcs. The individual ripples are far too small to be start of a
visible on the fatigue crack.
fractured surface except by using very high-powered Methods of Improving Fatigue Strength. In order to
metallographic maintain
methods, but under practical conditions a few ripples much fatigue strength it follows from the above that surface finish
larger than the should always
rest, probably corresponding to peak stress conditions, are be good. Engineer craftsmen of the past were not wasting their
produced and time when
these are visible on the fractured surface showing the general producing a high surface polish on many of their items of
path which the equipment.
crack has followed (Fig. 5.12). Since the fatigue strength of a metal is approximately
proportional to its
tensile strength, any method used to increase the tensile
strength of the
material will correspondingly improve the fatigue strength. As
fatigue
failure nearly always commences at the surface, methods of
surface
hardening will be most effective in limiting the initiation of
fatigue cracks.
Thus, work-hardening of the surface by shot-peening is
beneficial, whilst
the carburising and nitriding (19.10) of steels will improve
fatigue strength.
A case-hardened axle provides a good all-round combination
of core
toughness, surface wear-resistance and fatigue resistance.
Guarding against the fatigue at design stage
The factors referred to are known as stress concentration
factors (SCF). The
value of the factor will depend on the geometry of the part.
Stress concentration
factor values can be found from charts showing various types
and proportions
of discontinuities in graphical form.
The allowable stress on the net sectional area in way of the
discontinuity in a
part will then be equal to the yield stress (YS) or the ultimate
tensile strength
(UTS), whichever is applicable, divided by the product of the
stress concentration
factor and the factor of safety (FS). Then
• the specimen is revolved, it is subjected to a stress cycle which
allowable stress = (YS or UTS) / (SCF x FS)
In practice, difficulties often arise in obtaining the stress
concentration
factor. When complications arise the designer must resort to
other methodS of
stress anal~sis In computer aided design (CAD) the design
engineer can use a mathematical
technique known as finite element analysis. This technique
utilizes the power of
the computer to find the final results of complicated equations
in an iterative
manner.
Computer programs are available for building up the node
points and
connecting networks required for the analysis and then solving
the equations
arising out of the network. The answers obtained will indicate
the location and
value of the maximum stresses.
Finite element analysis is also a valuable mathematical
technique when
working in the fields of heat transfer and fluid mechanics.
The subject is advanced in nature and involves the work of
specialists. An
engineer should, however. be aware of its availability and have
some knowledge
of the fields of its use.
The fatigue resistance is found by subjecting a sample
specimen of the material
to periodic stress changes until fracture occurs. The number of
cycles up to
fracture and the stress pattern give an indication of the fatigue
resistance of the
material.
By conducting a series of tests with decreasing stress values,
the number of
cycles up to fracture increases. A point is eventually reached
when the stress is
insufficient to cause fracture irrespective of the number of
cycles applied. This
stress value is referred to as the fatigue limit.
The results of the various tests are plotted on a graph called a
stress-number
or S-N diagram. The S values denote the stress range and are
plotted as
ordinates; and N values denote the number of cycles, and are
plotted as
abscissae. The curve flattens as N increases. By plotting the
values of log Sand
log N, the fatigu~ limit is shown as a well-defined turning
point.
The results from fatigue tests require careful interpretation
when deciding on
the allowable design limits for a material.
A considerable number of machines are available for fatigue
testing. One
type uses magnetic means to create a fluctuating load cycle of
tensile stress.
Other machines use a hanging weight on the specimen, as in a
cantilever; when
alternates
between numerically equal values of tensile stress and
compressive stress.
CREEP
when a material is loaded for a long period of time it
may deform gradually and eventually fracture at a stress value
well below the yield stress of the material. The process of
gradual
extension under stress is termed as creep. This phenomenon
is
particularly evident in metals at high temperature and more so
when the temperature is approaching the recrystalising
temperature.
Since the strength of material is considerably reduced
at elevated temperature creep tests are carried out on metals
and
alloys.
Creep tests consists of tensile tests carried out for a long
period of time under a constant load with a test piece held at
given
temperature. The specimen is enclosed in a thermostatically
controlled electric tube furnace which can
be maintained with accuracy over long periods at any given
temperature up
to 1000 °C or more. A simple lever system is often used to load
the test piece,
and some form of delicate extensometer or strain-gauge
system employed
to measure the resultant extension at suitable time intervals.
Corresponding values of time and extension are
noted and plotted on a graph. The graph is termed as creep
curve
The usual method of obtaining graph is to carry out the test on
specimen at constant stress and maintaining a constant
temoerature.
A complete creep curve upto fracture is shown in Fig. 67.
This curve indicates that, following the initial elastic
strain, the plastic strain associated with creep occurs in three
stages:
(i) Primary, or transient creep, EP, beginning at a fairly rapid
rate
which then decreases with time because work-hardening sets
in.
(ii) Secondary, or steady-rate creep, PS, in which the rate of
strain is
uniform and at its lowest value.
(iii) Tertiary creep, SX, in which the rate of strain increases
rapidly
until fracture occurs at X. This stage coincides with necking of
the test pIece.
