CELL MODIFICATIONS THAT LEAD TO
ADAPTATION
Kinds of Cell Modifications
a. Apical Modifications (top)
b. Basal Modifications (bottom)
c. Lateral Modifications (sides)
APICAL MODIFICATIONS
 Microvilli
 Also called brush/striated border
 Finger-like cytoplasmic extensions of the apical
surface which increase surface area for
absorption
 Numerous, often regularly arranged, and found
in absorptive epithelia
 Cilia
 Motile, function in movement
 Beats in a coordinated rhythmical wave-like
movement of materials over the surface
 Appear as short hair-like structures or
projections
 Each cilium is connected to a basal body and
extends from the free surface
 Core is composed of microtubules arranged in a
specific manner
 Can be found in the lining of the trachea
(windpipe) or in the Fallopian tube
 Stereocilia
 Long microvilli that function in increasing
absorption
 Non-motile
 Found in sensory cells in ear and male
reproductive tract
 Does not have the true characteristics of the true
cilia or flagella
 Flagella
 Are also concerned with movement
 Same axial structure with cilia but much longer
 Present in tail of the spermatozoa
BASAL MODIFICATIONS
 Basal Infoldings
 Often found in epithelium that are known to
transport fluid (kidney)
 Will often see mitochondria in the basal
infoldings, suggests that active transport is
occurring
 Very important in epithelial polarization and
stability
 Support the epithelium and also functions as a
passive molecular sieve or ultrafilter
 If basal lamina is destroyed (trauma, infections,
burns), the epithelium will not be repaired but
substituted with a scar (connective tissue)
 Hemidesmosome
 Protein filaments interlock with filaments of the
adjacent cell which forms a dense intermediate line
between the cells
 Found beneath the zonula adherens
 Cytoplasmic face is connected to microfilaments
extending into the cytoplasm
LATERAL MODIFICATIONS
 Tight junctions (zonula occludens)
 A band near the apical surface forms a seal,
appearing to be fused
 There is 15-20 nm space between epithelium cells
 Tight junction occludes/separates the compartments
 Adhering Junctions (Zonula Adherens)
 the actin filaments which make up zonula adherens
maintain integrity of the cell to better bind
 found just beneath the tight junction
 cytoplasmic face is linked to the actin cytoskeleton
 Gap Junctions
 connexons of one membrane aligns with connexion
of adjacent membrane so that hydrophilic material
can be transported
 important in cell communication
 adjacent cells are 2-3 nm apart
 Desmosome (Maculs Adherens)
 Protein filaments interlock with filaments of the
adjacent cell which forms a dense intermediate line
between the cells
 Help to resist shearing forces and are found in
simple and stratified squamous epithelium
SPECIALIZED MODIFICATIONS
 Nerve cells or neurons are very specialized cells
of the nervous system. Since an electrical signal
needs to travel relatively long distances to parts
of the body, nerve cells have specialized
structures called dendrites, which received an
electrical signal from another neuron, and axons,
which transmit an electrical signal to another
neuron.
 Muscle cells are made up primarily of a pair of
special proteins called actin and myosin which
allows the muscle to contract.
 Red blood cells are anucleate, and thus are
produced from bone marrow, but contain large
amounts of haemoglobin to transport oxygen
throughout the body.
 Sperm cells are haploid and contain a flagellum
in order to swim through the vagina.
 Plant cells have large amounts of the organelle
chloroplast, which allows the cell to undergo
photosynthesis. Plant cells are also covered by a
cell wall.