Light is a type of transverse wave that consists of magnetic and electric fields.

It
undergoes several phenomena such as reflection and refraction.

UNDERSTANDING REFLECTION OF LIGHT

The figure og 1.1 shows the reflection of light irected on the surface of a plane
mirror. The line drawn at aright angle yp the mirror’s surface is known as the normal line.
The law of reflaction state that:

• The incident ray, the reflacted ray and the normal line all lie on the same
plane.
• The incident angle, i = reflected angle, r.

While in figure 1.2, the image produced on a plane mirror is:

• Virtual
• The same size as the object
• Upright
• Laterally inverted
• The object distance,
u = the image distance, v

The girl uses her right hand to com her hair but the image appears to be using her left
hand in the plane mirror. This characteristic is known as laterally inversion where the left
and right sides are interchanged

Figure 1.1 Figure 1.2

EFFECTS OF REFRACTION OF LIGHT

1. BENDING OF A PENCIL

Figure 1.3 shows a mirror periscope which is used to view objects at an elevated
position behind an obstacle. The two plane mirror are placed 45’ anticlockwise
from the vertical axis where the second mirror is placed parallel to the first mirror.
The light rays from the objects are reflected by the first mirror at an incident
angle, i of 45’ and the reflected angle, r is also 45’ as
i = r. The reflected rays are subsequently reflected by the second mirror. The
image produced is upright and laterally inverted.
2. REAR-VIEW MIRROR OF CAR

Rear-view mirror on the side of a car are used by the driver to view the vehicles
behind or alongside his car.

3. FIRE ENGINE

The word “ABMOB” which is the lateral inversion of “BOMBA’ is readable as

BOMBA when reflected by the interior rear-view mirrors of other cars in front of
the fire engine.

4. ANTI-PARALLEX MIRROR IN AMMETER

The plane mirror behind the pointer in the ammeter show in figure 1.4 produces
an image of the pointer when the eye of the observer is not in line with the pointer
while taking the reading. When the eye is vertically above the pointer, the image
of the pointer will not be seen on the mirror and the correct reading can be
obtained.

Figure 1.3 Figure 1.4

REFLECTION OF LIGHT ON CURVED MIRRORS

COMMON TERMINOLOGY
Principal axis:
• A line which passes through the center of curvature, C and the pole of the curved
mirror, P.

Pole of mirror, P:
• The center point of a curved mirror.

Center of curvature, C:
• The geometric centre

• the pole of mirror, P

Aperture of mirror:
• The portion of the surface of the mirror that reflects light

• of a curved mirror.

Focal point,F :
• A point where rays parallel to the principal axis converge at or diverge from.

Focal point, f:
• The distance between the focal point, F and the pole of mirror, P

Radius of curvature, r = 2f;

• The distance between the center of curvature, C and

Aperture of mirror:
• The portion of the surface of the mirror that reflects light

Object distance, u:
• The distance between the object and the pole of mirror, P

Image distance, v:
 • The distance between the image and the pole of mirror, p

DIFFERENCES

Concave mirror Convex mirror

Curve towards object Curves away from object
Rays parallel to the principal axis converge Rays parallel to the principal axis diverge
at the real focal point, F which is situated from the virtual focal point, F which is
in front of the mirror situated behind the mirror
Positive focal length. Negative focal length.
Example: +15 cm Example: - 15 cm

RAY DIAGRAMS

A ray diagram is used to determine the characteristic and positions of image for various
object distances. A real images is formed when two or more real rays originating from a
point of the object intersect. A real image is formed in front of a mirror. A virtual images
is formed when two or more virtual extended rays intersect. A virtual image is formed
behind a mirror.

Concave mirror

Convex mirror
UNDERSTANDING REFRACTION OF LIGHT
The straw in the glass of water is seen as a ‘broken’ straw due to the refraction of light.
Refraction of light is a phenomenon where the direction and velocity of light are changed
when it passes thought the boundary of two transparent materials of different optical
densities.
optical densities = physical densities
(p = m/V), for example, paraffin is optically denser than water but physically less dense
than water.