FIG. 5.15.-Variations of creep rate with stress and temperature.
In Curve A the creep rate soon becomes negligible as work-hardening
sets in. In Curve C the
creep rate is higher than in Curve B because of the use of either higher
stress or higher temperature.
The Mechanism of Creep. Creep is a deformation process III
which three main features appear to be involved:
(i) the normal movement of dislocations along slip planes;
(ii) a process known as 'dislocation climb' which is responsible
for
rapid creep at temperatures above 0.5 Tm,
(iii) slipping at grain boundaries.
In the primary stages of creep, dislocations move quickly at
first but soon
become piled-up at various barriers. Nevertheless, thermal
activation
enables them to surmount some barriers, though at a
decreasing rate so that
the creep rate is reduced. At temperatures in excess of 0.5 Tm,
thermal
activation is sufficient to promote a process known as
'dislocation climb'
(Fig. 5.16). This would bring into use new slip planes and so
reduce the rate
of work hardening. Hence creep is a process in which work
hardening is
balanced by thermal softening which allows slip to continue. At
low
temperatures recovery does not take place due to lack of
thermal activation
(Curve A~Fig. 5.15) and so unrelieved work-hardening leads to
a
reduction in the creep rate almost to zero.
In addition to plastic deformation by dislocation movement,
deformation
by a form of slip at the grain boundaries also occurs during the system of weighted levers, while the specimen is kept at
secondary stage of creep. These movements possibly lead to constant temperature.
The strain is measured at set time intervals and a graph is
the formation plotted of strain
of 'vacant sites', that is lattice positions from which atoms are against time. The test are repeated at the same temperature but
missing, and with increasing
loads, and further graphs are plotted. From these graphs,
this in turn makes possible 'dislocation climb' (Fig. 5.16). The values are obtained
relationship for creep rates which are used to find the safe stresses. The
between grain boundaries and creep is indicated by the fact results require
careful interpretation.
that at high Creep tests are mainly made on materials used for turbo-
temperatures fine-grained metals creep more than coarse- blower turbine
grained metals of blading.
the same compositions, presumably because the fine-grained
metals contain
a higher proportion of grain-boundary region per unit volume of
metal. At Some metal joining methods
low temperatures, where the grain-boundary material is more
'viscous',
The processes by whi<;htwo pieces of metal can be joined are
fine-grained metals are more creep-resistant and generally
soft soldering,
tougher. brazing, welding, or 'With adhesive or bonding materials.
In the tertiary stage of creep micro-cracks are initiated at grain Soft soldering is mainly used for tinplate work or electrical
connections.
boundaries due largely to the movement of dislocations, but in
Brazing is mainly used for non-ferrous pipe work such as
some cases joining slip-type pipe
to the migration of vacant sites there. Necking and consequent flanges to copper pipes, or steel flanges to steel pipes. The
filler material can be
rapid failure follow.
a low melting-point brass or a silver solder; it is drawn into the
5.74. Creep Resistance. This can be increased by impeding joint by capillary
the movement action.
Welding processes vary considerably, from blacksmith's
of dislocations in a metal and also by inhibiting the formation of hammer welding and
new gas welding processes to the mechanized electric arc and
ones. Thus the presence of solute atoms (8.21) which do not resistance welding
processes.
diffuse rapidly In diesel engine manufacture and repair work, the most
will 'pin down' dislocations effectively; whilst the presence af common form of
small welding is the manual electric arc process. This process is
used in the
dispersed particles of a hard, strong constituent will have a manufacture of fabricated bedplates, engine columns, steel
'particlehardening' pipework, and
effect (8.62) by acting as barriers to the movement of a starting-air reservoirs or receivers.
Gas welding processes are used on small size pipework and
dislocation front. The high-temperature 'Nimonic' series of thin sheet metal
alloys (18.32) work.
rely on this type of strengthening mechanism. When welding some metals by the electric arc method, it may
be necessary to
Measurement of CREEP shroud, or envelop, the location of the arc with inert gases
Creep is a form of slip which occurs when metal is subjected such as argon or
to a tensile load at helium.
high temperature. Creep tests are used to find the safe working Adhesive and bonding cements. Plastic adhesives and bonding
stresses for the cements are
materials working at high temperatures. Creep tests, to be available, but their use is mainly limited to instruments, the
reliable, must be fastening of
conducted over long periods. nameplates, and the like. In some cases their use requires heat.
In creep-testing machines constant tensile load is put on the
specimen by a
welding
Weld restraint
If a piece of heated metal is prevented from contracting when
it cools, the metal
will be increasingly strained as cooling proceeds. The total
amount of strain will
be equal to the difference between the length of the hot metal
and the
unrestrained cold length. From Hooke's Law we know that
stress is proportional
to strain; therefore as the restrained metal cools it will in effect
be
subjected to a tensile stress which increases as cooling
proceeds. Similarly, if a
welded joint is prevented from contracting when it cools, a
tensile stress wiIl be
created within the weld and parent metal up to the anchor
points forming the
restraint.
