MSE 494/598 - Manufacturing Processes

for Structural Materials

Nondestructive
Testing

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Class Summary

Critical topics:
• Nondestructive Inspection techniques
• Probability of detection
• Composite NDE methods
• Reference NASA Critical

Terminology:
• PT MT UT RT
• ET

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Definitions

Nondestructive testing or Non-destructive testing (NDT) is a large group

of analysis techniques used in the industry to evaluate the properties of a
material, component or system without causing damage

Terminology:
• Nondestructive examination (NDE)
• Nondestructive inspection (NDI) Names used interchangeably
• Nondestructive evaluation (NDE)

Because NDT does not permanently alter the article being inspected, it is
a highly valuable technique that can save both money and time in
product evaluation, failure analysis, manufacturing troubleshooting, and
R&D applications

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Nondestructive Test Methods

Nondestructive test methods include:

Common Methods:
• Visual inspection - VI
• Surface roughness inspection
• Liquid penetrant inspection (testing) - PT, FPI
• Magnetic particle inspection (testing) – MPT, MT, MPI
• Ultrasonic inspection (testing) - UT
• Radiographic inspection (testing) - RT
• Eddy current inspection (testing) -

Specialized Methods:
• Thermography
• Acoustic Emission Testing - AET
• Laser Shearography
• Laser Holographic Interferometry Inspection

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Liquid Penetrant Inspection
• In the liquid- penetrants technique, fluids are applied to the surfaces
of the part and allowed to penetrate into openings such as cracks,
seams, and porosity.
• The penetrant can seep into cracks as narrow as 0.1 mm
• Two common types of liquids are
(a) fluorescent penetrants that fluoresce under ultraviolet light
(b) visible penetrants, using dyes usually red in color, which
appear as bright out-lines on the surface

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Liquid Penetrant Inspection (continued)

https://www.nde-ed.org/GeneralResources/MethodSummary/MethodSummary.htm
Principle
• Penetrant solution is applied to the surface of a precleaned component.
• The liquid is pulled into surface discontinuity by capillary action.
• Excess penetrant material is cleaned from the surface.
• A developer is applied to pull the trapped penetrant back to the surface where it is spread out
and forms an indication
• The indication is much easier to see than the actual defect.
Uses
• Used to located cracks, porosity and other discontinuities that are open to the surface and have
enough volume to trap and hold penetrant. Will work on most nonporous materials.

Advantages
• Large surface areas & parts with complex
geometries can be inspected rapidly at low
cost
• Can be portable.
• Equipment investment is relatively minimal.
• Moderate skill required.
• Visual image of discontinuity is produced by
cluster of penetrant particles directly on part.
Disadvantages
• Only detects discontinuities open to surface.
• Surface preparation is critical as contaminates
mask discontinuities (paint, grease, sealants).
• Rough and porous surfaces interfere with test.
• Requires multiple steps under controlled
conditions and a high degree of cleanliness.
• Post cleaning required to remove chemicals.
• Requires chemical handling precautions.

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Liquid Penetrant Inspection

Process Video

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Bonus Liquid Penetrant Inspection

Inspection steps include:

• Written inspection procedures are required that are part or part group
specific.
• The surface to be inspected is first thoroughly cleaned and dried
• The liquid is then brushed or sprayed on the surface to be inspected and
allowed to remain long enough to seep into surface openings
• Excess penetrant is wiped off or washed away with water or solvent
• A developing agent is then applied to allow the penetrant to seep back to
the surface and spread to the edges of openings, thus magnifying the size
of defects
• The surface is then inspected for defects, either visually (in the case of dye
penetrants) or with fluorescent lighting
• This method is used extensively and is capable of detecting a variety of
surface defects
• It is less costly to operate than other methods, but the method can detect
only defects that are open to the surface, not internal defects.
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Bonus Liquid Penetrant Inspection (continued)

Typical Drawing Notes

• Fluorescent penetrant inspect, after machining, per ASTM E1417,
Sensitivity Level 2 for conformance to the requirements in MIL-STD-
1907, Grade A.
• Fluorescent penetrant inspect finished casting per ASTM E1417,
Sensitivity Level 1 for conformance to the requirements in AMS-
2175, Class 3, Grade C
Specifications
• ASTM E1417 contains instructions on how to perform a liquid
penetrant inspection. It does not specify accept/reject criteria for
discontinuities.
• MIL-STD-1907 contains the discontinuity, accept/reject criteria for 4
quality level classifications (Grade A-D) of wrought product,
weldments, and castings.
• AMS 2175 contains the discontinuity, accept/reject criteria for 4
classes (1-4) and 4 grades (A-D) of castings.

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Bonus Liquid Penetrant Inspection (continued)

Table I From
MIL-STD-
1907

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Bonus Liquid Penetrant Inspection (continued)

This Specification
Contains Accept/Reject
Criteria for Both
Magnetic Particle and
Penetrant Inspections

Table 4
From
AMS 2175

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Bonus Liquid Penetrant Inspection (continued)

Fluorescent Penetrant (Type I) Sensitivity Levels

Sensitivity Description Typical Applications
Level
1 Low • In-process inspection of raw forgings
and castings prior to machining.
• AMS2175, Class 3 and 4 magnesium
and aluminum castings.