EXAMPLE OF REFRACTION

A) When light travels from air (optically less dense) to water (optically denser):
i. i>r
ii. velocity of light decrease in water and cause the light ray to bend toward the
normal

B) When light travel from water (optically denser) to air (optically less denser)
i. i>r
ii. velocity of light decrease in water and cause the light ray to bend away the
normal

C) When light travels at a right angle to the boundary between two mediums:
i. i= r= 0
ii. no refraction occurs and the ray is not bent but the velocity still change
accordingly

LAW OF REFRACTION

The incident ray and the refracted ray are on the opposite sides of the normal at the point
of incidence and all three lie in the same plane. The value of
sin i/ sin r = Constance (snell’s law)

REFRACTIVE INDEX, n

The refractive index, n = sin i/sin r where n is dimensionless (no unit). It is an indication
of light-bending ability of a medium. The refractive index of a medium that contains the
refracted ray and refracted angle, r. ( for example, n shows that the refracted angle, r is
positioned in water). A medium with hight value of n bends light more, hence has greater
refracting effect while a medium with low value of n bends light less and has lees
refracting effect.
REFRACTIVE INDEX , n AND SPEED OF LIGHT

The speed of light in air/vacuum is 3 x 10 m s and when light travels from air to an
optically denser medium, the speed of light decrease where:
n= c/v= speed of light in vacuum/speed of light in the medium

The value of n>1 for all mediums because the speed of light in a vacuum is always higher
than the speed of light in other materials.

REL DEPTH, D AND APPARENT DEPTH, d n

A swimming pool normally appears shallower than it really is due to the refraction of
light. The refractive index of water, n = D/d.

EFFECT OF REFFRACTION OF LIGHT

The twinkling of the star:

The star twinkle because we view them through thick layer of moving air (turbulent) in
the earth’s atmosphere. The star do not twinkle when observed in outer space. The
densities or refractive indices of the layer of the atmosphere are varied by the moving air
and when light rays from the star travel refracted rapidly. As the result, the light enters
the eye at one moment and does not at the next moment. This constant but random
change produces the twinkling of star. The moon and planet do not twinkle as their
apparent sizes are not affected by the small fluctuation of the atmospheric refraction.
Therefore there is not effect to the amount of light that enter the eye.

UNDERSTANDING TOTAL INTERNAL REFKECTION

Total internal reflection is a reflection of light rays at the boundary of two medium when
the incident angle, I is larger than the critical angle, c of the optically denser medium.
The critical angle, c of a medium is the maximum incident angle before total internal
reflection occurs (when the refracted angle, r = 90). The boundary of the two mediums
acts as a perfect plane mirror. Two conditions for total internal reflection to happen:
a) The incident angle, i>critical angle, c.
b) The light travels from an optically denser medium to an optically less
dense medium
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN CRITICAL ANGLE, c AND THE REFRACTIVE
INDEX, n

A light ray traveling from water to air with its incident angle, I equal o the critical angle,
c of water and the refracted angle, r = 90. In order to determine the refractive index, n of
water using Snell’s law
(n = sin i/ sin r), the refracted angle must be situated in water. Therefore the direction of
the light ray has to be reversed. Using Snell’s law:
Refractive index of water,
n = sin i /sin r =sin 90/ sin c.

NATURAL PHENOMENA AND THE USES OF TOTAL INTERNAL REFLECTION

Fish’s Eye View

A fish is able to see an object above the water surface due to the refraction of light and it
is also able to view an object behind an obstacle due to the total internal reflection.

Prism Binoculars

The prism binoculars are also based on the effects of glass prism on light rays. On one
section of a binoculars, the two
glass prisms are arranged with their hypotenuse faced parallel but diagonally
perpendicular to each other. The image produced is virtual, upright and not laterally
inverted. The distance between the objective lens and the eyepiece of the binoculars is
short compared to an astronomical telescope, thus making it portable.

UNDERSTANDING LENSES

Power of Lenses, P

The lenses power, P is the ability to converge or diverge an accident light ray. It is the
reciprocal of the focal length, f of a lens, in metres.
P = 1/f(m) or P = 100/f(m)
The unit of lens power is m or
diopter, D.
Ray Diagrams

A ray diagrams is used to determine the characteristic and positions of image for various
object distance.

Convex Lens:

Concave Lens:

Image Formed by a Concave Lens

The characteristic of image formed; virtual, upright, diminished and formed on the same
side as the object for all object distances. The image distance, v is always less than the
object distance, u. the concave lens can be used in spectacle for myopia (short
sightedness).