Weld restraint sets up stresses within the welded joint and
adjacent metal
during cooling, which remain when cooling is completed.
They are referred to
as residual stresses. The residual stresses form a complex
pattern, and increase
as the number of runs required to make a joint increases. The
stress in the
direction of the joint is referred to as the longitudinal stress,
and that across the
joint as the transverse stress. Generally the number of runs to
form a joint
should be kept to a minimum by using the largest possible
electrode; this
reduces the complexity of the stresses in the joint.
The fact that restraint causes stresses is sometimes used to
control distortion.
Restraints are created by tack welds and clamps to hold the
parts rigid in one
direction. The locked-up stress created in one direction is used
to control and
cancel distortion in another direction.
The factors controlling distortion caused by welding are the
initial design, the
preparation of the joint, the correct root gap, and the sequence
of welding the
various parts forming the structure. Even when all the factors
are correctly
interrelated, some unavoidable distortion may occur.
Distortion is sometimes controlled by presetting the parts to be
welded in
what appears to be misalignment. As the parts cool after
welding, the resulting
shrinkage gradually pulls the misaligned parts into correct
alignment. This
minimizes the residual stress in the joint. Presetting, however,
can be used only
for simple assemblies.
Why is a restriction put on the maximum carbon
content of the steel
castings and plates used in the construction of
welded engire bedplo~es
and other important engine structures?
The reason for the restriction on the carbon content is that as
the- ~.irbon
content increases it becomes more difficult to make a sound
and reliable weld or in other words the weld ability decreases..
Generally the carbon content is not
ill allowed to exceed 0.23070 unless special welding techniques
are used.
The thickness of the sections being welded also influences the
weldability:
Ihider sections conduct the heat away faster, which has a
quenching effect on
Ihe hnl lOne. Heavy sections are therefore preheated.
Nol~ The weld metal bears some resemblance to steel in the
cast condition.
The heal from the weld will also harden the parent metal
adjacent to it; if this
'1leelhas a high carbon content, cracks are more liable to
occur.
Welded engine structures such as bedplates through which the
firing load is
transmitted must be heat-treated. The heat treatment usually
consists of heating
fhe welded structure in a furnace; the heating is slow so that
the welded
structure Is uniformly heated throughout all its parts. The
structure is raised to
lllemperalure of ~80-6~0°C(1080-12009F)and it is soaked
at this temperature
for a period dependent on the thickness of the thickest parts.
After soaking it is
slow-cooled in the furnace.
This type of heat treatment refines the grain structure of the
metal in the
Weld .and the adjacent metal, and also relieves the residual
stresses within the
we'lded structure. Heat treatment is carried out after welding is
completed and
prior to machining,.
Non-destructive testing methods include radiography,
ultrasonic testing,
magnetic particle testing, eddy-current testing and dye
penetrant testing. These
tests enable the engineer to decide whether a part is likely to
be reliable in
service.
Radiography is usually confined to the testing of welds in
pressure vessels such
as starting air reservoirs. Large reservoirs for high-pressure
use may require
complete examination of all welds, smaller reservoirs may
require only spot
tests to be taken. X-rays or gamma-rays are used to expose the
emulsion on the
radiographic mm. Welding defects give a greater exposure of
the film and show
as darker areas. The use of radiographic equipment and
interpretation of the
negative requires considerable training and skill.
Ultrasonic testing is performed by equipment that transmits
high-frequency
vibrations through the material to be tested; the vibrations are
reflected back
from the opposite surface or from any discontinuity in the
material. Ultrasonic
methods can be used to measure the thickness of materials or
to detect internal
or surface defects in welds,castings, or forgings, either during
manufacture or
when in service. Defects are shown as extra pulses to the
transmitted and
reflected pulses, on a cathode ray oscilloscope.
Magnetic-particle testing methods can be used for detecting
surface and nearsurface
defects in materials that can be magnetized. When a magnetic
field is
induced in the part to be tested, defects ailow a flux leakage to
occur. This
causes the magnetic particles used in the test to congregate at
the leakage,
indicating the location of the defect.
Magnetic-particle testing is used mainly for checking the
condition of engine
parts and shafting, which are liable to fatigue failure. The use
of this type of test
equipment requires skill and experience,
Eddy-current testing methods are used ma!nly in production
line work during
the manufacture of small ferrous material parts for use in
either large or small
engines. A coil is used in the tester, any defects present
causing a change in the
impedance of the coil. The change of impedance is utilized in
various ways to
call attention to the presence of a defect.
Dye-penetrant tests are used to detect surface defects such a
fatigue cracks in
crankshafts and screwshafts. The part to be tested is throughly
cleaned, and a
dye penetrant is sprayed on the cleaned area. If any surface
defect is present,
capillary attraction draws the dye into the crack. The dye is
cleaned off (but
remains in the cracks), and absorbent material is spray<oated
on the test area.
The absorbent draws out the penetrant dye from the crack,
showing a coloured
line which indicates the presence and location of the defect.