2 Medium Most applications

3 High Flight Safety Parts
4 Ultrahigh Detection of fatigue cracks
Aid in failure analysis

Personnel Certification Requirements

• Non-destructive personnel must be qualified and certified in
accordance with SNT-TC-1A, ANSI/ASNT CP-189, NAS410, or
MIL-STD-410 (for military purposes).
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Bonus Liquid Penetrant Inspection (continued)

Examination sequence
• The final examination shall be performed after completion of all operations
that could cause surface discontinuities or operations that could expose
discontinuities not previously open to the surface.
• Grinding • Machining • Heat Treating • Forming
• Welding • Straightening • Joggling • Heat Treating
• The final examination shall be performed prior to surface treatments that
can smear metal or otherwise close surface openings:
• Anodizing • Alodining • Plating • Black Oxide
• Vapor Blasting • Deburring • Sanding • Buffing
• Sand Blasting • Lapping • Peening • Spin Forming
• All surface coatings such as primer, paint, plating, and corrosion shall be
removed prior to penetrant inspection.
• Prior to final inspection remove a minimum of 0.0002” of metal from
surfaces that were ground, vibratory or mass finished, buffed, honed, wire
brushed, burnished, sanded, polished, or rubbed with Scotch-Brite pads.
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Magnetic Particle Inspection
• MPI is used to inspect ferromagnetic materials (those that can be magnetized)
• The MPI technique consists of placing fine ferromagnetic particles on the
surface of the part
• The particles can be applied either dry or in a liquid carrier such as water or oil
(A wet inspection is best for detecting very small discontinuities.)
(Particle diameters range from ~0.0004 to ~0.000004 inch)
• When the part is magnetized with a magnetic field, a discontinuity (defect) on
the or just below the surface causes the particles to gather visibly around it.
• The collected particles generally take the shape and size of the defect.
This discontinuity
will not show Sharp Indications
since it is parallel
to the field

Greatest
disruption occurs
when defect is 90o
to magnetic field.
Dry Method
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Magnetic Particle Inspection (continued)

• Subsurface defects can be detected by this method, provided that they are not too deep
(~1/16” maximum depth).
• Magnetic lines of force travel through the material.
• Defects must be oriented 45o to 90o to the magnetic field lines for detection.
• Must magnetize part in at least two directions 90o to each other to ensures detection of
all defects.
• Strength of magnetic field is proportional to the amount of current passed.
• Direct current (DC) generates a magnetic field that penetrates deeper into the material
than alternating current. Unless properly rectified, AC should only be used when the
inspection is limited to surface defects.

Headstock Use a head

shot to obtain a
circular
magnetic field.
Use a coil
shot to obtain
FLAW
a longitudinal
magnetic
Tail Stock
field.
Direct magnetization Indirect magnetization
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Magnetic Particle Inspection (continued)

https://www.nde-ed.org/GeneralResources/MethodSummary/MethodSummary.htm
Principle
• A magnetic field is established in a component made from ferromagnetic material.
• The magnetic lines of force travel through the part.
• The magnetic flux goes around discontinuities oriented 45o to 90o to the magnetic field lines and
force some of the magnetic flux outside of the part (this is called flux leakage).
• Magnetic particles distributed over the part will be attracted to areas of flux leakage and
produce a visible indication.

Uses
• Used inspect ferromagnetic parts & materials (those than can be magnetized) for discontinuities
that are at or near the surface.

Advantages
• Can be portable and relatively fast.
• Equipment investment is relatively minimal.
• Moderate skill required.
• Surface prep is less critical than it is in FPI.
• Can detect both surface and subsurface
discontinuities including steel inclusions.
• Visual image of discontinuity is produced by
cluster of magnetic particle directly on part.
Disadvantages
• Only ferromagnetic materials can be inspected.
• Proper alignment of magnetic field to
discontinuity is critical.
• Rough surfaces and nonmagnetic coatings
(e.g., paint, sealant) interfere with test.
• Large currents are needed for large parts.
• Post cleaning to remove chemicals and
demagnetization are required.

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Magnetic Particle Inspection

Process Video

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Bonus Magnetic Particle Inspection
Basic inspection steps for a wet continuous, fluorescent, horizontal inspection
include:
• Written inspection procedures are required that are part specific.
• The surface to be inspected is first thoroughly cleaned and dried.
• No loose dirt, rust, paint or scale are permitted.
• The surface must be free of grease and oil that could prevent the suspension form wetting the
surface.
• The iron-type particles in the suspension must be able to move freely.
• Demagnetize parts.
• Gently sprayed or flow the suspension over the surface of the part.
• Apply the magnetizing force.
• Apply the suspension of fluorescent particles suspended in a liquid vehicle
• The suspension stream should be diverted from the part simultaneously with energizing the
magnetic circuit.
• To improve particle mobility, apply the current in 2-3 short bursts (~0.5 secs.)
• Currents can be up to ~ 6000 amps depending on part geometry and equipment
• Verify magnetic field strength and direction using gauss meter, Quantitate Quality Indicators
(QQI), etc.
• 30 to 60 Gauss are usually acceptable
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Bonus Magnetic Particle Inspection (continued)

Basic inspection steps for a wet continuous, fluorescent, horizontal

inspection include:
• Allow suspension to drain.
• Visually inspect surface under black light (1000 μW/cm2 at part surface) for defects
where the magnetic particles are clustered.
• Evaluate indications per specification XXXX
• Indications from subsurface discontinuities will be less defined than those open
to the surface.
• The location of rejectable indications should be safely marked on the part.
• Magnetize the part again in at least one other direction 90 degrees to the first
magnetic field and repeat process.
• Discontinuities cannot be at an angle < than 45o to the magnetization direction.
• Demagnetize part (3 gauss maximum)
• Clean and remove suspension
• Check part under black light to ensure complete removal of contaminants
• Protect from corrosion

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Bonus Magnetic Particle Inspection (continued)

Typical Drawing Notes

• Magnetic particle inspect area shown, after finish machining, per
ASTM E1444 for conformance to the requirements in MIL-STD-
1907, Grade A.
• Magnetic particle inspect finished casting per ASTM E1444 for
conformance to the requirements in AMS-2175, Class 1, Grade A.
Specifications
• ASTM E1444 contains instructions on how to perform a magnetic
particle inspection. It does not specify accept/reject criteria for
discontinuities.
• MIL-STD-1907 contains the discontinuity, accept/reject criteria for 4
quality level classifications (Grade A-D) of wrought product,
weldments, and castings.
• AMS 2175 contains the discontinuity, accept/reject criteria for 4
classes (1-4) and 4 grades (A-D) of steel castings.