Lens Equation

The relationship between the object distance, u, the image distance v and the focal length,
f of a thin lens is given by the lens equation:
1/f = 1/u + 1/v,
The equation is used with the following:

Convex Concave
lens lens
Object Positive positive
distance, u
Image Real Virtual The lens equation can be used to determine
distance, v image- image- the position of an image an the linear
positive negative magnification.
Virtual
image-
negative
Focal positive Negative
length, f
THE USES OF LENS IN OPTICAL DEVICES

Magnifying glass (simple microscope)

When an object is placed at a distance, u of less than the focal length, f of a convex lens,
the lens acts as a magnifying glass. The two rays from the top of the object do not
converge after passing through the lens. Instead, they intersect at point p’ when they are
extended backward. The image produced is virtual, upright and magnified.

Slide Projector

Component function
Lamp/ bulb Light source which is placed at the centre
of curvature of the concave mirror so that
the light rays fall normally on the concave
mirror
Concave mirror To reflect the light rays through the optical
centre of the condenser lens
Condenser lens Consists of two plano-convex lenses which
converge the light rays from the mirror
towards the slide to brighten the slide
completely
Heat filter To prevent the projector from overheating
by absorbing heat
Slide Placed between f and 2f of the projection
lens
Projection lens To focus the image onto the screen
screen A real, inverted and magnifying image is
formed on it
 Subatomic Symbols Actual Relative Value Relative
UNDERSTANDING THE particles mass mass of charge
NUCLEUS OF AN ATOM charge
Electron e 9.1x 1/1840 - -1
The Composition of the Nucleus 10 kg 1.60x1
of an Atom 0c
Proton P 1.67 x 1 +1.60x +1
An atom consist of a nucleus with 10 kg 10 c
electrons orbiting the nucleus. Neutron n 1.67 x 1 0 Neutral
The nucleus which is made up of 10 kg
proton
And neutrons is very dense. Neutrons and protons are called nucleons. Most of the mass
of the atom is in the nucleus itself. The electrons move around the orbit.

The Structure of Atom

An atom is mostly empty space with move subatomic particles concentrated in the
nucleus. The table below shows the properties of the subatomic particles.

Proton Number (z) and Nucleon Number (A)

Proton number is the number of protons in the nucleus of an atom. Nucleon number is the
total number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus of an atom. A neutral atom has equal
numbers of protons ans electrons. Therefore the protons number also show the number of
electrons in a neutral atom. The number of neutrons, is found by subtracting the protons
number from the nucleon number.

Number of Neutrons, N = A-Z

 Nuclide and Nuclide Notation

A nuclide refers to a particular type of atom characteristic by its proton number and
nucleon number. The nuclide notation of an the element, the nucleon number and the
proton number. An element, X with nucleon number, A and protons number Z is
represented by the symbol below.

Element Nuclide Proton Electro Neutrons

notation n

Hydrogen 1 1 0

Nitrogen 7 7
7
Silver 47 47 61
The table shows a few example of nuclide notation. The nuclide notation for a proton, an
electron and neutron are
P , e, n respectively.

Isotopes

A sample of an element usually

Consistof a mixture of different type of atom. The different type of atom have the same
protons number but different nucleon number. Atom of an element with the same proton
number but different nucleon number are known as isotopes. The chemical propertise of
an atom is determine by the number of electron in the atom. Therefore isotopes of an
element have similar chemical propertiese.

ANALYSING RADIOACTIVE DECAY

Radioactivity:
Radioactivity is the spontaneous disintegration of an unstable nucleus accompanied by
the emission of energetic particles or photons. The emission of energetic particles or
photons is called radioactive emission. All nuclei with z>83 or A >209 are unstable.
Unstable isotopes undergo radioactive disintegration or decay. Stable isotopes do not
undergo radioactive disintegration.

Cloud Chamber:
The particle or radiation travelling in a cloud chamber ionises the air situated with
alcohol inside. The ions formed allow vapour to condense, forming tiny alcohol droplets.
As a result, visible track can be seen.

Photographic Plate or Film:

When the photographic plate is exposed to radiation, a chemical reaction occurs which
causes the photographic plate to be darkened. The degree darkened depends on the
amount of radiation the plate is exposed to. Workers in nuclear power satation or
laboratories wear film badges which contain a photographic film to monitor their
exposure to radiation.