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Bonus MPI – Steel Cleanliness (continued)

Grade 3 Requirement Effect on Properties

 Steel must be certified to AMS 2300.  Nonmetallic inclusions reduce contact fatigue and
“Steel Cleanliness, Premium Aircraft-Quality bending fatigue stresses.
Magnetic Particle Inspection Procedure”  Nonmetallic inclusions reduce transverse ductility,
especially in high strength steels.
Cleanliness Requirements
 The degree of steel cleanliness is controlled by
whether AMS 2300, AMS 2301, or AMS 2304 is
specified in the material specification.
Example of a Cylindrical Step Down
 Each AMS specification uses magnetic particle
inspection for detecting and quantitatively rating Specimen
nonmetallic inclusions.
 AMS 2300 is the highest cleanliness standard.
 AMS 2300 can only be meet by vacuum arc (VAR) or
electroslag (ESR) remelting.
 AMS 2304 can be meet by laddle refined steels (not
vacuum).
 AMS 2301 can be meet by air melted steels.
Process
 A test sample is machined to specified diameters
below the surface, then, magnetic particle inspected.
 Indications from nonmetallic inclusions down to 1/64
inch in length are rated for frequency and severity.
 The ratings are compared to specification
accept/reject criteria.

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Bonus Magnetic Particle Inspection (continued)

Steel Cleanliness
• Magnetic particle inspection is used to evaluate steel cleanliness.
• Premium aircraft quality steel is certified to AMS 2300.
• The steel is rated on the number (frequency) and length (severity) of magnetic
particle indications 1/64 (0.016”) inch and over.
• Inclusions and phases that could cause MPI indications in steel include
manganese sulfides (MnS), aluminum oxides (Al2O3), silicates (SiO2), calcium
aluminates, & ferrite in austenitic stainless steels.

0.02 inch

0.04 inch

A Gross Subsurface Aluminate

Stringer in Steel Manganese Sulfide Inclusions in Steel

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Bonus Magnetic Particle Inspection (continued)

Personnel Certification Requirements

• Non-destructive personnel must be qualified and certified in
accordance with SNT-TC-1A, ANSI/ASNT CP-189, NAS 410 or
MIL-STD-410 (for military purposes).

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Bonus Magnetic Particle Inspection (continued)

Examination sequence
• The final examination shall be performed after completion of all operations
that could cause surface or near surface discontinuities.
• Grinding • Machining • Heat Treating • Cold Forming
• Welding • Straightening • Joggling • Heat Treating
• Plating • Proof Loading • Black Oxide • Nital Etch
• The final examination shall be performed prior to the application of any
coatings that could prevent the detection of defects:
• Paint or primer > 0.003 inch in thickness
• Any paint or primer will reduced sensitivity
• Chrome plate >0.003 inch in thickness
• Nickel plate >0.001 inch
• All parts shall be demagnetized after examination.

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Ultrasonic Inspection
• In ultrasonic inspection, an ultrasonic beam travels through the part
• An internal defect, such as a crack, interrupts the beam and reflects
back a portion of the ultrasonic energy
• The amplitude of the energy reflected and the time required for return
indicate the presence and location of the flaws in the part
• The ultrasonic waves are generated by transducers of various types
and shapes, called probes or search units; They operate on the
principle of piezoelectricity, using materials such as quartz, lithium
sulfate, and various ceramics
• Most inspections are carried out at a frequency range of 1– 25 MHz.
Couplants, such as water, oil, glycerin, and grease, are used to
transmit the ultrasonic waves from the transducer to the test piece

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Ultrasonic Inspection
• The ultrasonic inspection method has high penetrating power and
sensitivity
• It can be used to inspect flaws in large volumes of material, such as
rail-road wheels, pressure vessels, and die blocks, and from
different directions
• Its accuracy is higher than that of other nondestructive inspection
methods
• However, this method requires experienced personnel to interpret
the results correctly

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Ultrasonic Inspection (continued)

https://www.nde-ed.org/GeneralResources/MethodSummary/MethodSummary.htm
Principle
• High frequency (short wave length) sound waves are sent into a material by use of a transducer.
• The sound waves travel through the material and are received by the same transducer or a
second transducer.
• The amount of energy transmitted & received and the time the energy is received are analyzed
to determine the presence of flaws.
• Changes in material thickness can also be measured.

Uses
• Used to locate surface and internal discontinuities in many materials including metals, plastics,
and wood. Also used to measure thickness and bond line integrity.

Advantages
• Detects surface and internal discontinuities.
• Depth of penetration for flaw detection or
measurement is superior to other methods.
• A wide range of materials can be inspected.
• Can be portable.
• Only single sided access is required.
• Provides distance information.
• Minimum part preparation is required.
• Can be used for more than flaw detection.
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Disadvantages
• Linear defects oriented parallel to the sound
beam can go undetected.
• Reference standards are often needed.
• Couplant often required and my need to be
cleaned off part after test.
• Surface must be accessible to probe and
couplant.
• High degree of skill required.
• Rough surfaces can interfere with test.
Ultrasonic Inspection

Process Video

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Eddy Current Inspection

• The eddy- current inspection method is based on the

principle of electromagnetic induction.
• Remove all foreign material which will interfere with Magnetic Field
the inspection (e.g. grease, oil, sand, metal filings, Alternating Current
weld slag, scale, etc.) Coil (red)
Secondary Induced Eddy
• Verify that the finish of the surface to be inspected is Magnetic Field Current
smooth (≤ to 125 microinch Ra)
• Place the part in, or adjacent to, an electric coil
through which alternating current (exciting current)
flows at frequencies ranging from 6 to 60 MHz Coil
Impedance
• This current induces eddy currents in the part. Im Im Changes
Defects existing in the part impede and change the

Reactance
from Z1 to Z2

Inductive
direction of the eddy currents, causing changes in the
electromagnetic field Re
Resistance ResistanceRe
• These changes affect the exciting coil (inspection
coil), whose voltage is monitored to detect the
presence of flaws

Defect

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 Eddy Current Inspection (continued)

https://www.nde-ed.org/GeneralResources/MethodSummary/MethodSummary.htm
Principle
• Alternating electrical current is passed through a coil producing a magnetic field.
• When the coil is placed near a conductive material, the changing magnetic field induces current
flow in the material.
• These currents travel in closed loops and are called eddy currents.
• Eddy currents produce their own magnetic field that can be measured and used to find
discontinuities and characterize conductivity, permeability, and dimensional features.

Uses
• Used to detect surface and near-surface discontinuities in conductive materials & to evaluate
material properties (electrical conductivity) & thickness of nonconductive coatings (paint).
Advantages Disadvantages
• Detects surface and near surface discontinuities. • Only conductive materials can be inspected.
• Portable. • Flaws that lie parallel to the probe coil winding
• Test probe does not need to contact the part. direction (parallel to the eddy current flow lines) can go
• Minimum part preparation is required. undetected.
• Method can be used for more than flaw detection. • Surface must be accessible to probe.
• Depth of penetration is limited.
• Thickness sensitive
• Reference standards are required for setup.
• Adaptable for inspections of hole, tube, & ball
• High degree of skill required.
bearing geometries. • Test interference from dirty/greasy parts, coatings &
rough surfaces.
• Time consuming for large areas.
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Eddy Current Inspection
Process Video

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Bonus Eddy Current Inspection

Typical Drawing Notes

• Eddy current inspect 1.23-inch surface after finish
machining per NASA PRC-6509. Calibrate against
Class A2 surface notch in 6Al-4V titanium calibration
standard. Crack like indications not permitted.
Class A2: Nominal length 0.025”. Nominal depth
0.012” per NASA PRC-6509.

• Eddy current inspect 1.23-inch surface after finish

machining per NASA PRC-6509. Calibrate against
Class T7 through notch in 2024-T3 aluminum, 29.6%
IACS conductivity calibration standard. Any indication
greater than 50% of the amplitude from the calibration
notch shall be rejected. Class T7: Nominal depth 0.019” per NASA PRC-
6509.

• Eddy current inspect 1.2345-inch diameter hole after

finish machining per NASA PRC-6509. Calibrate
against an EDM corner notch of 0.060-inch nominal
radius in 304 stainless steel, 2.52% IACS conductivity
standard. Any indication greater than 50% of the
Not covered by a standard notch Class. Special
amplitude from the calibration notch shall be rejected. corner notch nominal radius of 0.060” per note.
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Bonus Eddy Current Inspection

Specifications
• PRC-6509 is a NASA specification for eddy current inspection of flat surfaces,
fastener holes, threaded fasteners, and tube made from nonmagnetic alloys such
as aluminum and stainless steel.
• ASTM E 426 is for inspection of seamless and welded tube
• SAE AS4787 is for inspection of circular holes in nonferrous metallic aircraft engine
hardware.
• SAE ARP4402 is an eddy current inspection of open fastener holes in aluminum
aircraft structure.

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Bonus Eddy Current Inspection (continued0

Tips
• Reference standards and acceptance criteria must be specified in detail on
the engineering drawing for eddy current inspections.
• The maximum surface roughness for eddy current inspection is
approximately 125 microinch Ra or smoother.
• Dirt, grease and/or loose paint shall be cleaned from the inspection surface.
• Calibrate at the beginning and conclusion of each inspection operation and
at least every four hours in between.
• Be sure that part loading conditions will produce cracks in an orientation that
can be detected by eddy current inspection. For example:
 In bolt threads, cracks are typically assumed to run along the thread root
in the helical/circumferential direction.
 For bolt shank, the cracks may run in the axial or circumferential
direction.

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Radiography

• X-rays (short wavelength electromagnetic radiation) are used to produce 2-D

images of 3-D parts and materials using film or other detectors that are
sensitive to radiation.
• The part is placed between the radiation source and detector.
• The thickness and density of the material that X-rays must penetrate affects
the amount of radiation reaching the detector.
• The variation in radiation produces an image on the detector that shows
internal features of the part.

• After film developing, darker areas occur

where more radiation has passed through
the part and lighter areas where less
radiation has penetrated.
• If there is a void (discontinuity) in the part,
more radiation passes through, causing a
darker image on the film.

More Exposure
Less Exposure
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Radiography (continued)

• X-rays detect discontinuities as a thickness variation.

• The larger the variation, the easier the discontinuities are detected.
• The ideal orientation for detectability is for discontinuities and X-rays to be
parallel.
• When the X-rays are at an angle to discontinuities, the thickness variation is
reduced as well as the detectability of the discontinuity.

• The thin, low density discontinuity

perpendicular to the x-rays will not
be detectable do to the small
segment ratio of E/A
• At the “poor angle”, the low
Discontinuity density discontinuity may not be
detectable do to the small
segment ratio of D/C.
• At the optimum angle, the
segment ratio of B/A is
maximized.
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Radiography (continued)
• The energy of the radiation affects its penetrating power.
• Higher energy radiation will penetrate thicker and more dense materials.
• Radiation energy and exposure time must be controlled to properly image the
areas of interest with the correct contrast and definition.
Radiographic contrast is
the degree of density
difference between two
areas on a radiograph.
Contrast is affected by:
• Absorption differences in
the part.
• Wavelength of the
primary radiation.
• Secondary radiation
from scatter.
• Grain size of film.
• Chemistry of film
processing chemicals.
• Development time.
• Use of intensifying
The flaw is more visible in the screens.
high contrast radiograph
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Radiographic definition is
the abruptness of change
in going from two areas of
different radiographic
densities.
Definition is affected by:
• Focal spot size.
• Source to film distance.
• Part to film distance.
• Movement of the part
during exposure.
• Angle between source
and feature of interest. Fuzzy Edge
• Grain size of film.
• Wavelength of primary
radiation.
• Film processing factors.
The flaw is more visible in the
• Abrupt changes in part
high definition radiograph
thickness.
Radiography(continued)
https://www.nde-ed.org/GeneralResources/MethodSummary/MethodSummary.htm
Principle
• X-rays are used to produce images of objects using film or other detector that is sensitive to
radiation.
• The test object is placed between the radiation source and detector.
• The thickness and the density of the material that X-rays must penetrate affects the amount of
radiation reaching the detector.
• This variation in radiation produces an image on the detector that often shows internal features.