Radioactive Decay:

A radioactive decay is a process where an unstable nucleus emits radiations in order to

become a more stable nucleus.
It also a spontaneous and random process as:
a. The rate of decay cannot be controlled
b. It happen on its own
c. It is not effect by chemical composition or physical factors such as
temperature,pressure, electric fields and magnetic fields.
It is a random process since it is impossible to predict which atom will decay at any
moment of time. The unstable nucleus is called the parent nuclide. After radioactive
decay, the resulting nucleus which is more stable is called the daughter nuclide. There are
three types of radioactive decay:

a. Alpha decay
b. Beta decay
c. Gamma decay
Alpha Decay:

An alpha particles is a helium nucleus which consists of two neutrons and two protons. It
has a charge of + 2e. During alpha decay, the radioactive parent nucleus loses two
protons and two neutrons in tha form of alpha particles. As a result, the proton number of
the parent nucleus decreased by 2 while the nucleus number decreased by 4

Beta Decay:

A beta particles is an electron with a charge of-1e. during beta decay, a neutron
disintegrates into a proton and a neutron. The equation for the disintegration pf neutron is
n
P+e. The protons remains in the nucleus but the electron is ejected from the nucleus at
hight speed. As the result, the proton number of the parent nucleus increase by 1 while
the nucleon number is charged.
Gamma Decay:
Gamma emision is an energatic electronmagnetic radiation. Certain unstable nucleus in
an excited state emits gamma rays in order to become more stable nucleus. The nucleus
after the emission become less energatic. As gamma ray is not a particles, the protons
number and nucleus number remain unchanged.

Radioactive Decay Series:

It shows a series of successive decay for a particular radioisotopes until a stable isotopes
is achieved. It is displays on a graph of nucleon number, A or neutron number, N against
proton number, Z. Figure below shows the example of decay series:

:
The Concept of Half-Life:

The decay of a radioactive nucleus is a random and spontaneous process. As a result, it is

not possible to predict when a particular nucleus will decay. Nevertheless, the number of
nuclei which disintegrates over a certain period of time can be determined if there is a
large number of nuclei. As time passes, the number of nuclei disintegrated increase and
the number of nuclei remaining decrease. The half-life of a radioactive element is the
time taken for half the radioactive nuclei in a given sample to decay.

Radioisotopes Half-life
Uranium-238 5000 million
Plutonium-239 24000 years
Radium-228 1600 years
Calcium-137 30 years
Cobalt-60 5 years
Radon-222 4 days
Sodium-24 16 hours
Nitrogen-13 10 minutes
Barium-143 12 second
UNDESTANDING THE USES OF RADIOISOTOPES
Radioisotopes:

Radioisotopes are isotopes which are unstable and undergo radioactive decay. As a result,
radioactive emission are also given out. Some radioisotopes exist naturally such as H, O,
K, Ra. Others are produced artificially in nuclear laboratories such as P, Mn, Na.

APPLICATION OF RADIOISOTOPES:

Medicine:
Radioisotopes known as radioactive tracers are given to patiens throught injection,
inhalation or medicine. The radioactive emission from the radioactive tracer which
penetrates the body of the patient will be detected by detectors placed near the patients
body. The radioactive emission detected will provide information on the condition of the
patient’s organs or diseases. Example of the uses of radioisotopes in the field of
medicine:
a. Iodine-123 or iodine-133 is used to diagnose the activity of tyroid.
b. Sodium-24 detects the positions of blood clots.
c. Phosphorus-32 is used to detect and treat brain tumour.
Properties of radioactive tracers which make them suitable in madicine:
a. The half-life must not be too long as this is harmful to the patient. However, the
half-life must not be too short so that the tracer can provide enough imformation
for diagnostic or treatment purpose.

Agriculture;

A. Gamma rays from radioisotopes can be used to kill pest.

B. Radiation from radioactive tracer is used to induce genetic mutation in plant to
produce a new strain of plant with higher yield and higher resistance against
diseases.
Archaelogy:
To determine the age of artefacts, carbon -14 is used.Living organism absorb and give out
carbon-14 all the time. As a result, the proportion of carbon-12 which is not radioactive,
to carbon-14 in the organisms is almost constant. However, when the organism die, the
uptake of carbon-14 stop. The carbon-14 in the organisme start to decay with a half-life
of 5730 years. The activity varies directly with the remaining number of atoms. By
comparing the activity of nthe dead sample with the activity of the living sample of same
mass, its age can be estimated.