Uses
• Used to detect surface & internal discontinuities in almost any material. Also used to locate &
measure internal features, locate hidden parts in assemblies, and to measure thickness.
Advantages Disadvantages
• Detects surface and internal discontinuities. • Highly directional & sensitive to flaw orientation.
• Can be used to inspect virtually all materials. • Two shots required to determine depth of
• Portable (isotope radiography) discontinuity.
• Inspect complex shapes and multi-layered • Access to both sides of the part is usually required.
structures without disassembly. • High degree of skill and training required.
• Minimum part preparation is required. • Relatively expensive equipment.
• Permanent test record. • Possible radiation hazard for personnel (must
conform to Federal & State regulations).

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 Radiography

Radiography Video

X-rays were discovered accidentally in 1895 by Wilhelm Conrad Roentgen

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Bonus Radiography (continued)

Some variables that affect the quality of the radiograph include:

• The spectrum of radiation produced by the x-ray
generator.
• Voltage used to generate the x-rays (KeV)
• Amperage used to generate the X-rays (mA)
• Exposure time
• Distance between the radiation source and the film
• Material of the part being radiographed.
• Thickness of the material that the radiation must travel
through.
• The amount of scattered radiation reaching the film
• The type of film being used.
• The concentration of the film processing chemicals and
the contact time.

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Bonus Radiography (continued)

Radiographic Sensitivity
• With all these variables, how do we control the quality of a radiograph?
• Quality of radiographic image is measured using image quality indicators (IQI).
• A common IQI is the hole-type, often referred to as a penetrameter (ASTM E1472).
• IQIs are made of the same material as the part being
radiographed. Stainless Steel Aluminum

• Their thickness is 2% of the thickness of the region to be

radiographed.
• IQIs should be placed on the source side of the part. If not 2T

possible, place on a block of the same material and thickness 1T

of the region of interest. 4T

• IQIs contain 3 hole diameters which are 1, 2 and 4 times the

thickness of the penetrameter (1T, 2T and 4T).
• A sensitivity of 2-2T means that both the outline of a
penetrameter which has a thickness of 2% of the region of
interest of the part being inspected and the 2T hole (a hole
that is twice the IQI thickness) must be visible on the
radiograph. . "
𝑋 100 = 2% of Thickness
. "
0.025” thick
This IQI conforms to ASTM E1742. It
would be placed on an area that is 2.5”
thick when attempting to achieve two
percent contrast sensitivity. The shim is
actually 0.05” thick. 1T = .05” dia. 2T =
0.1” dia.; 4T = 0.2” dia.

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Bonus Radiography (continued)

Typical Drawing Notes

• Radiographic inspect per ASTM E1742 for conformance to the
requirements in AMS-2175, Class 1, Grade A.
Specifications
• ASTM E1742 contains instructions on how to perform a radiographic
inspection. It does not specify accept/reject criteria for
discontinuities.
• AMS 2175 contains the discontinuity, accept/reject criteria for 4
classes (1-4) and 4 grades (A-D) of castings.
• ASTM E155 contains the reference radiographs specified in AMS
2175 for inspection of aluminum and magnesium castings
• ASTM E446 contain reference radiographs for steel castings.

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Bonus Radiography (continued)

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Bonus Radiography (continued)

Table 7
From
AMS 2175

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Bonus Radiography (continued)

Example of
a Reference
Radiograph
From ASTM
E155

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Bonus Radiography (continued)

Personnel Certification Requirements

• Non-destructive personnel must be qualified and certified in accordance with SNT-
TC-1A, ANSI/ASNT CP-189, NAS 410, or MIL-STD-410 (for military purposes).
Procedures
• Written inspection procedures are required that are specific to a single part or group
of parts.
Disadvantages Radiography
• Radiography is one of the more expensive methods of inspection.
• Contributing factors are :
• The radiographic film contains silver,
• Hazardous waste disposal of film processing chemicals
• Licensing issues related to operating radiographic equipment

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Bonus Radiography (continued)

Examination sequence
• The final examination shall be performed in the process of manufacturing at which
discontinuities can be detected.
• Castings, forgings, and weldments may be radiographed in the as-cast, as-forged,
or as-welded conditions provide the surface condition will not interfere with the
evaluation.
• Blend out surface irregularities prior to radiographic inspection to a degree such that
the resulting radiographic contrast due to surface conditions cannot be confused
with any defect.
• Have the casting next to the radiographic inspector reading the film so that surface
condition can be distinguished for internal discontinuities.
• Remove all foreign material which will interfere with the inspection(e.g. grease, oil,
sand, metal filings, weld slag, scale, etc.)
• Radiographic inspection should be performed after heat treatment.
• If penetrant or magnetic particle inspections are performed after heat treatment and all
surfaces are accessible to inspection then the examination may be performed before
heat treatment.
• Castings which have inaccessible internal passageways should be radiographic
inspected after heat treatment.
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 Bonus Radiography (continued)

Example Radiography Note

4.2.4.4 Radiography
Radiographic inspections shall be in accordance with ASTM-E-
1742, Standard Practice for Radiographic Examination, or
NASA fracture control and NASA NDE Engineering-approved
contractor internal specifications with the following additional
requirements:
The default is 2-2T
4.2.4.4.1 The minimum radiographic inspection sensitivity level shall be
2-1T. The default is 1.5 – 4.0 Add drawing notes if a deviation is
required to the default specified in
4.2.4.4.2 Film density shall be 2.5 to 4.0. the process specification.

4.2.4.4.3 The center axis of the radiation beam shall be within +/-5
degrees of the assumed crack plane orientation.

Penetrameter is 2% of the thickness of the region to be

radiographed and a hole of the same diameter of the
penetrameter thickness must be visible on the image.
Extracted from NASA-STD-5009

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Typical NDT Methods For Various Materials

Material Eddy Magnetic Penetrant Radiographic Ultrasonic

Current Particle

Aluminum Y N Y Y Y

Copper Y N Y Y Y

Magnesium Y N Y Y Y

Composites N N N Y Y

Metal Bond N N N Y Y

Steel Y Y Limited Y Y

Austenitic Limited N Y Y Y
Stainless
PH & Limited Y Y Y Y
Martensitic
Stainless
Titanium Y N Y Y Y

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Effect of Discontinuity Type and Orientation on
Detectability

Legend
A: Ferromagnetic materials only
B: Conductive materials only
0: Will not detect
1: Not well suited
2: Fairly well suited
3: Ideal application

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NDT Engineering Drawing Notes

Engineering Drawing Note Contents For NDT Inspections

1. Type of inspection (i.e., ET, PT, MT, UT, RT, etc.)
2. The feature to be inspected (i.e.; a hole, a shaft diameter, the entire part, etc.)
3. When in the manufacturing sequence to perform the inspection (i.e. before or after heat
treat, before or after plating, before or after shot peening, after grinding, etc.)
4. The inspection specification and type, method, level, form, & class, as applicable (e.g.,
ASTM E1417, Type I, Method A, Sensitivity Level 2, Form “a” for fluorescent particle
penetrant inspection.)
5. The accept/reject criteria and appropriate specification, class, & grade, as applicable (e.g.,
AMS 2175 contains the discontinuity, accept/reject criteria for castings.)
6. Special reference standards for accept/reject determinations (e.g., eddy current equipment
is calibrated against standards containing EDM notches (flaws) of specified dimensions.
Specify your own EDM notch dimensions and material if there is not an appropriate off-the-
shelf calibration standard. Creation of a new standard drawing may be required.

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NDT Engineering Drawing Notes

Example Drawing Notes

• Fluorescent penetrant inspect entire finished casting per ASTM E1417, Sensitivity Level 1
for conformance to the requirements in AMS-2175, Class 3, Grade C.
• Magnetic particle inspect area shown, after finish machining, per ASTM E1444 for
conformance to the requirements in MIL-STD-1907, Grade A.
• After heat treat, radiographic inspect feature A per ASTM E1742 for conformance to the
requirements in AMS-2175, Class 1, Grade A.
• Eddy current inspect 1.23-inch surface after finish machining per NASA PRC-6509.
Calibrate against an EDM surface notch of 0.08-inch nominal length by 0.040-inch nominal
depth in 304 stainless steel, 1.83% IACS conductivity standard. Any indication greater than
50% of the amplitude from the calibration notch shall be rejected.
0.080”

0.040”

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Computed Radiography (CR)
• Computed radiography is a transitional technology between film and direct
digital radiography.
• CR uses a reusable, flexible, photo-stimulated phosphor plate (PSP) or
photostimuable imaging plate (PIP) which is loaded into a cassette and is
exposed in a manner similar to traditional film radiography.
• The cassette is subsequently placed in a laser reader where it is scanned with
a laser to release stored electrons, translated into a digital image, and
subsequently erased for reuse.
• The image can then be uploaded to a computer for interpretation and storage.
Some Advantages of CR
Example of a • Same radiographic technique as film.
Computed • Source strength reduced eliminating the need
Radiograph to evacuate areas.
from a Piping
• Decreased exposure times.
Inspection
• PSP imaging plates can be reused unlike film.
for Fit-up.&
Detection of
• No film developing or hazardous chemicals.
Corrosion • Image enhancement.
Under • Software contains measurement abilities (e.g.
Insulation pipe wall thickness)
• Digital storage on computer/cloud.
• Retrofit film based systems.
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Real-Time Radiography (RTR)
• RTR is allows electronic images to be captured and viewed almost simultaneously as the
radiation passes through the part “In Real-Time”
• There are two general types of RTR systems based on the type of receptor: indirect & direct.
• Indirect receptors convert X-rays to light to digital.
• Radiation passing through the object being inspected interacts with a screen of material
that fluoresces (converting x-rays into light) forming an image.
• After intensifying the image, it is converted from light photons into electrons. This is often
accomplished using charge coupled device (CCD) similar to those in digital cameras.
• Subsequent processing, produces a digital copy of the light image which can be
displayed on a monitor.
Screen fluoresces when In direct RTR systems intermediate image
struck by radiation intensifiers and CCDs are replaced by digital
detector arrays (DDA)

• RTR systems are interface with computers for image manipulation, enhancement for
increased detail, digital storage on computers or in the cloud, and printing.
• Systems can have the capability to assess individual pixel response.
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Real-Time Radiography (continued)

• Direct receptors convert X-rays directly to digital.

• Direct receptors are the latest advancement to the radiography field.
• Direct receptors uses a digitizing, solid state x-ray detector instead of film or fluorescent panels.
• Detectors can be flat panels or linear digital detector arrays.
• Amorphous selenium flat panel detectors are known as “direct conversion” detectors because x-
ray photons are converted directly into charge instead of the indirect conversion of light.
• Digital images can be available for review almost simultaneously as the radiation passes
through the part

Made of
Amorphous
Selenium

Cone Beam CT Imaging System with Flat Panel

Detector, DR Imaging

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Real-Time Radiography (continued)

• RTR eliminates dark rooms and the cost, time and hazardous materials of film processing.
• RTR systems are interface with computers for image manipulation, enhancement for increased
detail, digital storage on computers or in the cloud, and printing.
• Systems can have the capability to assess individual pixel response.
• X-ray images can be viewed as the part is rotated.
• Inspection speed is significantly enhanced with RTR compared to film or CR.
• Complete coverage is obtained much more quickly with RTR than for film or CR.
• In general, RTR systems are not able to resolve as small of a defect as can be resolved using film
radiography (due to limitations of image intensifier) but the gap has closed with direct receptors.
• To compensate for limited resolution, smaller focal spot sources are used.
• RTR images can be digital enhanced in less time than digitizing film. Dark
Light

Opposite of the negative image

produced on X-ray film, brighter
areas on the positive RTR image
indicate higher levels of transmitted
radiation. (Thicker & denser sections
are dark, while thinner and less
dense sections are light and bright.) Real Time Image. Lighter in thin Film Image. Darker in thin areas
areas of high transmitted radiation of high transmitted radiation

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Real-Time Radiography (continued)

• Initial cost of RTR equipment is more expensive than film.