UNDESTANDING NUCLEAR ENERGY

Atomic Mass Unit (A.M.U. or U):

The atomic mass unit is a unit used to measure the masses of particles. The mass of one
carbon-12 atom is defined as a mass of 12u. the mass one carbon-12 atom is 1.99265 x
10:
Hence, 12u = 1.99265 x 10 kg
u= 1.99265 x 10 kg /12
= 1.66 x 10 kg

Nuclear Fission:

It occurs when a heavy nucleus splits into two or more nuclei of roughly equal masses
with the releases of several neutrons. Nuclear fissions is initiated when a heavy nucleus is
bombarded by a neutron. The fissions fragment fly apart at great speed. Hence, the
fragments have larger amounts of kinetic energy. The kinetic energy is converted to heat
energy when the fragments collide with the surrounding atoms.

Chain Reactions:

It occurs when neutrons from the fissions of uranium-235 continue to split other nuclei
causing further collision. The number of nuclei increases rapidly. As a result, the chain
reaction takes place at a higher rate. The chain reaction continues if a minimum of one
neutrons from each fissions triggers further fissions. The mass of uranium sample must
also exceed a certain minimal mass known as the critical mass. The critical mass is
determined by its shape. A controlled chain reaction takes place in a nuclear power
station. Uncontrolled chain reactions take place in nuclear weapons.

Nuclear Fissions:

It occurs when two or more small and light nuclei combine to form a heavier element. A
large amount of energy is released during nuclear fusions. The reactions which power the
star is nuclear fusion.

Energy in a Nuclear Reaction:

In a nuclear reaction, the total mass of the daughter particles and other products is less
than that of the parent particles. The difference in mass is called mass defect or mass
loss. According to Einstein’s Principle of Mass-Energy Conservation, the mass defect is
converted to energy given by:
E=mc
Where E=energy released, in J
m=mass defect, in kg
c= speed of light, in m s

Generation of Electricity from Nuclear Reaction

Electricity can be generated from nuclear reaction in a nuclear power station which
consist of a nuclear reactor and a generator. The energy released from the nuclear
reaction heats the water. The steam prodused is used to drive turbines which in turn drive
the electrical generators.
Component Function
Moderator Slows down fast moving neutrons so that
nuclear fissions can occurs. Water can also
be used as moderator.
Core Nuclear fissions occurs in the uranium rod
Control Controls rate of fissions by absorbing
some neutrons
Concrete wall Prevent the radiation from escaping
Turbin Turns the dynamo in the generator to
produce electrical energy

Advantage
Producing of energy involves a lower cost
Nuclear reactors are relative safe
Does not emit greenhouse gases such as
carbon dioxide
The dwindling reserves of fossil fuels
requires the uses of alternative source of
energy
Disadvantage
High cost of building a nuclear power
stations
Accidents due to human error may occur
Waste from nuclear stations have long-half-
live and need be stored to using expensive
methods
Nuclear fuel is not easy to obtain

Nuclear reactors are used to solve problems involving:

a. The production of artificial radioactive isotopes for medical diagnosis and
treatment
b. The testing of theory on subatomic particles
c. The productions of fissionable transuranic element such as plutonium from
uranium-238

REALISING THE IMPORTANCE OF PROPER MANAGEMENT OF RADIOACTIVE

SUBSTANCE

The Negative Effects of Radioactive Substance:

Radioactive substance produce ionising radiations such as alpha particles, beta particles
and gamma rays. These ionising radiation remove electrons from the surrounding atoms
and produce ions pairs. The ionisation of atoms may cause alteration in genetic material
of the cell such as the deoxyribonuclei acid (DNA). Products formed due to ionisation
may also have toxic effects on the metabolic process. The effect on the cell include:
 a. Abnormal replication
b. The cease of function in the cell
c. Death of cell
Table below shows two categories of the harmful effects of radiation on human.
Somatic effect Genetic effect
Fatigue Abnormal reproductive cell
Organ failure Birth detects
Hair loss Premature death
Vomiting Genetic defects such as
a. Down syndrome
b. Klinefelter syndrome
c. Turner syndrome
Skin burn
Leukemia

Safety Precautions in the Handling of Radioactive Substance:

Workers handling radioactive substances wear special badges or dosimeter to detects the
level of exposure to radiation. Experiments using radioactive substances are to be
conducted in a room enclosed by thick concreate walls. Food and drinks are prohibited in
radiation laboratories. And others common rule.