• RTR requires its own set of specifications.
• ASTM E2738: Practice for Digital Imaging and Communication Nondestructive Evaluation
For Computed Radiography Test Methods.
• ASTM E2339: Practice for Digital Imaging and Communication in Nondestructive Evaluation
• ASTM E2869: Standard Digital Reference Images for Magnesium Castings
• ASTM E2422: Standard Digital Reference Images for Inspection of Aluminum Castings

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 Computed Tomography (CT)
• Computed tomography uses a computer to combined 2-dimensional x-ray images of cross
sections of a part into 3-dimensional images.
• CT can use computed radiography (CR) and digital radiography detectors.
• The CT image is developed from multiple views taken at different viewing angles that are
reconstructed using a computer.
• With traditional radiography, the position, shape and dimensions of internal discontinuities
cannot be accurately determined without making exposures from several angles to locate the
item by triangulation.
• With CT, the computer triangulates using every point in the plane as viewed from many different
directions so that dimensions, shapes, & locations of discontinuities are readily available.

3-D Image showing Porosity in a

Cast Al Tensile Specimen
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 Acoustic Emission
• The acoustic- impact technique consists of tapping the surface of an
object and listening to and analyzing the transmitted sound waves in
order to detect discontinuities and flaws
• The principle is basically similar to tapping walls, desk-tops, or
countertops in various locations with fingers or a light hammer and
listening to the sound emitted
• Vitrified grinding wheels are tested in a similar manner (ring test) to
detect cracks in the wheel that may not be visible to the naked eye
• The acoustic- impact technique can be instrumented & automated and is
easy to perform
• However, the results depend
on the geometry and mass of
the part, thus requiring a
reference standard to identify
flaws

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 Thermography
• Thermal inspection involves observing temperature changes by contact- or noncontact- type heat- sensing
devices, such as contact temperature probes or infrared scanners.
• Defects in the work piece including cracks, poorly made joints, and debonded regions in laminated structures,
cause a change in the temperature distribution
• In thermographic inspection, materials such as heat- sensitive paints and papers, liquid crystals, and other
coatings are applied to the surface of the part
• Changes in their color or appearance indicate the presence of defects
• Infrared techniques are used to detect flaws in materials or structures.
– The heat that is felt prior to the part changing color is infrared radiation. External Heat Is Applied
to Part
– The flow of heat from the surface of a part is monitored.
– Internal flaws such as disbonds, voids or inclusions affect the flow of
heat on the surface.
– In sound material, heat dissipate rapidly through the material, whereas
a defect will retain the heat for longer.
– An infrared
imaging systems
have the ability to
detect IR energy
& convert it to
maps of
temperature.

Passive Approach Active Approach

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 Holographic Interferometry Inspection

• The holography technique produces a three-dimensional image of the part, using an optical
system.
• A part is interferometrically compared before and after it has been stressed. A discontinuity can be
detected if by stressing an anomalous deformation of the surface occurs around the discontinuity.
• Images (light waves) before and after stressing are supper imposed to cause an interference
pattern.
• This technique is generally used on simple shapes and highly polished surfaces, and the image is
recorded on a photographic film.
• Holography has been extended to inspection of parts (holographic interferometry) that have
various shapes and surface characteristics.
• Defects can be revealed in the part by using double- and multiple- exposure techniques, where
the part is subjected to external forces or other changing variables (such as temperature).

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 Laser Shearography
• Shearography or speckle pattern shearing interferometry is a measuring and testing method
similar to holographic interferometry.
• An interferometric photo is taken of the part surface with a shearopraphy camera in the
unloaded state.
• A small load is applied usually with heat. The material wants to expand when heated up, and if it
has weak spots it will be allowed to expand more.
• In the loaded state, another interferometric photo is taken.
• The two images are subtracted, creating a shearogram, to identify variations in out-of-plane
deformations between both states, which in turn reveals surface or sub-surface discontinuities.
• The sheaogram can be thought of as a topographic map of the surface.
• The main applications are in composite nondestructive testing, where typical flaws are:
disbonds, delaminations, wrinkles, porosity, foreign objects, impact damages.
https://www.correlatedsolutions.com/isi-studio/
Load: Thermal, Pressure, Mechanical Rotor Blade

Discontinuity
Interference
fringes
from
superimpos
ed light
waves
Unloaded Image Loaded Image Result Disbond Structural Transition Crack

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Composite NDE
Nondestructive Evaluation (NDE) techniques do you think are
commonly used for polymer matrix composite materials?

Radiography

Thermography
Ultrasonics

Acoustics
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Composite NDE
Nondestructive Evaluation (NDE) techniques of composite
materials are very much different than those used with
metals and very widely in basic mechanism

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Time Out!

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Determining NDE Discontinuity Size Criteria

Use the stress intensity factor KIC (the critical fracture toughness) and
fracture mechanics relationship to determine the maximum critical flaw
size for fracture critical designs:

KIc = ƒ a  a = (1/)(KIc/ ƒ)2 Where:

KIc = Plain strain fracture toughness of the material
 = Maximum allowable stress
ƒ = Geometric constant based on defect shape
a = maximum length (critical crack length) of crack
or discontinuity that a material can withstand
before it fails.
 = 3.1415

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Determining NDE Discontinuity Size Criteria

Verify that that the assumption of plane strain loading conditions.

Specimens of different thickness have different

KI

values of stress intensity (KI) until thickness

exceeds some critical dimension. Once the
thickness exceeds the critical dimension, the value
of KI becomes relatively constant and this value,
KIC, which is called plane-strain fracture toughness.

For plane strain, part thickness (t) must
be greater than the following value:
t ≥ (2.5)(KIc/ ys)2 where:
KIc = Plane strain fracture toughness
ys = Yield Strength
t ≈ minimum thickness for plane strain
conditions
Plane Strain:
Zero strain in the Z direction
Triaxial state of stress. σZ ǂ 0
Valid for thick structures
εz= 0, Ƴxz = 0, Ƴyz = 0
Plane Stress:
Zero stress in the Z direction
Triaxial state of strain. εZ ǂ 0
Valid for thin structures
σz= 0, Ƭxz = 0, Ƭyz = 0

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Definitions of Crack Geometries for Use
With Minimum Detectable Crack Sizes

Extracted from Figure 1 in NASA-STD-5009

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NASA-STD-5009
4.2.2 Standard NDE Crack Sizes
4.2.2.1 Nondestructive inspections of fracture-critical hardware shall
detect the initial crack sizes used in the damage tolerance fracture
analyses with a capability of 90/95 (90 percent probability of detection
at a 95 percent confidence level).
The minimum detectable crack sizes for the Standard NDE methods shown in table 1
and 2 are based principally on an NDE capability study that was conducted on flat,
fatigue-cracked 2219-T87 aluminum panels early in the Space Shuttle program, and
meet the 90/95 capability requirement. Although many other similar capability studies
and tests have been conducted since, none have universal application, neither
individually nor in combination. Conducting an ideal NDE capability demonstration
where all of the variables are tested is obviously unmanageable and impractical.

In order to make the broadest use of NDE flaw detectability data in table 1 or 2, good
engineering judgment needs to be applied. For example, a flat panel is representative
of a component with a large diameter curvature. It is also reasonable to use the table 1
or 2 data values for most aerospace structural alloys such as titanium or stainless
steel.

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Minimum Detectable Crack Sizes Based on
Standard NDE Methods

Use this Table with the hole geometries

depicted on the previous slide.

The “a” dimension is less than or equal to the

“c” dimension.

Verify which crack dimension is being

calculated using the stress intensity factor (ƒ)
solutions.

Remember that flaw lengths for through

cracks, partially through cracks and
embedded cracks are twice the c length.

A shorter crack length

(c) can be detected for
deeper partial through
cracks (a).

Extracted from Table I in NASA-STD-5009

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 Example Problem
A large structural panel of thickness 0.13 inch is to be fabricated from Ti-6Al-4V
sheet that has a fracture toughness of 50 ksi√inch and a yield strength of 150
ksi. If the design stress is one half of the yield strength determine the critical flaw
length for a through crack in the center of the panel. For a through-thickness
center notch of length 2a embedded in a large sheet sufficiently thick to develop
plain strain, the critical crack length is calculated from the following equation:
Critical Crack Length a = (1/)(KIc/)2 (for plain strain conditions)
Explain whether or not discontinuities shorter than the critical crack length can be
2a detected by fluorescent particle inspection (FPI) before the part fractures.
(2C)
Solution
a = c = (1/)(Kc/)2 = (1/3.1416)(50)2/(150 X 1/2)2 = 0.141 inch
Since c is the half-crack length for a through crack, the critical flaw length (2c) is 2
C is the crack half length X 0.141 inch = 0.282 inch.
From NASA-STD-5009, the smallest half-crack length “c” that FPI can detect for a
through crack in sheet thicker than 0.075” is 0.075”. Therefore, the minimum flaw
0.075” min. length (2c) of a through crack detectable by FPI in this is panel: 2 X 0.075” = 0.150”

c must be at least 0.075” long for
FPI to detect (2c = 0.150”)
This is the resolution limit for flaw
detection by FPI.
Since FPI can detect flaws shorter (≥ 0.150”) than the calculated critical flaw length
(0.282”), discontinuities shorter than the critical crack length can be detected in this
panel by FPI before the crack grows to critical length. (0.150” < 0.282”)
What if the design stress was increased to ¾ of the yield strength?
a = (1/3.1416)(50)2/(150 X 3/4)2 = 0.063 inch. Critical crack length = 2a = 0.126”
Since 0.150” > 0. 126”, penetrant inspection will not detect the flaw prior to fracture.

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Probability of Detection (POD)
• Definition: probability of detection, as a function of the discontinuity
size, is the fraction of discontinuities of a nominal size that are
expected to be detected
• This is normally expressed as a ratio of a probability of detecting a
discontinuity with a confidence level 90/95, 90/90, 90/75 or 90/50,
depending on the requirements of the application
• The first number in the series denotes the probability that the
anomaly will be detected, which is given as a percentage
• The second number denotes the confidence level for detecting
the anomaly
• This information is usually represented as a graph. The probability
of detection is plotted as a function of anomaly size for a fixed
confidence level
• The following graph represents some typical POD curves based on
a 90 percent probability and a 95 percent confidence level

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Probability of Detection (POD) Curves

At same confidence level, greater probability of

detecting a smaller discontinuity with NN method.

A comparison of two quantitative

nondestructive evaluations for the
ultrasonic method.

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References
References used in this presentation in no particular order:
 https://www.amazon.com/Manufacturing-Processes-Engineering-Materials-5th/dp/0132272717
 http://blog.applus.com/computed-radiography/
 https://youtu.be/9pqSuqaSJ7c
 http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.216.4675&rep=rep1&type=pdf
 https://www.nde-ed.org/index_flash.htm
 http://www.milinc.com/services/nondestructive-testing-ndt/radiography/
 http://slideplayer.com/slide/1429283/

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